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CRITICAL THINKING AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICES

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

ASSIGNMENT NO: 01

Submitted By Anila Zafar

Registration No 0000090833

Course Title Critical Thinking and Reflective Practices

Course Code 8611

Level B.ed( 1.5 years)

Semester Spring 2022

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CRITICAL THINKING AND REFLECTIVE PRACTICES

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

(Units: 1-4)

Question No#1 How can a teacher serve as a critical thinker? How can a teacher’s critical thinking helpful

to improve teaching and learning process?

Answer:

Defining Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying,

analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience,

reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on

universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency,

relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness.

It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or

question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions; implications and

consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of reference. Critical thinking — in being

responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes — is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of

thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking,

economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.

Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of undisciplined

or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a matter of degree and dependent on, among other things, the

quality and depth of experience in a given domain of thinking or with respect to a particular class of questions. No

one is a critical thinker through-and-through, but only to such-and-such a degree, with such-and-such insights and

blind spots, subject to such-and-such tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical

thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavor.

TEACHER AS A CRITICAL THINKER

One of the major goals of education is to enable the learners to understand ideas that are important, useful, and

powerful. Another goal is to develop the appetite to think analytically and critically about what they are being

presented with in the form of books and teaching. Third goal is to help them to use what they know to enhance

their own lives and also to contribute to their society, culture and civilization as well as to the global community.

Hence critical thinking is not an isolated goal unrelated to other important goals in education. Rather, it is a

seminal goal which, done well, simultaneously facilitates a rainbow of other ends. It is best conceived, therefore,

as the hub around which all other educational ends cluster. For example, as students learn to think more critically,

they become more proficient at historical, scientific, and mathematical thinking. They develop skills, abilities, and
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values critical to success in everyday life. All of this assumes, of course, that those who teach have a solid

grounding in critical thinking and in the teaching strategies essential to it.

These three goals work as a drive for education to promote critical thinking which is based on certain assumptions.

1. Brains are physiological while minds are developed.

2. Curriculum is a mind-grooming instrument.

3. Education should strive upon preparing learners for self-direction.

4. Graduates should be prepared for thinking their way through the challenging life

5. Careful analysis, clear thinking, and reasoned deliberation are fundamental to democratic life.

On the basis of these considerations the capacity for critical assessment and analysis emerges as fundamental for

enjoying a good quality of life. But to develop a deep understanding of the foundations of critical thinking involves

a long-term approach to learning and applying those foundations. James Stigler, co-author of the book, The

Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World’s Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom, comments on the

importance of long term professional development of educational planners, managers, teachers, and learners.

Commitment to critical thinking affects how one thinks through the design of instruction and how one thinks

through the content one is learning. As a teacher one needs to pay dual attention; s/he needs to be a critical thinker

first and then teach through critical analysis so that the learners may also learn the critical thinking skills. Thus a

teacher needs to recognize that teaching in a critical manner is essential for:

• Skilled reading, writing, speaking, and listening

• Skilled reasoning within all subject areas

• Skilled decision-making and problem-solving

• Skilled analysis and evaluation

• Skilled civic and personal choices, etc

It is not possible and no one can claim that a short term professional development will make all teachers critical

thinkers and there is no way to bring critical thinking successfully into instruction across the curriculum over night.

But to begin with a teacher education program may include basic courses so that it may:

1) Function to heighten the awareness of faculty to the challenge of bringing critical thinking substantively into

instruction,

2) Provide some strategies for up-grading the effectiveness of instruction, and

3) Lay a foundation for follow-up workshops.

A rather long-term approach to critical thinking professional development enables teachers to internalize and apply

the fundamentals of critical thinking at a deeper level. Through a long-term approach, teachers can restructure their

courses so that students develop as inquisitive and disciplined thinkers and questioning minds. Its success depends

on a number of variables. One develops as a critical thinker in a way similar to the way in which one learns to
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perform well in basketball, ballet, or on the piano. First of all, one must understand the basic principles. Secondly,

one must regularly engage in self-monitored, self-evaluative practice (putting the principles to work in practice)

progressively up-grading one understands and skill thereby. Teachers need to recognize explicitly that critical

thinking is not just one of many divergent educational aims, but is rather a way of teaching and learning at a high

level of effectiveness. They learn to use all other reform trends as a support for a high level of thinking in both the

teaching and learning process.

ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

Here instead of looking more into curriculum planning first of all the question is what are the essential aspects of

critical thinking that we need to develop among teachers as well as learners? Although the list of these aspects

cannot be exhaustive or all inclusive yet the most prominent features may include but not limited to the following:

a) In order to help their students to develop critical-thinking skills and to take critical action, teachers need

to:

• have a sound knowledge base from which to support students as they delve more deeply into content

• remain open to challenge by students, not representing themselves as the sole source of knowledge

• encourage students to look at the big picture by engaging them in critical-thinking processes that have relevance

beyond the classroom

• be prepared to listen to voices that originate in the classroom and to use students' personal experiences as starting

points for gathering information

• structure lessons so that students can work safely and co-operatively and develop creative forms of shared

responsibility

• encourage students to take critical action. When students learn to use democratic processes inside the classroom,

they can transfer these to situations outside the classroom.

For students, learning to think critically and to take critical action will include:

• learning to take responsibility for analyzing and evaluating information

• giving each other feedback about their analyses, evaluations, and actions

• questioning and challenging each other's assumptions in a non-threatening manner

• learning to identify any inequalities and power relationships within contexts in health education, physical

education, and home economics, focusing on how these positions are sometimes reinforced through organizational

structures and through certain forms of language

• reflecting on people's assumptions, beliefs, and behaviours, taking into account a range of factors

• generating alternative solutions and accepting them or critiquing them in a sensitive manner

• developing the confidence to work with others in taking critical action

It is expected that by adopting this elaboration of critical thinking and applying their learning in education
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contexts, students can:

• think about and evaluate their own thinking and behavior on issues related to health education, physical

education, and home economics

• make reasonable and defensible decisions about issues related to individual and community well-being

• challenge and take action (individually and collectively) to address social, cultural, economic, and political

inequalities

• understand the role and significance of the movement culture and its influence on our daily lives and the lives of

people in our community.

Hence as an outcome the learners will:

• become broad and adventurous thinkers

• generate innovative solutions

• use their reasoning skills to analyze and evaluate

• plan and think strategically.

----------------------------------------------------Q#1 THE END-----------------------------------------------------

Question No#2 Discuss in detail factors affecting social exclusion.

Answer:

Introduction

A human being is a social entity that defines and maintains his/her existence through others. The journey of life

that begins in the mother's womb can be sustained by the presence of others whose roles and duties change during

different periods of this journey. The differentiating needs in each period of development require a change of

positions, roles and duties of others, who are parents in the first years of life, teachers in childhood, peers in

adolescence and emotional partners (spouse) and colleagues in young adulthood. Thus, each period of

development allows the human to realize himself/herself through others and to continue to exist as an "individual"

among others.

SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Social exclusion is the phenomenon of social disadvantage to the periphery of society. This term was first used in

France and is now used widely around the world. It is commonly used in sociology, education, psychology, politics

and economics where the exclusion becomes a major challenge. Social exclusion is the process where individuals

or group of people are systematically denied the full access to different rights, opportunities and resources that are

supposed to be available to all members of society. These rights are usually fundamental to social integration
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within that particular group such as housing, employment, healthcare, education, civic engagement, and

democratic participation.

Social exclusion involves the lack or denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and the inability to participate

in the normal relationships and activities, available to the majority of people in a society, whether in economic,

social, cultural or political arenas. It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity and cohesion of

society as a whole.

The social exclusion is faced by people or groups of people usually referred to as ‘disadvantaged groups’. The

‘disadvantaged’ is a generic term for individuals or groups of people who:

• Face special problems such as physical or mental disability

• Lack money or economic support

• Are politically deemed to be without sufficient power or other means of influence.

In common usage ‘the disadvantaged’ is a generic term for those "from lower-income backgrounds" or “from

minority groups”. The "economically disadvantaged" is a term used by government institutions usually while

allocating free services such as school meals to the students who are members of households that meet the income

eligibility guidelines for free or reduced-price services.

Origins of the Concept of Social Exclusion

The concept of social exclusion became increasingly prominent in Western Europe in the latter part of the

twentieth century and mainly in 1990s. While the concept’s historical roots can be traced back to Aristotle, the

modern notion of exclusion emerged in France in the 1970s, linked to a perceived breakdown in social cohesion

following civil unrest in the late 1960s in the context of growing unemployment and socio-economic inequalities.

From France, its use spread through the European Union’s institutions, unpacking the poverty discourse. It was

adopted particularly by the UK’s New Labour government elected in the late 1990s when the International Labour

Organization also took a lead in driving the concept out to less developed countries. Its emergence has also been

linked at some points to the rise of neo-liberal ideology and individualism from the 1970s. Part of the rise in

concerns of the social exclusion can be attributed to its political appeal. It has been argued that it is perceived as

less threatening than poverty and depending upon its extent it becomes acceptable in some political positions. e.g.

revised immigration and migrants rights in European and United States. In addition, its popularity may in part be

attributable to a belief that the concept of social exclusion offers an original perspective on the social world.

The concept being multi-dimensional, holds the potential to provide new insights into the nature, causes and

consequences of poverty, deprivation, inequalities, marginalization and discrimination. The discourse of social

exclusion gives new direction to policy planning, specifically in terms of educational outreach. Yet, the limitations

of applying a concept developed in the developed nations with well-developed welfare systems, to countries and

nations where weak governance, least welfare mechanisms, and a majority of the population living in extreme
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poverty, is a big challenge. More generally, the danger that ‘exclusion’ may be used as a screen to hide extreme

poverty and as a blaming label to make the poor responsible for their condition has also been recognized.

Meanings of Social Exclusion

Silver (1994), Levitas (1998; 2005) and Beall (2002) made important contributions to understand the ideological

and political roots of different definitions and elaborated the implications for policy and practices that are required

to address ‘social exclusion’. While many definitions of ‘social exclusion’ incorporate apparently contradictory

connotations, the “labelling approach” helped to make a clear distinction between ‘the excluded’ from the rest of

society, and to operationalize and measure ‘social exclusion’. Social exclusion is the term which has its specific

meanings drawn from its evolution around the world, it may not be possible that the phrase ‘social exclusion’ is

used in different ways at different times reflecting different institutional, political, historical and geographic

contexts. Here let us explore some of the meanings attaching to the concept of social exclusion and consider these

in relationship with policy and actions aimed at addressing social exclusion. The concept of “social exclusion” is

being continually redefined over time and has different policy implications. The term ‘social exclusion’ needs to

first identify the groups at risk of exclusion; the meanings of the phrase itself in a society will depend upon the

question that who are the people being excluded from social processes and interactions; at the second stage it asks

for the explanation of the processes involved and the levels at which exclusion is exhibited or exposed; and last but

not the least it also takes its meanings from the actors involved.

‘Social exclusion’ has been conceptualized as social behaviors of dominating social groups affecting a subgroup of

the population and keeping them outside mainstream social systems and relationships. Similarly, social exclusion

can be referred as the processes hidden in unequal power distributions within a federation or state that in result

create inequalities or multiple disadvantages. On the one hand a school of thought stands that emphasize lack of

participation of individuals in society and on the other hand is the one that identify social exclusion in terms of

lack of access to basic rights for members of particular group or community. In terms of who or what is generating

exclusion, and important aspect is causal role of diverse ‘agents’ ranging from globalization to excluded

individuals and groups themselves. Access and participation can be perceived as the key elements in the process of

social exclusion vs inclusion. But the participation depends on the extent to which different societal groups have

access to the relevant socio-economic resources, services, goods and structures as well as decision-making

positions and processes. Another dimension is that full social participation also requires mutual trust. Wherever

such trust is lacking, social bonding is disrupted.

It is a multidimensional process, around social, political, cultural and economic dimensions, and operating at

different social levels; impacting in different ways to differing degrees over time; focusing on exclusion as the split

of relationships between people and the society resulting in a lack of social participation, social protection, social

integration and power dynamics.

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Social exclusion is the process in which individuals are blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights,

opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are

fundamental to social integration and observance of human rights within that particular group (e.g., housing,

employment, healthcare, civic engagement, democratic participation, and due process).

Alienation or disenfranchisement resulting from social exclusion can be connected to a person's social class, race,

skin color, religious affiliation, ethnic origin, educational status, childhood relationships, living standards, and or

political opinions, and appearance. Such exclusionary forms of discrimination may also apply to disabled

people, minorities, LGBTQ+ people, drug users, institutional care leavers, the elderly and the young. Anyone who

appears to deviate in any way from perceived norms of a population may thereby become subject to coarse or

subtle forms of social exclusion.

The outcome of social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented from participating fully

in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live. This may result in resistance in the form

of demonstrations, protests or lobbying from the excluded people.

Factors influencing Social Exclusion

Two sets of factors become a source of increase or decrease of social exclusion; Structural Factors and Cultural

Factors

1. Structural Factors

a) Economic-technological factors

Which economic background do you come from and where it stands in the society? One major set of factors is

functioning of the labor market, flexibility of the labor market, decline of urban labor markets resulting in fewer

jobs in cities and increasing local concentrations of benefit recipients, international competition, globalization

(employment shift to low-wage or low-tax countries, strategic operations of multi-nationals) as well as new

technologies and their deployment.

b) Socio-demographic factors

Which part of the country or world do you come from and how is it viewed in the society? Another set is derived

from increase of duration of dependency due to increased life expectancy; increasing labor supply with stable;

extended school participation and shortened employment duration over the life span; decreasing birth rate,

increasing individualization (single households); and development of an ethnical multiform, multicultural society

and increase of number of immigrants with unfavorable work prospects

2. Cultural Factors

Do you fit in with the cultural norms? There is a major role of generally accepted opinions, cultural values and

norms and expectations of gender roles; attitudes with regard to ethnic minorities and towards vulnerable groups in

general; development of a ‘deprivation culture’ in isolated and excluded groups or communities with a high risk of
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passing exclusion on from one generation to the other as well as general perception of poverty and inequality.

--------------------------------------------------Q#2 THE END---------------------------------------------------

Question No#3 Explain in detail the models of cooperative learning. How does cooperative learning

helpful for developing critical thinking among students?

Answer:

Concept of Cooperative Learning

Several definitions of cooperative learning have been given by various theorists. The one most widely used in

higher education is probably that of David and Roger Johnson of the University of Minnesota. According to the

which, cooperative learning is a process that involves students working in teams to accomplish a common goal,

under conditions that include the following elements:

• Positive interdependence

Team members are obliged to rely on one another to achieve the goal. If any team members fail to do their part,

everyone suffers consequences.

• Individual accountability. All students in a group are held accountable for doing their share of the work and for

mastery of all of the material to be learned.

• Face-to-face promotive interaction

Although some of the group work may be parceled out and done individually, some must be done interactively,

with group members providing one another with feedback, challenging reasoning and conclusions, and perhaps

most importantly, teaching and encouraging one another.

• Appropriate use of collaborative skills

Students are encouraged and helped to develop and practice trust-building, communication, and conflict

management skills.

• Group processing

Team members set group tasks, periodically assess what they are doing well as a team, and identify changes they

will make to function more effectively in the future.

Cooperative learning is dependent on the sort of conversation, which takes place in the group between students.

Talking about a question helps create meaning and understanding; humans make meaning about things through

talk. Studies have shown that by having to explain answers to problems to fellow student that the act of having to

clarify and communicate actually enhances the students’ own understanding. In these conversations it is the
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process of discussion that is important not whether the answers are right or wrong. Applications of social learning

to the classroom first began in the early 1970s. Since that time, what we now know as ‘Cooperative Learning’ has

been one of the most researched kinds of instructional methodology used in the classroom. Much of this research

has concluded that cooperative learning strategies in the classroom have been highly successful, both in terms of

learning achievement as well as the development morals and values. The prospect of cooperative learning is

obvious to many researchers. Its academic and social advantages are globally recognized. George (2000) defines

cooperative learning as the process of obtaining knowledge in a socially rich environment by one or two small

groups of students. Cooperative learning environment refers to a situation which learners with one common goal in

their mind strive to achieve common learning outcomes. A small dedicated group of students learn together and

take advantages of each other’s proficiency to achieve a common goal. In a cooperative learning environment,

learners are encouraged to be in the center of learning and learn together. Research has shown that cooperative

learning techniques:

• promote student learning and academic achievement

• increase student retention

• enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience

• help students develop communication skills

• develop students' social skills

• promote student self-esteem

• help to promote critical thinking

Social benefits of cooperative learning are more clearly demonstrated in the research literature. Cooperative

learning has shown to positively affect students' self esteem and attitudes towards school and classmates. It has

been suggested that an improvement in students' positive behavior will in turn increase motivation for academic

achievement. Classrooms are very social places but often when teachers think about learning the focus is on

individual learning and the social aspects are often viewed as a distraction. If the teachers are able to make positive

use of this social aspect and the social arrangement of the classroom then more learning would take place.

Cooperative Learning improves students' communication skills and enhances their ability to be successful in the

world of work and to live in diverse society.

Models of Cooperative Learning

Many teachers perceive that efforts to set up cooperative learning groups have a variety of problems that range

from student resistance to inappropriate assignments. It is useful to learn how different classroom researchers

helped to try a model that could provide organization and guidance. The models listed below are only a few of

many. These can be adapted in many ways or a new model can be developed depending on the requirements of the

classroom.
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a. The Jigsaw Model

In this model the student becomes a member of both a learning group and a research team. After determining the

learning group’s goal, the members join research teams to learn about a particular piece of the learning puzzle.

Each puzzle piece must be solved to form a complete picture. Research can take many forms. The teacher may

want to prepare “expert sheets” that outline readings and questions to obtain the information needed. Or the

students can use their own strategies to glean information through library research, interviewing experts, or

experimentation. Upon completion of the expert teams’ work, the members return to their original learning groups

and share the results. Class discussion, a question-and-answer session, or a graphic or dramatic production will

allow the groups to share their findings with the class at large.

b. Group Investigation

Group investigation is more student directed in its approach. After the teacher presents an introduction to the unit,

the students discuss what they have learned and outline possible topics for further examination. From this list of

student-generated topics, each learning group chooses one and determines subtopics for each group member or

team. Each student or group of students is responsible for researching his or her individual piece and preparing a

brief report to bring back to the group. The group then designs a presentation and shares its findings with the entire

class. Allow time for discussion at the end of the presentation. A class evaluation for each presentation can be an

effective way of providing feedback to the groups.

c. Numbered Heads Together

Is a way of reviewing information that has been previously presented through direct instruction or text. Numerous

simple models enhance questioning, discussion, and class presentations by structuring the activity in a cooperative

format. This model works well with unambiguous questions that allow students to come to consensus. Divide the

students into groups of 4 and have them number off from 1 to 4. After the teacher asks the question, the groups

huddle to determine the answer. The teacher calls a number and the students with that number respond. The

teacher then has the others agree or disagree with a thumbs up or thumbs down.

d. Think-Pair-Share

To encourage responses from all students. Students pair with a partner to share their responses to a question.

Students are then invited to share their responses with the whole class. There are a variety of ways to share,

including Stand Up and Share-everyone stands up and as each student responds he or she sits down. Anyone with a

similar response also sits down. Continue until everyone is seated. Or do a “quick whip” through the class in which

students respond quickly one right after another.

The purpose of cooperative learning

There are basically four main reasons why Cooperative Learning is to be recommended.
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1. Active learning

Co-operative Learning helps to actively engage more children in learning than do teacher centered or lecture-

oriented methodologies. By using more cooperative methodologies in which students work together in groups, all

students are actively engaged on a learning task. Students become more active participants in their own learning as

well in fellows’ learning, as opposed to passive recipients of knowledge.

2. Children learn to help and support

Co-operative Learning encourages students to support their classmates in a group rather than to compete against

each other. In this way, students can combine their skills and talents and help others. Co-operative Learning

provides the opportunity for higherachieving students to help students who are slower learners. The help of these

students also increases the amount of explanation that occurs in the classroom overall.

3. Interaction brings multiple dimensions

Working in groups students can bring multidimensional thoughts and discussions over a single subject. Such rich

discussion and generation of knowledge is rarely possible when each learner works in isolation. Cooperative

learning enables them to ask questions from each other and bring out what a teacher might not be able to even by

asking random questions from a few members of class.

4. Improved critical thinking

In a cooperative classroom where multiple and even opposite view points are received openly, the learners learn to

discuss and raise questions. They do not simply learn or memorize the concepts rather they work together to

understand, explore and reach a consensus or at least bring all thoughts on one page. This asks for deeper and

critical analysis of the subject.

Major Outcomes of Cooperative Learning

Learning

• increased academic learning

• increased critical thinking ability

• More time spent on learning tasks (less day dreaming)

• increased student retention

• increased student motivation to learn

• enhanced student satisfaction with their learning experience

Social Development

• reduces disruptive behaviour

• develops peer relationships

• promote student self-esteem

• Students use appropriate social skills

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• Improved attitude towards school

Communication

• Students learn to share information

• helps students to consider other people's point of view

• helps students develop skills in oral communication

-----------------------------------------------------Q#3 THE END------------------------------------------------

Question no: 4 How can a happy, pleasant and contented reflect on his/her students? Discuss in a

group and present your critical analysis.

Answer:

A happy classroom is every teacher’s dream. This can be achieved without compromising academic results and the

personal growth of your students. So how do you balance happiness and learning? Here are the 7 tips on how to

achieve a happy classroom.

Three things need to happen for a happy classroom to exist

• Students must feel safe.

For a classroom to be safe, it should be under control. A teacher needs to implement procedures/policies that

promote physical, social, and emotional security. Be firm but fair. Allow students to have a say inside the

classroom and listen to their sentiments. Model the behavior you want to see from your students. This means you

have to set a good example for them to follow.

• Students must feel valued.

Get to know students as individuals. You need to develop a positive rapport with them if you want to have a happy

classroom. When a student misbehaves, try to talk to him/her in private. Humiliating a student in public will only

make things worse. Students won’t care much about the lesson if they know that you’re not interested in them. But

once they realize that you care, they will be more willing to listen to what you have to say.

• Students must feel successful.

As a teacher, you must do everything you can to ensure that students succeed academically. Incorporate

technology and collaboration whenever appropriate. In giving assignments, clearly communicate what your

expectations are. Provide constructive feedback if necessary. Most importantly, don’t forget to celebrate successes.

TIPS ON HOW TO ACHIEVE A HAPPY CLASSROOM

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1. Invest some time to get to know your students.

Make an effort to know each and every one of your students. Not only will this allow students to feel comfortable

in class, but will also help a teacher build a caring classroom community. Knowing your students will help you

understand them better.

2. Use humor.

Use any opportunity to use humor inside the classroom. After all, who doesn’t want to laugh? Tell a joke, funny

story, or an unforgettable experience. Try not to take things too seriously all the time. Whatever subject you are

teaching, you can relate it to real-world situations to better engage students.

3. Give praise.

Do not underestimate the power of praise. Children love to be told that they are awesome. It can be as simple as

saying “Good job!” or an announcement to the rest of the class. Instead of highlighting what is wrong, do the

opposite and have good behavior stand out. Students want that kind of attention and will work hard to get it.

4. Give choices.

Usually, teachers set the rules and decide how things will go inside the classroom. Students rarely get a chance to

make choices for themselves. Allowing students to have a say in what or how they will learn is a good way to

make them happy. Doing so will give students some degree of independence and shows that you trust them.

5. Allot time for play.

Playtime is important in a child’s development. It helps them grow mentally, socially, and emotionally. Playing is

a great creative outlet, allows students to try different things, and teaches them how to interact with others. Of

course, there’s a time for everything and too much of anything is bad. Solution – know the right time when to play.

6. Give students a break.

Students learn best when they’re given a chance to rest their brains throughout the school day. The purpose is to

refocus students and prevent mental burnout. After each lesson, give students some time off. Even a 5-minute

break will go a long way.

7. Allow students to get social.

Provide opportunities for students to interact with their peers. It will help promote a positive classroom

environment. Talking about things other than schoolwork (a.k.a. getting social) makes students happy. Give

students a few minutes each day to communicate with their classmates.

Improving students' relationships with teachers has important, positive and long-lasting implications for both

students' academic and social development. Solely improving students' relationships with their teachers will not

produce gains in achievement. However, those students who have close, positive and supportive relationships with

their teachers will attain higher levels of achievement than those students with more conflict in their relationships.

Teachers who foster positive relationships with their students create classroom environments more conducive to
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learning and meet students' developmental, emotional and academic needs.

Conclusion

Creating a happy classroom environment is a common goal for many teachers. Inject fun, humor, and playtime

while ensuring focused learning takes place too. Make sure students feel safe, valued, and successful, and that each

one feels challenged with achievable goals. Teachers who can achieve a perfect balance between fun and hard

work will not only get better results when it comes to grades but also have happier students under their care.

----------------------------------------------------Q#4 THE END----------------------------------------------------

Question No#5 Explain in detail David Kolb’s experimental cycle.

Answer:

Who Is David Kolb?

The model was published in 1984 by David Kolb, an American psychologist, professor and education theorist.

Kolb was born in 1939 and earned his undergraduate degree from Knox College in 1961. He then earned a PhD in

social psychology from Harvard University.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory was influenced by the work of other education theorists, including Jean Piaget,

John Dewey, and Kurt Lewin. Kolb has written numerous books, book chapters, and journal articles. He has been

bestowed four honorary degrees and won several awards.

Experiential Learning Theory of David Kolb

Experiential learning theory is about learning by doing. Developed by psychologist David Kolb, the theory

describes the learning process whereby knowledge is created through experience. Kolb’s theory explains that

concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation form a four-

stage process (or cycle) transformed into effective learning. Applying Kolb’s learning theory has benefits for

students, educators and employers. 

Kolb’s theory defines experiential learning as a four-stage process: 

1. Concrete learning occurs when a learner has a new experience or interprets a previous experience in a new

way. For example, a nursing student has to learn a new procedure as part of their clinical education.

2. Reflective observation – the learner reflects on the new experience to understand what it means. In our

example, the nursing student might think about how they could have done the procedure better.

3. Abstract conceptualisation – the learner adapts their thinking or constructs new ideas based on experience

and reflection. For example, the nursing student realises they need to have all their materials ready before

starting the procedure.

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4. Active experimentation – the learner applies their new ideas to real-world situations to test whether they work

and see if any changes need to be made. This process can happen quickly or over an extended time. Our

nursing student might note how smoothly things go consistently when they have everything ready for a

procedure in advance.

The four stages of Kolb’s model are portrayed as an experiential learning cycle. Learners can enter the cycle at any

time. For example, imagine a group of students are learning to use computer-aided design (CAD) software. One

student might begin the learning process by observing others using it. Another learner might start by reading about

the program. Still, another learner might immediately jump in and have a go at using it. 

Kolb explains learners have natural preferences for how they enter the experiential learning cycle. “Because of our

hereditary equipment, our particular past life experiences, and the demands of our environment, we develop a

preferred way of choosing,” he wrote.

David A. Kolb Experiment

David A. Kolb (1939) was an American professor and educationalist who has the specialization in experiential

learning, individual and social change, career development and executive and professional education. David Kolb

was also the founder and chairman of ‘Experience Based Learning Systems. David Kolb bases his four stages of

learning on two major opposite dimensions, namely ‘Concrete versus Abstract’ and ‘Active versus Reflective’. In

practice, it appears that adults (as opposed to children) depending on experience and stage of life, first need to

unlearn things before they can learn something new. Sometimes people need to come to terms with (undesired)

experiences before they are open to new views. Within the dimensions, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is

based on a stage theoretical model.

Following is the graphical presentation of his model of learning.

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Doers

Doers displays a combination of active experimentation and concrete experience. Doers prefer situations in which

they can set to work as quickly as possible and they learn best when there is room for gaining immediate

experience by doing things. Doers are open to new learning opportunities, good at solving problems and they are

challenged by taking on unfamiliar tasks.

Reflectors

Reflectors have a preference for concrete experience and reflective observation. Reflectors like to think about

something first and they are great at lateral problemsolving. They want to consider all possible angles and

implications of a problem and they never fail to see new approaches and solutions. They are dreamers that do not

wish to be hurried and they want to take time before making a decision.

Thinkers

Thinkers combine reflexive observation with abstract conceptualization. They like turning their observations into

coherent hypotheses and theories. They do well at verbal reasoning and they prefer to work independently. They

learn best in structured learning situations with clear goals, theories and models. They would like to be able to ask

questions and discuss topics.

Deciders

Deciders have a preference for abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Deciders like trying out

theories in practice. They often take the initiative, are problemsolvers and they make decisions. They learn best by

clear and briefly formulated rules and principles they can immediately implement in practice. They are practical

people that do not like wasting time.

Four stages of the learning cycle

Kolb’s four stages of learning is a cyclical process in which people must work through each of the four stages. This

does not necessarily have to be from the same starting point, but preferably in the same order. According to David

Kolb the learning process becomes easier by going through the four stages of learning despite people’s preference

for a certain stage.

Relationship

Until recently, many training courses focused on the assimilation learning style; reflection and theory building.

People were taught how certain things interrelate and how they can be considered in a theoretical framework.

Often, little attention was paid to the accommodating learning style (experimentation and experiencing). By doing

something, people gain experience (doer). Then people look back on what happened (reflector). Subsequently,

people establish links between these reflections and observations and they create a theory (thinker). Finally, people

think how things can (still) be improved and they will try and implement this in practice (decider). All round

learners are often proficient in all of the four learning styles.

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Kolb’s learning styles model

These preferences are the basis of Kolb’s learning styles model, which divides learners into four types based on

their dominant learning style.

Kolb’s learning styles are:

 Diverging – In this learning style, learners focus on concrete experience and reflective observation. They

prefer to watch and reflect on what they’ve observed before jumping in. 

 Assimilating – This learning style incorporates learners who favour abstract conceptualisation and reflective

observation. They like using analytical models to explore and prefer concepts and abstract ideas.

 Converging – Learners using this learning style focus on abstract conceptualisation and active

experimentation. They like to solve problems and enjoy applying learning to practical issues.

 Accommodating – Learners using this learning style favour concrete experience and active experimentation.

They relish a challenge and using intuition to solve problems. 

Educational Implications

Both Kolb's (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision

typically available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities. Educators should ensure

that activities are designed and carried out in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that

suits them best. Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the identification of their lesser

preferred learning styles and the strengthening of these through the application of the experiential learning cycle.

Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways that draw on abilities from each stage of the

experiential learning cycle and take the students through the whole process in sequence.

How Can Experiential Learning Benefits Students?

Experiential learning has many benefits for students, including:

 The chance to immediately apply the learning process to real-world experiences, which supports knowledge

retention

 Improved motivation, as students are more excited about learning in real-world situations

 Promotion of learning through reflection, which deepens and strengthens the learning  experience

 The chances to make good use of their preferred style of learning

 Enhanced teamwork because experiential learning often involves working as part of a team

 The opportunity to prepare for future work through genuine, meaningful real-world practice

 The chances to meet colleagues and potential employers.

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