INFECTIOUS

 Carry lymph around the body.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNE SYSTEM
THYMUS
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM  The bilobed organ located above the heart is the thymus.
 The network of vessels through which the lymph drains  The maturation and the death (that accounts 95-99% of T-
back to the blood. Cells) of the T cells occurs in the thymus.
 The main components of the lymphatic system are:
 Lymph SPLEEN
 Lymph Nodes  Located in the upper left abdomen
 Lymph Vessels  2 Important Functions of the Spleen
 Thymus 1. Blood Filtration
 Spleen 2. Immunologic Function
 A component of the immune system.  Red Pulp
 Connected to the circulation system.  Consists of large numbers of sinuses and
 The lymphatic system cleanses the cellular environment. sinusoids filled with blood.
 It drains the proteins and tissue fluid back to the circulation  Responsible for the filtration function of the
system. spleen.
 It also absorbs fat and fat-soluble vitamins from the o It facilitates the removal of old and
digestive system and drains to the blood. damaged erythrocytes or RBCs.
 Finally, the lymphatic system is involved in the defense of o The normal time of RBC death in adults
the body from pathogens is approximately 100 to 120 days/4mos.)
 White Pulp
 Our spleen has the largest accumulation of
lymphoid tissues and the white pulp consists of T
cells, B cells and accessory cells
 Responsible for its immunologic function.

IMMUNE SYSTEM
 The immune system is the organs and the reactions of the
body which provide resistance to infections and toxins.
 That means the immune system defends the body from
LYMPH
harmful, foreign substances.
 The fluid which circulates throughout the body.
 The tissue fluid that is drained to the lymphatic system.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT IMMUNITY
 The lymph is rich with lymphocytes, which are the immune
 It includes the following:
system cells.
1. Diet
 The lymph that is formed in the digestive system contains
2. Lifestyle
a lot of fat and is called chyle. 3. Lifestyle Factors
 The chyle is a milky white fluid.
4. Smoking or Tobacco Chewing
5. Sleep
LYMPH NODES 6. Physical Exercise
 Small, bean-shaped organs 7. Hygiene and Protection
 Filter harmful substances 8. Age
 They contain lymphocytes and macrophages as well. 9. Body Composition
 The major lymph nodes occur in the tonsils, neck, groin, 10. Gut Flora
armpits, adenoids, and mediastinum. 11. Medications
 A swollen lymph node indicates a reaction to an
infection. DIET
 Eat a nutritious diet containing good amounts of
Vegetables, Fruits, Nuts, Protein, Vitamins (A, B group, C,
D, E), and Minerals (Zinc, Selenium, and Iron).
 Certain herbs and spices as part of the diet may be
beneficial for enhancing immunity.
 Adequate amounts of water intake for good hydration is
important, with a recommended intake of at least 10
glasses (2.5 liters of preferably lukewarm water daily).

LIFESTYLE
 Stress, fear, and tension cause a lot of consumption of
nutrients and release steroids in our body which
suppresses the immune system.

LIFESTYLE FACTORS
 A healthy diet and lifestyle results in better immune
function.
LYMPH VESSELS

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 Eating a balanced diet on a regular basis provides proper
nourishment to the body and also prevents any vitamin AGE
and mineral deficiencies that may hinder the immune  Our immune system’s capacity declines as we get older,
response. especially above the age of 70 years due to decrease in
 Some sort of regular physical activity also supports the functioning of T-cells as a result of the degeneration of the
immune system by increasing the number of fighter cells thymus gland in the body which is the main site for T-cell
in the body. production.
 One must try to obtain adequate amounts of rest everyday  T cells focuses on specific foreign particles.
in order to minimize the stress levels which can in turn BODY COMPOSITION
affect our immunity.  Too much or too little body fat can lead to suppression of
 Stress the immune system.
 When we’re stressed, the body produces stress  Excess weight gain can put you at the risk of developing
hormone corticosteroid or cortisol which co-morbid conditions like type 2 diabetes, hypertension &
decreases the body’s ability to fight against heart disease.
infections making you more susceptible.  This can lead to a decrease in the body’s ability
 Too much of stress can also lead to binge-eating to fight against infections due to a weak immune
on unhealthy snacks or consumption of alcohol response.
which can lead to nutritional deficiencies and
weaken your immunity. GUT FLORA
 Therefore, stress management is key to
maintaining optimal immunity.  It is surprising to note that 70% of our immune system is
dependent on our gut microbiome.
SMOKING OR TOBACCO CHEWING  Healthy gut bacteria prevent crowding of harmful bacteria
in the intestine, produce lactic acid to stop their growth &
 These can also have suppressive effects on immunity.
work integrally with our immune system.
 Including fermented foods like curd, buttermilk, kefir,
SLEEP
kombucha, kimchi, etc. in your diet will help support the
 It is essential to get 8 hours of undisturbed sleep at night growth of good gut bacteria.
on most days.
 Stress and lack of sleep are often interrelated MEDICATIONS
and can form a vicious cycle, each increasing the
 Medications for autoimmune disorders, cancer, HIV, or
other.
disorders with chronic inflammation like asthma, Crohn’s
disease, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. can also limit the
PHYSICAL EXERCISE
immune response and weaken the body’s ability to fight
 Regular and appropriate physical exercise which makes against infections.
you feel energetic and refreshed is associated with
improving one’s immunity.
 Exercise should not be exhausting, more vigorous than
what one is used to, cause body pain/injury, or be
performed in an adverse environment.
 In such cases, it induces stress which can have
adverse effects on immunity.
 If starting a new physical exercise regime, increase the
rigor and duration gradually, perform suitable warm-ups-
cooldowns, and stop if your body signals fatigue or stress.
 Some of the appropriate regular physical
exercises include walking, jogging, and
swimming, or indoor exercises like Yoga
(including breathing exercises like Pranayama),
performing stretches, walking on the treadmill,
aerobics, and cycling.
 Include physical exercise for at least half-hour daily for 5
days in a week along with simple breathing techniques

HYGIENE AND PROTECTION

 Cleanliness and Hygiene in simple daily habits go a long
way in minimizing infections and improving community
health.
 These include proper bathing and cleaning of
body parts, wearing clean clothes, washing
hands before meals and after coming from
outside, regular brushing of teeth, covering nose
and mouth while coughing and sneezing, not
spitting or throwing garbage in public, and
maintaining clean surroundings.
 It is important to make sure that children and those at risk
like the elderly and people with health conditions are
immunized according to the recommended vaccination
schedule to protect them from the more severe and
serious infections.
 Certain practices like giving antibiotics for common viral
infections, lack of regular exposure to fresh air or sunlight,
and living in unventilated/AC houses can have a
suppressive impact on the immune system.
 During an epidemic or pandemic, it is advisable to follow
regulations by health authorities related to restricted travel,
social distancing, and hygienic measures to enable
protection and curtailment of rapid disease spread.

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  Cells - mainly neutrophils and macrophages
 The main purpose of the innate immune response is to
immediately prevent the spread and movement of foreign
pathogens throughout the body.

ACQUIRED/ADAPTIVE/SPECIFIC TYPE
 Acquired (adaptive/specific) immunity is not present at
birth.
 It is developed over your lifetime; it is learned.
 The learning process starts when a person’s
immune system encounters foreign invaders and
recognizes nonself substances (antigens).
 Then, the components of acquired immunity learn
the best way to attack each antigen and begin to
develop a memory for that antigen.
 Acquired immunity is also called specific immunity
because it tailors its attack to a specific antigen previously
encountered.
 Its hallmarks are its ability to learn, adapt, and remember.
 It can come from:
 A vaccine and/or;
 Exposure to an infection or disease
 The adaptive immune response is specific to the pathogen
presented.
 While the innate immune response is immediate, the
adaptive immune response is not.
 However, the effect of the adaptive immune response is
long-lasting, highly specific, and is sustained long-term by
memory T cells.
 The hallmark of the adaptive immune system is clonal
expansion of lymphocytes.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN  Clonal expansion is the rapid increase of T and B
LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM lymphocytes from one or a few cells to millions.
 Each clone that originates from the original T or B
 Two systems of the animal body
lymphocyte has the same antigen receptor as the
 Defend the body against pathogens
original and fights the same pathogen.
 Have common components

2 TYPES OR LINES OF DEFENSE

 The immune system can be divided into 2 lines of defense
against pathogenic infection:
1. Innate/Nonspecific Type
2. Acquired/Adaptive/Specific Type

ANTIGENIC SPECIFICITY
 The ability of the host cells to recognize an antigen
specifically as a unique molecular entity and distinguish it
from another with exquisite precision.
 Antigen specificity is due primarily to the side-chain
conformations of the antigen.
 Because one antibody only recognizes a specific antigen,
antibodies that attack cancer cells, for example, do not
attack normal cells.
 This is called the “specificity” of an antibody
toward that antigen.

IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY
 Immunological memory is the ability of the immune system
to respond more rapidly and effectively to pathogens that
have been encountered previously.
 A memory cell is an antigen-specific B or T lymphocyte
that does not differentiate into effector cells during the
primary immune response.
INNATE/NONSPECIFIC TYPE
WHY IS SPECIFICITY AND MEMORY IMPORTANT IN
 Inborn; congenital; present in birth
IMMUNE SYSTEM?
 The body’s first line of defense against pathogens
 Uses mostly physical and chemical barriers  Memory and antigen specificity offer the adaptive immune
 Additionally, includes chemicals, structure of skin/other response long-term protection that inflicts minimal injury to
epithelia and other mechanisms noninfected tissues.

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 Adaptive Immunity
 Humoral and Cellular Immunity
 There are two main mechanisms of immunity within the
adaptive immune system
 Humoral and Cellular

HUMORAL IMMUNITY
 Humoral immunity is also called antibody-mediated
immunity.
 With assistance from helper T cells, B cells will
differentiate into plasma B cells that can produce
antibodies against a specific antigen.
 The humoral immune system deals with antigens from
pathogens that are freely circulating, or outside the
infected cells.
 Antibodies produced by the B cells will bind to antigens,
neutralizing them, or causing lysis (dissolution or
destruction of cells by a lysin) or phagocytosis.
EFFECTOR MECHANISMS
 Effector mechanisms, involving B-cell maturation and
production of antibodies
 B-lymphocytes which produce plasma that forms
antibodies.
 Antibodies attack/destroy antigens.

CELLULAR IMMUNITY
 Cellular immunity occurs inside infected cells and is
mediated by T lymphocytes.
 The pathogen's antigens are expressed on the cell surface
or on an antigen-presenting cell.
 Helper T cells release cytokines that help activated T cells
bind to the infected cells’ MHC-antigen complex and
differentiate the T cell into a cytotoxic T cell.
 The infected cell then undergoes lysis.

COMPONENTS OF INNATE IMMUNITY

 It includes the 3 Components:
1. Physical Barriers
2. Physiological Barriers
3. Cellular Barriers

PHYSICAL BARRIERS
 Skin

Acts as a physical barrier against microbial
access/invasion antimicrobial proteins/ highly
keratinize that is tough to get through
 Mucus membrane
 Respiratory( cilia, mucus, surfactant and
reflexes)-can trap pathogens, which are then
sneezed, coughed, washed away, or destroyed
by chemicals

PHYSIOLOGICAL BARRIERS
 In our GIT: Stomach Acids
 Inhibits bacterial growth
 Lysozyme in tears, saliva, and in sweat
 Has chemicals which can kill different pathogens

CELLULAR BARRIERS
 The white blood cells (WBCs) involved in immunity are
produced in the bone marrow).
 Like other blood cells, lymphocytes are generated from
stem cells (undifferentiated cells).

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 o The complement system actively
regulates various steps of an
inflammatory response.
 How does complement system cause inflammation?
 It is split into three areas:
o (1) the activation of inflammation
o (2) the opsonization (labeling) of
pathogens and cells for
clearance/destruction
o (3) the direct killing of target
cells/microbes by lysis.
 Thus, inflammatory process starts with the release of
histamine and other chemicals and ends in WBC cleaning
up the debris

INJURY INFLAMMATION
 Inflammatory response plays a critical role in immunity.
 When tissues are damaged, the inflammatory response is
initiated, and the immune system becomes mobilized.
 The immune cells of the innate immune system (i.e.,
neutrophils and eosinophils) are the first recruited to the
site of tissue injury or damage via blood vessels and
lymphatic system, followed by macrophages.
 If the damage occurs near the surface of the skin, redness
and swelling may be visible.
 Pain and warmth are also symptoms of
inflammation.
 The goals of the inflammatory response are to:
 Prevent initial establishment of infection or
remove damaged tissue.
 Prevent the spread of infection or repair
damaged tissue.
 Recruit effector cells if the immune cells of the
innate immune system cannot control infection or
repair damaged tissue.  T-cell is produced in the thymus, thus it’s called the T-cell /
 Mobilize effector cells (T and B lymphocytes). thymus cell
 Common example wherein our innate immunity responds
is during an inflammation
 A nonspecific response will be triggered by an
injury or microbial invasion
 There will be 2 main players: histamine and
complement system
 Histamine Release
o Dilates blood vessels → increases
capillary permeability → Result: 5
cardinal signs of inflammation
o Redness (rubor), swelling (tumour), heat
(calor; only applicable to the body'
extremities), pain (dolor) and loss of
function (functio laesa)
 Complement System / Complement
o Responsible for the recruitment of WBC
in the injury site

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  In essence, vaccination and immunization go hand in
hand. Immunity to a disease can occur naturally or be
induced by artificial means.
 For instance, once you contract Chicken Pox, it is
very rare for the same person to contract the
disease again because they build up immunity to
the disease.
 Creating immunity artificially involves exposure to very
weak or deactivated disease-causing microbes.
 Vaccination and immunity are often confused with each
other but these are two very different terms that convey
two different meanings.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10152

 Also known as:
 Mandatory Infants and Children Health
Immunization Act
 The mandatory includes basic immunization for children
under 5 including other types that will be determined by
the Secretary of Health

TYPES OF VACCINES
 There are a few different types of vaccines.
 They include:
1. Attenuated (weakened)
2. Killed (inactivated)
3. Toxoid vaccines
4. Conjugate / Protein sub-unit vaccine
5. mRNA (messenger RNA) vaccines
6. Viral vector

ATTENUATED (WEAKENED) ACTIVE

 Attenuated (weakened) live germs are used in some
vaccines such as in the measles, mumps, and rubella
(MMR) and chickenpox vaccines.

KILLED (INACTIVATED) ACTIVE

 Killed (inactivated) germs are used in some vaccines,
such as in the flu shot or the inactivated poliovirus vaccine

TOXOID VACCINES
 Contain an inactivated toxin (harmful chemical) made by
the germ.
 For example, the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines are
toxoid vaccines.

CONJUGATE / PROTEIN SUB-UNIT VACCINE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN  Contain small pieces of the germ combined with proteins
VACCINATION AND IMMUNIZATION that help trigger a strong immune response.
 The major difference between Vaccination and  Many commonly used vaccines are made this way,
Immunization is that a vaccine is administered to people to including those that protect against:
create immunity from that disease.  Hepatitis B, HPV, whooping cough, and
 For example, before the polio vaccine is meningitis.
administered, the infant does not have immunity MRNA (MESSENGER RNA) VACCINES
to the disease and has a high risk of contracting  Vaccines use a piece of the germ’s RNA, which is part of
that disease. its genetic material.
 Therefore, a vaccination builds up resistance  Some of the COVID-19 vaccines are this type.
(immunity) to a disease.

Page 6 of 10
 induced antibody appears, 7–10 days after starting a primary
post-exposure course.

These antibody-containing preparations are termed antiserum.

Another example of antiserums is the snake antivenom
that yield passive immunity.

INFECTION VS. INFLAMMATION

CHAIN OF INFECTION
 Development of an infection is dependent upon an
uninterrupted process, referred to as the chain of infection.
 This process is dependent upon the following elements:
1. Pathogens in sufficient numbers
2. A reservoir for pathogen growth
3. A portal of exit from the reservoir
ACTIVE NATURALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY (ANAI) 4. A mode of transmission
 Natural immunity is acquired from exposure to the disease 5. A portal of entry to the host, and
organism through infection with the actual disease. 6. A susceptible host
 Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when the  This chain of infection can be broken by infection control
person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the measures implemented by health care workers.
disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary  The chain of infection as illustrated below provides
immune response. examples of the ways in which pathogenic
microorganisms are transmitted from person to person.
PASSIVE NATURALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY (PNAI)  Ex. An infection may occur when a person is
 There are two examples of passive naturally acquired exposed to a reservoir of a potential pathogen.
immunity:  The pathogen may gain entry to the human body
1. The placental transfer of IgG from mother to fetus to cause an infection.
during pregnancy that generally lasts 4 to 6
months after birth
2. The IgA and IgG found in human colostrum and
milk of babies who are nursed.

ACTIVE ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY (AAAI)

 Artificial active immunity is the result of vaccination.
 During a vaccination, a weakened, dead, or partial
pathogen is injected into the body.
 The body then produces antibodies against that pathogen
for later use.
 Common examples of vaccines include Polio, Hepatitis B,
Chickenpox, and Smallpox.

PASSIVE ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

(PAAI)
 Artificially-acquired passive immunity is an immediate, but
short-term immunization provided by the injection of
antibodies, such as gamma globulin, that are not produced
by the recipient's cells.
 These antibodies are developed in another individual or
animal and then injected into another individual.

Artificially acquired passive immunity is protection acquired by

giving a person an injection or transfusion of antibodies made
by someone else.
- These antibodies neutralise the infectious agents in
RESERVOIR
the usual. way, but the protection lasts only a few
weeks because the antibodies gradually break down  A reservoir is any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or
and are not replaced. substance (or combination of these) in which an infectious
agent normally lives and multiplies, on which it depends
Varicella-Zoster and hepatitis B gammaglobulin (IgG) primarily for survival, and where it reproduces itself in such
preparations are examples of passive immunity which have manner that it can be transmitted to a susceptible host.
considerable applications to the occupational health situation  Animate Reservoirs
Rabies immune globulin (RIG) provides passive protection by  Include people, insects, birds, and other animals.
neutralizing virus in a wound in the interval before vaccine-  Inanimate Reservoirs

Page 7 of 10
  Include soil, water, food, faeces, intravenous fluid  Once a pathogen has exited the reservoir, it needs a
and equipment. mode of transmission to the host through a portal of entry.
 The reservoir may or may not be the source from which an  Transmission can be by direct or indirect contact or
agent is transferred to a host. through airborne transmission.
 For example, the reservoir of Clostridium  Direct contact is person-to-person transmission of
botulinum is soil, but the source of most botulism pathogens through touching, biting, kissing, or sexual
infections is improperly canned food containing intercourse.
C. botulinum spores.  Microorganisms can also be expelled from the body by
 Ways to break the Chain of Infection: coughing, sneezing or talking.
 Elimination of sources of infection (reservoirs)  The organisms travel in droplets over less than 1
 Appropriate handling and disposal of body metre in distance and are inhaled by a
secretions like vomitus, faeces, sputum, blood susceptible host.
and body fluids  Indirect contact includes both vehicle-borne and vector-
 Appropriate handling of contaminated items, borne contact.
segregation of waste categories and disposal  A vehicle is an inanimate go-between, an
intermediary between the portal of exit from the
reservoir and the portal of entry to the host.
 Inanimate objects such as handkerchiefs and
tissues, soiled laundry, and surgical instruments
and dressings are common vehicles that can
transmit infection.
 An infectious agent may be transmitted from its natural
reservoir to a susceptible host in different ways.
 There are different classifications for modes of
transmission.
 Direct contact
 Droplet spread
 Indirect
 Airborne
 Vehicleborne
 Vectorborne (mechanical or biologic)
PORTAL OF EXIT  Ways to break the Chain of Infection:
 A portal of exit is the site from where micro-organisms  Correct handwashing is the most important basic
leave the host to enter another host and cause practice for the prevention of transmission of
disease/infection. pathogens
 For example, a micro-organism may leave the  Single use equipment
reservoir through the nose or mouth when  Cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization of
someone sneezes or coughs, or in faeces. reusable instruments and equipment
 Portal of exit is the path by which a pathogen leaves its  Standard and additional precautions
host.
 The portal of exit usually corresponds to the site where the DIRECT CONTACT
pathogen is localized.
 In direct transmission, an infectious agent is transferred
 For example, influenza viruses and
from a reservoir to a susceptible host by direct contact or
Mycobacterium tuberculosis exit the respiratory
droplet spread.
tract, schistosomes through urine, cholera vibrios
 Direct contact occurs through skin-to-skin contact, kissing,
in feces, Sarcoptes scabiei in scabies skin
and sexual intercourse.
lesions, and enterovirus 70, a cause of
hemorrhagic conjunctivitis, in conjunctival  Direct contact also refers to contact with soil or vegetation
secretions. harboring infectious organisms.
 Some bloodborne agents can exit by crossing the placenta  Thus, infectious mononucleosis (“kissing disease”) and
from mother to fetus (rubella, syphilis, toxoplasmosis), gonorrhea are spread from person to person by direct
while others exit through cuts or needles in the skin contact.
(hepatitis B) or blood-sucking arthropods (malaria).  Hookworm is spread by direct contact with contaminated
 Ways to break the Chain of Infection: soil.
 Standard precautions apply when handling
excreta, exudate, and soiled linen. DROPLET SPREAD
 Cover nose/mouth when sneezing/coughing, and  Droplet spread refers to spray with relatively large, short-
dispose of facial tissues immediately after use. range aerosols produced by sneezing, coughing, or even
talking.
 Droplet spread is classified as direct because transmission
is by direct spray over a few feet, before the droplets fall to
the ground.
 Pertussis and meningococcal infection are examples of
diseases transmitted from an infectious patient to a
susceptible host by droplet spread.

INDIRECT TRANSMISSION
 Refers to the transfer of an infectious agent from a
reservoir to a host by suspended air particles, inanimate
objects (vehicles), or animate intermediaries (vectors).

AIRBORNE TRANSMISSION
MODE OF TRANSMISSION  Occurs when infectious agents are carried by dust or
 A method of transmission is the movement or the droplet nuclei suspended in air.
transmission of pathogens from a reservoir to a  Airborne dust includes material that has settled on
susceptible host. surfaces and become resuspended by air currents as well
as infectious particles blown from the soil by the wind.

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 Droplet nuclei are dried residue of less than 5 microns in  The skin normally serves as a barrier to infection.
size.  However, any break in the skin invites the
 In contrast to droplets that fall to the ground within a few entrance of pathogens
feet, droplet nuclei may remain suspended in the air for o Such as tubes placed in body cavities
long periods of time and may be blown over great (catheters) or punctures produced by
distances. invasive procedures (needles, IV).
 Measles, for example, has occurred in children who came  Ways to break the Chain of Infection:
into a physician’s office after a child with measles had left,  Correct handwashing is the most important basic
because the measles virus remained suspended in the air. practice for the prevention of transmission of
pathogens
VEHICLEBORNE  Single use equipment
 Vehicles that may indirectly transmit an infectious agent  Cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization of
include food, water, biologic products (blood), and fomites reusable instruments and equipment
(inanimate objects such as handkerchiefs, bedding, or  Standard and additional precautions
surgical scalpels).
 A vehicle may passively carry a pathogen — as food or
water may carry hepatitis A virus.
 Alternatively, the vehicle may provide an environment in
which the agent grows, multiplies, or produces toxin — as
improperly canned foods provide an environment that
supports production of botulinum toxin by Clostridium
botulinum.

VECTORBORNE
 Vectors such as mosquitoes, fleas, and ticks may carry an
infectious agent through purely mechanical means or may
support growth or changes in the agent.
 Examples of mechanical transmission are flies carrying
Shigella on their appendages and fleas carrying Yersinia
pestis, the causative agent of plague, in their gut. HOST
 In contrast, in biologic transmission, the causative agent of  The host (also called the susceptible host) is the human
malaria or guinea worm disease undergoes maturation in body: someone who is at the risk of infection.
an intermediate host before it can be transmitted to  Infections do not necessarily occur when pathogens enter
humans. the body of the person whose immune system is
functioning normally.
 Whether or not a pathogen will result in infection depends
upon several factors related to the host (the person
exposed), the pathogen itself, and the environment.
 Ways to break the Chain of Infection:
 Immunisation against infectious diseases
 Acquired immunity
 Maintenance of mucous membranes and skin
integrity
 Healthy lifestyle
o Rest, sleep, and appropriate nutritional
intake
 High standard of personal hygiene
 Appropriate management of chronic illnesses

CAUSATIVE AGENTS
 Causative agents in infection are pathogens.
PORTAL OF ENTRY  Pathogens are microorganisms that are capable of
 A portal of entry is the site through which micro-organisms causing diseases or infections.
enter the susceptible host and cause disease/infection.  If microorganisms from a person’s own body cause an
 Infectious agents enter the body through various portals, infection, it is called an endogenous infection.
including the mucous membranes, the skin, the respiratory  If a micro-organism derived from sources outside a
and the gastrointestinal tracts. person’s own body causes an infection, it is called an
 Pathogens often enter the body of the host through the exogenous infection.
same route they exited the reservoir.  Ways to break the Chain of Infection:
 For example, airborne pathogens from one  Immunization against infectious diseases
person’s sneeze can enter through the nose of  Early diagnosis of infectious diseases
another person.

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  Isolation of persons suffering from infectious
diseases CONTAGIOUS
 Collection and disposal of waste in communities  Transmissible by direct or indirect contact with an infected
 Provision of a pure water supply person
 Adequate drainage and sewerage facilities  Period of communicability is the time during which an
 Standard precautions infectious agent may be transferred directly or indirectly
 Additional precautions from an infected person to another person, from an
infected animal to humans, or from an infected person to
animals.
 Also known as the ‘infectious period’.

HERD IMMUNITY
 Also known as 'population immunity', is the indirect
protection from an infectious disease that happens when a
population is immune either through vaccination or
immunity developed through previous infection.
 WHO supports achieving 'herd immunity' through
vaccination, not by allowing a disease to spread through
any segment of the population, as this would result in
unnecessary cases and deaths.
 The level of immunity in a population which prevents
epidemics, based on the resistance to infection of a
proportion of individual members of the group sufficient to
prevent widespread infection amongst non-immune
members

HUMAN INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR

CAUSATIVE AGENTS
 Pulmonary TB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
 STDs: Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD)
caused by infection with the Neisseria gonorrhoeae
bacterium
 chlamydia-bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis
 syphilis-caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum
 hepatitis is most commonly caused by hepatitis A virus
(HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus
(HCV).
 (COVID-19) caused by a coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)
 MERS is caused by the Middle East respiratory syndrome
coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
 H1N1 flu, commonly known as swine flu, is primarily
caused by the H1N1 strain of the flu (influenza A) virus
 Hepatitis Virus

INCUBATION PERIOD
 The number of days between when you’re infected with
something and when you might see symptoms.
 It’s different for every condition.

INCUBATION PERIOD FOR COVID-19

 Viruses are constantly changing, which sometimes leads
to new strains called “variants.”
 Different COVID-19 variants can have different incubation
periods.

INCUBATION PERIOD FOR THE OMICRON VARIANT

 Omicron is now the most dominant strain of coronavirus in
the U.S., and its incubation period may be shorter than
those of previous variants.
 Research is just beginning.
 But some scientists who've studied Omicron and doctors
who've treated patients with it suggest the right number
might be around 3 days.

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