Module

The Nature of Chemistry

1
OVERVIEW
Welcome to the exciting world of Chemistry! Are you excited to explore and discuss
the realm of central Science? Let’s begin then!
You are about to undertake a journey where you will acquire a new understanding
of the world around you – the clothes you wear, the food you eat, the medicines you take,
the flesh you are made of, the air that you breathe, the means of transportation you use,
even the microchips built into your computer and smartphones.

Everything is made of chemical materials. Many things around us involve chemical

reactions. So, all the materials you are in contact with in all aspects of life are related to
chemistry.

What I Know

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read carefully each statement. Choose the best option that
makes the statement true. Write only the letter on your answer sheet.
1. It is the study of the composition of matter, its properties, and the changes it
undergoes.
A. Chemistry B. Physics C. Geology D. Biology
2. He proposes the theory that states, “all matter is made up of very tiny particles
called atoms.”
A. Joseph Priestley C. John Dalton
B. Humphry Davy D. Dmitree Mendeleev
3. It is the regular interval between two successive points.
A. Length B. Time C. Temperature D. Mass
4. It refers to how close the measurements are to the accepted value.
A. Precision B. Accuracy C. Reliability D. Validity
5. What is the SI unit for temperature?
A. Celsius B. Fahrenheit C. Kelvin D. Rankine
6. What is the old name for oxygen?
A. Mephitic air C. Monatomic gas
B. De-phlogisticated air D. Mineral borax
7. Calculate the density of 20 g of an unknown substance if it takes up a volume of
40cm3.
A. 0.5 g B. 0.5 g/cm3 C. 2g D. 2 g/cm3
8. Add the measured values 9.6 mm and 2.30 mm. What is the correct answer
according to significant figures?
A. 80 g B. 76 g C. 76.4 g D. 76.44 g
9. How many centimeters is 2 inches?
A. 4 cm B. 4.10 cm C. 5.08 cm D. 5.21 cm
10. What is the scientific notation for 0.00521 cm?
A. 0.521 x 10-2 B. 5.21 x 10-3 C. 52.1 x 10-4 D. 5.0 x 10-3
 What’s In

This module will give you some of the basic knowledge and skills that you need to
acquire in this subject. Most of the topics in this subject will fall under general chemistry
which covers the fundamental laws and concepts of chemistry.
You will learn why chemistry is called the centrals science, meet Filipino heroes
in chemistry, differentiate accuracy from precision and learn how to convert from one unit
to another.
Specifically, at the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. explain why a knowledge of chemistry is central to many human activities;
2. cite the relevance of chemistry in a variety of careers or occupations;
3. discuss recent technological applications of chemistry;
4. name some Filipino heroes in chemistry and some foreign chemists and
their contribution;
5. identify the SI units of measurement and convert from one unit to another;
6. differentiate precision from accuracy;
7. determine the number of significant figures in given measurements;
8. express numbers in scientific notation and vice versa; and
9. use conversion factors in solving problems.

What’s New

Chemistry is the study of the composition of matter, its properties, and the
changes it undergoes. It is part of the body of knowledge called Science. It is considered
practical science because it makes us understand our environment and how it works.
Chemistry is called the central science because it plays a role in almost all professions.
It overlaps with many other sciences.

Figure 1. An organizational chart showing the relationship of chemistry and its branches to the other branches of science.
(Adapted from Introduction to Chemistry Principles by H. Stephen Stoker, 6 th ed.)
 The figure above shows an organizational chart relating the various branches of
science, with emphasis on chemistry. The sciences are grouped into physical sciences
(the study of matter and energy) and biological sciences (the study of living organisms).
Chemistry is a physical science. It is further divided into five fundamental branches: (1)
analytical, (2) general, (3) inorganic, (4) organic and (5) physical chemistry.
All sciences borrow information and methods from each other. Whether your
interest is engineering, public service, research or some other occupation, you need a
knowledge of chemistry. Environmentalists who solve problems like chemical
contamination of the environment need some knowledge of chemistry, geology, zoology
and botany. Biologists learn chemistry to understand the processes that go on in living
things. Weightlifters must know the food sources that provide the most chemical energy
in body cells. Archeologists use carbon dating, an important method in determining the
age artifacts. Pharmacists must know the chemistry of the medicine they dispense to the
public. Salesperson should know the composition of the products they sell.

What Is It

LESSON 1. SOME FILIPINO CHEMISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

DR. JULIAN A. BANZON

Biophysical chemist who did the pioneering works on coconut

as a source of chemicals and fuels. He devised the process of
extracting residual coconut oil by chemical means rather than
by physical means.

DR. ALFREDO C. SANTOS

He gained recognition for his researches on natural products. He

did a lot of work on alkaloids from indigenous medicinal plants.

DR. LOURDES J. CRUZ

She has made significant contributions to the biochemistry of

toxic peptides from venom of fish-hunting Conus marine snails.
Her studies led to the biochemical characterization of active
peptides from Conus venom and the development of
conotoxins as biochemical probes.

DR. LUZ OLIVEROS - BELARDO

A pharmaceutical chemist who worked on the chemistry of

natural products and essential oils from most Philippines plants.
Her works resulted in the production of new flavors and herbal
medications.
 DR. BIENVENIDO O. JULIANO

An organic chemist who is concerned with the properties of

starch and protein and other grain constituents in relation to grain
quality of rice.

CLARA Y. LIM-SYLIANCO

An organic chemist with an expertise on mutagens, anti-

mutagens and bio-organic reactions. She has written
numerous scientific articles, books, monographs and related
materials. Some of her books published are used as
textbooks in college chemistry.

DR. SOLITA CAMARA-BESA

A medical doctor by profession, she worked on sodium and

potassium content of Philippine foods and established standards
useful in the preparation of diets. Her analysis of cholesterol gave
the Filipino the idea of the importance of diet especially on fats and
cholesterol.

LESSON 2. SOME FAMOUS FOREIGN CHEMISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

Robert Boyle (1627-1691), an Anglo-Irish scientist, was a

founder of modern chemistry and founding member of the Royal
Society of London. He attacked anciently held scientific theories,
including Aristotle's notion that the universe is made up of the four
elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Instead, Boyle proposed that all
matter is composed of primary particles (which he called "corpuscles")
that combine in different ways and pro-portions to produce different
substances. Boyle's "corpuscular" theory laid the groundwork for
development of a modern atomic theory in the nineteenth century.
Boyle demonstrated through experiments that air is necessary
for fire, breathing, and sound. Experimentation led him to conclude a basic property of
gases, which came to be known as Boyle's law: the volume of a gas at a constant
temperature varies inversely to the pressure applied to the gas. Boyle also proposed a
method to distinguish acids from alkalines.

Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) was an English physicist and

chemist who made fundamental discoveries in a number of scientific
fields, although several of them remained unpublished in his lifetime.
Cavendish did important experimental work in chemistry. He studied air
and gases extensively. Cavendish was among the first scientists to
recognize that hydrogen is a separate element. The experiments he
conducted in 1784-1 785 led Cavendish to the conclusion that water is a
compound of hydrogen and air (oxygen). Joseph Priestley had done the
same experiments but had missed the importance of the water vapor
produced when hydrogen and oxygen ignite. Cavendish also performed
some experiments with carbon dioxide.
 Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) was one of most original
thinkers of the English-speakers world in the 1700's. He discovered
oxygen and about 10 other gases. He discovers basic principles of
photosynthesis and con ducted early experiments in electricity.
Priestley's most famous achievement is his discovery of oxygen in
1774. (Actually, a Swedish chemist, Carl Scheele, discovered oxygen
at about the same time as Priestley. Today, both scientists are given
the credit.) In the early times, oxygen was called "de-phlogisticated
air," that was taken from a current theory back then, later proved false-
the phlogiston theory.

John Dalton (1766-1844) was a highly original English scientist

who studied a wide range of topics in science. Dalton is best known,
however, for his contributions to the atomic theory in of matter. The
atomic theory proposes that all matter is made up of very tiny particles
called atoms. Dalton refined the theory by suggesting that each
chemical element consists of a single type of atom. Although an
amount of the element may contain many, many atoms, they are all
identical in size, shape, and mass. Furthermore, Dalton theorized that
in a chemical compound, the atoms of the different elements always combine in the same
ratio. In a similar vein, Dalton arranged all of the known chemical elements in a table
according to atomic weight (Dalton understood that each element has a unique atomic
weight, since the atoms of each element are unique.) Dalton's table was a very early
version of the periodic table developed in the later 1800's by Dmitri Mendeleev and others.
Dalton also devised a system of chemical symbols to use in formulas.

Sir Humpry Davy (1778-1829), an English chemist, a gifted

theoretical and experimental scientist, who isolated several
chemical elements, discovered certain chemical compounds, and
conducted experiments in electrochemistry. He analyzed the
workings of a voltaic cell and became convinced that it produces
electricity from the chemical combination of two substances having
opposite charges. From this conclusion, he reasoned that electric
current could be used to break down chemical compounds into
basic chemical elements, this process is called electrolysis. His
conclusion was proven correct. Using electrolysis, he isolated the
elements sodium and potassium from their compounds in 1807. In
1808 he isolated the alkaline-earth metals, a group of chemical
elements including calcium, magnesium, barium, and strontium. He also discovered the
element boron. Davy was the first scientist to recognize that diamonds are a form of
carbon.

Jons Jakob Berzelius (1779-1848), Swedish chemist,

considered one of the founders of modern chemistry.
He discovered three chemical elements—cerium, selenium,
and thorium—and was the first to isolate silicon, zirconium, and
titanium. He introduced the term catalyst into chemistry and was the
first to elaborate on the nature and importance of catalysis. He
introduced the present system of chemical notation, in which each
element is represented by one or two letters of the alphabet. In
addition, Berzelius was primarily responsible for the theory of radicals,
which states that a group of atoms, such as the sulphate group, can
act as a single unit through a series of chemical reactions. He developed an elaborate
electrochemical theory that correctly states that chemical compounds are made up of
negatively and positively charged components. All of his theoretical work was supported
by elaborate experimental measurement. His greatest achievement was the
measurement of atomic weights.
 Friedrich Wohler (1800-1882), German educator and
chemist, born in Eschersheim (now part of Frankfurt-on-Main), and
educated at the Universities of Marburg and Heidelberg. A pioneer in
the field of organic chemistry, Wohler is famous for his synthesis of
the organic compound urea. By this contribution he proved, contrary
to scientific thinking of the time, that a product of the living processes
of animals could be made in the laboratory from inorganic materials.
Wohler also conducted important research on uric acid and the oil of
bitter almonds, in collaboration with the German chemist Baron Justus
von Liebig, and isolated the chemical elements aluminum and
beryllium. He discovered calcium carbide and prepared acetylene
from it; he also developed the method for preparing phosphorus that is in common use
today. He wrote a number of textbooks on organic and inorganic chemistry.

Friedrich August Kekule (1829-1896) was a German chemist

who laid the foundations of modern organic chemistry. Organic
chemistry is the field of research and industry that is concerned with
chemical compounds based on carbon. Because of its particular
atomic structure, carbon is able to form a tremendous number and
variety of compounds. Carbon atoms can link with other carbon atoms
as well as with atoms of other elements ( hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
or various combinations of these elements).
Kekule' discovered several important principles of organic
chemistry. First, he realized that the carbon atom is tetravalent; that is, it has four
valences. A valence is the ability of one electron of an atom to combine with free electrons
of other atoms. Thus, carbon has four such free electrons. Kekule' also understood that
the four valences in a carbon atom are spread evenly apart. As a result, the structure of
the carbon atom can be imagined as a tetrahedron (a pyramid with equal sides). This idea
is helpful when examining the structure of organic compounds.

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleyev (1834-1907), Russian

chemist, best known for his development of the periodic table of
the properties of the chemical elements. This table displays a
periodicity (regular pattern) in the elements' properties when
they are arranged according to atomic weight.
Mendeleyev was born in Tobolsk, Siberia. He studied
chemistry at the University of St Petersburg, and in 1859 he was
sent to study at the University of Heidelberg. There he met the
Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro, whose views on atomic
weight influenced his thinking. Mendeleyev returned to St
Petersburg and became Professor of Chemistry at the Technical Institute in 1863. He
became Professor of General Chemistry at the University of St Petersburg in 1866.
Mendeleyev was a renowned teacher, and, because no good textbook in chemistry was
available, he wrote the two-volume Principles of Chemistry (1868-1870), which became
a classic.

Wilhelm Ostwald (1853-1932), German physical chemist and

Nobel laureate, considered one of the founders of modern physical
chemistry. Ostwald is especially known for his contributions to the field
of electrochemistry, including important studies of the electrical
conductivity and electrolytic dissociation of organic acids. He invented a
viscometer that is still used for measuring the viscosity of solutions. In
1900 he discovered a method of preparing nitric acid by oxidizing
ammonia. This method, known as the Ostwald process, was used by
Germany during World War I for manufacturing explosives after the
Allied blockade had cut off the regular German supply of nitrates, and it
is still used.
Ostwald received the 1909 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. His works
include Natural Philosophy (1902; trans. 1910) and Colour Science (1923; trans. 1931).
Also, a famous scientist, his son, Wolfgang Ostwald, is generally regarded as the founder
of colloid chemistry.
 Svante August Arrhenius (1859-1927), Swedish chemist,
who helped lay the foundations of modern chemistry. While still a
student, he studied the conductive properties of electrolytic (charge-
conducting) solutions. In his doctoral thesis he formulated the theory
of electrolytic dissociation. This theory holds that in electrolytic
solutions, the dissolved chemical compounds in the solution are
dissociated into ions, even when there is no current flowing through
the solution. Arrhenius also postulated that the degree of dissociation
increases as the solution becomes more dilute, a hypothesis that later
turned out to be true only for weak electrolytes. His theory was initially
thought to be wrong. Later, however, Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic
dissociation became generally accepted, and eventually became one
of the cornerstones of modern physical chemistry and electrochemistry.
In 1889 Arrhenius also observed that the speed of chemical reactions increases
markedly when the temperature is increased, at a rate proportional to the concentration
of the activated molecules. Arrhenius became Professor of Chemistry at the University of
Stockholm in 1895 and Director of the Nobel Institute of Physical Chemistry in 1905. His
awards and honours include the 1903 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. He wrote works on
physical and biological chemistry, electrochemistry, and astronomy. In astronomy he is
noted for his suggestion that life on Earth originated from living spores driven through
space by the pressure of light.

Fritz Haber (1868-1934), German chemist and Nobel laureate,

best known for his development of an economical method of ammonia
synthesis.
Haber's greatest achievement was his discovery in 1913 of a
process for synthesizing ammonia by the direct combination of nitrogen
and hydrogen (see Nitrogen Fixation). The method was adapted to
commercial use in the 1930s by the German chemist Karl Bosch. The
Haber-Bosch process is used in the manufacture of explosives and in
the production of fertilizers. Haber also made fundamental contributions
to the field of electrochemistry. He was awarded the 1918 Nobel Prize
for Chemistry.

Frederick Soddy (1877-1956), British chemist and Nobel

laureate. Soddy was born in Eastbourne, Sussex, and educated at
Eastbourne College, the University College of Wales, and the University
of Oxford. He was a lecturer in physical chemistry and radioactivity at
the University of Glasgow from 1904 to 1914 and Professor of Chemistry
at Oxford from 1919 to 1936, at which time he retired from academic
life.
With the physicist Ernest Rutherford he began investigating
radioactive transformations of atomic nuclei and eventually developed
a theory of atomic structure. Soddy is particularly known for his
investigations of the origin and nature of isotopes, for which he was
awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. His writings include such
classic scientific works as Radioactivity (1904), Interpretation of the Atom (1932), The
Story of Atomic Energy (1949), and Atomic Transmutation (1953), and works of a political-
economic nature, including Cartesian Economics (1922), and Role of Money (1934).

Otto MeiHahn (1879-1968), a German physical chemist and

Nobel laureate, whose greatest contributions were in the field of
radioactivity. Hahn was born in Frankfurt-on-Main and educated at the
Universities of Marburg and Munich. In 1911 he became a member of
the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry in Berlin and served
as director of the institute from 1928 to 1945, when it was taken into Allied
custody after World War II. In 1918 he discovered, with the Austrian
physicist Lise Meitner, the element protactinium. Hahn, with his co-
workers Meitner and the German chemist Fritz Strassmann, continued
the research started by the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi, in bombarding
uranium with neutrons. In 1938, Hahn and Strassmann, while looking for transuranic
elements in a sample of uranium that had been irradiated with neutrons, found traces of
the element barium. This discovery, announced in 1939, was irrefutable evidence,
confirmed by calculations of the energies involved in the reaction, that the uranium had
undergone fission, splitting into smaller fragments consisting of lighter elements. Hahn
was awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work in nuclear fission.

Percy Lavon Julian (1899-1975), an African American research

chemist, created a long list of useful products, including synthetic forms
of the hormones progesterone, testosterone, and cortisone, as well as
physostigmine, a drug used to treat glaucoma. Julian owned over 100
patents, many for products derived from soybeans. Born in Montgomery,
Alabama, Julian received a B.A. from Depauw University (1920), an M.A.
from Harvard University (1923), and a Ph.D. from the University of
Vienna, Austria (1931). Before and after his graduate studies at the
University of Vienna, Julian held a teaching position at Howard
University. Later, he taught and continued his research at DePauw.
Linus Pauling (1901-1994) was a brilliant American
chemist and political activist who won two Nobel Prizes, one for
chemistry and one for peace. Pauling was the first person since
Marie Curie to win two Nobel Prizes, and the first ever to be the
sole recipient. Pauling received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in
1954 for his research on the chemical bond, the force that gives
atoms the cohesiveness to form molecules-the building blocks of
physical matter. A world-class chemist, Pauling is also credited
with laying the groundwork that led other researchers to uncover
the secrets of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material in
all living things. He narrowly missed getting a third Nobel Prize for this work.

Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910 - 1994), a British

chemist, won the 1964 Nobel Prize in chemistry for
determining the highly complex structure of the vitamin B12
molecule. She also determined the molecular structure of
cholesterol iodide, penicillin, insulin, and other organic
compounds. Such studies are of practical importance in
medicine. For example, expanded knowledge about the B12
molecule has led to better understanding of how the body
uses this substance to build red blood cells. This knowledge
has, in turn, led to successful treatment of a disease called
pernicious anemia. Hodgkin used the technique of X-ray diffraction in her analysis of
organic compound. X- ray diffraction is a valuable tool that has aided chemists in
understanding the molecular structure of many substances, including DNA. This
technique is based on diffraction properties of X rays. When the X rays are focused on a
crystalline substance, the regular, repeating arrangement of molecules in the crystals
diffracts, or bends, the X rays. The pal tern of the X-ray diffraction, which is also regular,
can be studied.

Glenn Theodore Seaborg (1912-1999), an American

chemist, is best known for the discovery plutonium and a series
of transuranium elements-radioactive elements which have
atomic numbers heavier than 92, the atomic number of uranium.
For his work in isolating plutonium. In the Berkeley chemistry
laboratory in 1937, Seaborg and his colleagues began delving into
the atomic structure of matter, isolating dozens of new isotopes
for common elements. An isotope is one of two or more atoms of
a chemical element with the same atomic
number (number of protons in the nucleus), but
a different atomic weight (number of neutrons in the nucleus).

Zewail, Ahmed (1946- ) Egyptian-American scientist won the

Nobel Prize for chemistry today for demonstrating that a rapid laser
technique can observe the motion of atoms in a molecule as they occur
during a chemical reaction.
Practice Exercise 1.1
Filipino and Foreign Chemists and their Contributions

Matching Type. Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter corresponding to your
answer on the space provided before each item.

Column A Column B
_____ 1. Julian A. Banzon A. investigations of the origin and nature of
isotopes
_____ 2. Fritz Haber B. development of the atomic theory in of
matter
_____ 3. Robert Boyle C. written the Skeptical Chymist
_____ 4. Alfredo C. Santos D. discovered oxygen and about 10 other
gases and basic principles of
photosynthesis
_____ 5. Frederick Soddy E. development of an economical method of
ammonia synthesis
_____ 6. John Dalton F. laid the foundations of modern organic
chemistry
_____ 7. Jons Jakob Berzelius G. pioneering works on coconut as a source of
chemicals and fuels
_____ 8. Clara Y. Lim-Sylianco H. discovered cerium, selenium, and thorium
and first to isolate silicon, zirconium, and
titanium
_____ 9. Joseph Priestley I. development of the periodic table of the
properties of the chemical elements
_____ 10. Luz Oliveros-Belardo J. synthesis of the organic compound urea
_____11. Friedrich August K. worked on the chemistry of natural products
Kekule and essential oils from most Philippines
plants
_____ 12. Dmitry I. Mendeleev L. work on alkaloids from indigenous medicinal
plants
_____ 13. Bienvenido O. Juliano M. research on the chemical bond, the force that
gives atoms the cohesiveness
_____ 14. Friedrich Wohler N. an expertise on mutagens, anti-mutagens
and bio-organic reactions
_____ 15. Linus Pauling O. concerned with the properties of starch and
protein and other grain constituents in
relation to grain quality of rice

LESSON 3. MEASUREMENT

A measurement consists of two parts: a number and a unit. A number without a

unit is usually meaningless. If you were told that a person’s weight is 57; the information
would be of very little use.
For a long time, the metric system was the standard of measurement. But in 1960,
a system of units called the International System of Units (SI) was established by the
11th General Conference on Weights and Measures. Derived from the French words
Systeme Internationale, the SI built upon a set of seven metric units called the based
units of SI.
 Table 1.1 SI Base Units
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation

mass kilogram kg
length meter m
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
luminous intensity candela cd
amount of a substance mole Mol

• Mass (m) is a basic property of matter. It is the measure of the amount of matter
it contains. The standard unit of mass is the kilogram, kg. One kilogram (kg) is
the mass of 1 liter (L) of water at 4°C and a pressure of 1 atmosphere (atm). The
mass of an object remains the same even if the position of the object is changed
with reference to the earth’s center. It is measured using the triple beam balance
or the equal arm balance.

• Length (l) is a distance between two distinct points. It is measured by using a

metric ruler. Width (w) is also a length, and height (h), is the vertical distance.
The basic unit is the meter (m).

• Time (t) is the regular interval between two successive points. The standard unit
of time is the second. The second was originally defined in terms of the motion of
the earth, but it was revised and instead compared to vibrations of cesium atoms.

• Temperature (T) is the measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. It is

technically defined as the measure of the average kinetic energy of a body. Kelvin
(K) is used as the basic unit.

The Kelvin scale is the SI temperature scale, and the SI unit of temperature
is the kelvin (K). Zero on the Kelvin scale is the temperature at which all thermal
motion ceases, a temperature referred to as absolute zero. On the Celsius scale,
absolute zero has the value -273.15 °C. The Celsius and Kelvin scales have equal-
sized units—that is, a kelvin is the same size as a degree Celsius. Thus, the Kelvin
and Celsius scales are related according to

Equation 1.1 𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15

The common temperature scale in the United States is the Fahrenheit

scale, which is not generally used in science. Water freezes at 32 °F and boils at
212 °F. The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales are related according to

5 9
Equation 1.2 ℃ = 9 (℉ − 32) 𝑜𝑟 ℉ = 5 (℃) + 32

• Electric current (I) is the measure of the flow of electrons or charges. An ammeter
is used to measure current expressed as Ampere (A).

• Luminous intensity (E) is the amount of illumination received by an object. The

unit of measure used to describe this is candela (cd).

• Amount of substance (n) is the number of moles. The basic unit is the mole or
mol.

All other units of measurements can be derived from these base units. Like metric units,
SI units use prefixes to indicate the size of the unit relative to the standard unit.
 Table 1.2 Common Prefixes Used with SI Units
Scientific
Prefix Symbol Meaning
Notation

exa- E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018

peta- P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera- T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga- G 1,000,000,000 1019
mega- M 1,000,000 106
kilo- k 1,000 103
hecto- h 100 102
deka- da 10 101
deci- d 0.1 10-1
centi- c 0.01 10-2
milli- m 0.001 10-3
micro- µ 0.000 001 10-6
nano- n 0.000 000 001 10-9
pico- p 0.000 000 000 001 10-12
femto- f 0.000 000 000 000 001 10-15
Atto- a 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 10-18

Table 1.3 The Common Metric Units

Length Mass

1 in = 2.54 cm 1 kilogram, kg = 1 000 grams, g

1 cm = 0.394 in 1 gram, g = 1000 milligrams, mg
1 ft = 30.5 cm 1000 kilograms, kg = 1 metric ton
1 m = 39.4 in = 3.28 ft 1 atomic mss unit (u) = 1.660 x 10-27 kg
1 mi = 5280 ft = 1609 m 1 slug = 14.6 kg
1 km = 0.621 mi 1 kg = 0.0685 slug
1 angstrom (Å) = 10 -10 m (1 kg has a weight of 2.21 lb for g =
1 light-year = 9.46 x 1015 m 9.81 m/s2)

Volume Temperature

1 Liter, L = 1000 milliliters, mL °C = 5/9(°F – 32) or

1 Liter, L = 1000 cubic centimeter, cc °C = (°F – 32)/ 1.8
1 liter = 1000 cm3 = 0.0351 ft3 = 61.02 in3 °F = 9/5(°C) +32 or
1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3 = 28.32 liters = 7.477 gallons °F = 1.8(°C) +32
1 gallon = 3.79 liters Kelvin, K = °C + 273

Pressure Energy and Work

1 atm = 1.01 bar = 1-01 x 105 N/m2 1 J = 107 ergs = 0.239 cal
= 14.7 lb/in2 = 760 torr 1 cal = 4.180 J
1 lb/in = 6.90 x 103 N/m2
2 1 ft.lb = 1.356 J
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1.45 x 10-4 lb/in2 1 Btu = 1055 J = 252 cal
1 eV = 1.60 x 10-19 J
1 kWh = 3.60 x 106 J
Power Force
1 W = 1 J/s = 0.738 ft. lb/s
1 hp (U.S.) =550 ft. lb/s = 746 W 1 lb = 4.45 N
1 hp (metric) = 750 W 1 N = 0.225 lb
1 Btu/hr = 0.923 W
 Table 1.4 Some SI and Non-SI Units of Measurement
Quantity SI Unit Non-SI Unit
Length Meter (m) Foot (ft)
Volume Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L)
Mass Kilogram (kg) Pound (lb)
Gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) Pound per cubic inch
Density
Gram per millimeter (g/mL) (lb/in3)
Temperature Kelvin (k) Degrees celcius (℃)
Time Second (s) Hour (h)
Pressure Pascal (Pa) Atmosphere (atm)
Energy Joule (J) Calorie (cal)

Derived Units

The seven fundamental SI units listed in Table 1.1 are used to measure other
properties of matter. The combination of these units is called derived units. A derived
unit is obtained by multiplication or division of one or more of the base units. We begin
with the defining equation for a quantity and, then substitute the appropriate base units.
For example, speed is defined as the ratio of distance traveled to elapsed time. Thus, the
derived SI unit for speed is the SI unit for distance (length), m, divided by the SI unit for
time, s, which gives m/s, read “meters per second.” Two common derived units in
chemistry are those for volume and density.

Volume

The volume of a cube is its length cubed, length3.

Thus, the derived SI unit of volume is the SI unit of length,
m, raised to the third power. The cubic meter, m3, is the
volume of a cube that is 1 m on each edge (Figure 1.1).

Smaller units, such as cubic centimeters, cm3

(sometimes written cc), are frequently used in chemistry.
Another volume unit used in chemistry is the liter (L),
which equals a cubic decimeter, dm3, and is slightly larger
than a quart. (The liter is the first metric unit we have
encountered that is not an SI unit.) There are 1000
milliliters (mL) in a liter, and 1 mL is the same volume as
1 cm3: 1 mL = 1 cm3.

Figure 2. Volume relationships

Using Displacement of Water to Determine Volume

Measuring the volume of an irregular shaped object using geometry is often

difficult and complicated. The easiest way to do this is by using the water displacement
method.

The water displacement method, can be used to accurately find out the volume
of an object of any shape. Basically, it relies on the fact that for all practical purposes,
water is incompressible. So, when an object enters water held in a container, the water
gets displaced to make room for it. The object thus when fully submersed, displaces a
volume of water which is exactly equal to its own volume.

In finding the volume of an object using water displacement, you have to find an
apparatus or an instrument (e.g. graduated cylinder or measuring cup) large enough to
hold the object being measured. Fill it with adequate water, and record the initial
volume or volume (water). Make sure that the object must be fully submerged in the
water, as the water rises after submerging the object, record the final volume or
volume (water + object). Be careful to not put in so much water that the water level will rise
past the apparatus/instrument’s markings when the object is submerged. You can find
the volume of the irregular shaped object by subtracting the initial volume from final
volume:

Equation 1.3 Volume (object) = Volume (water + object) – Volume (water)

3712:50
Sample Exercise 1.1

Density

Density is defined as the amount of mass in a unit volume of a substance:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Equation 1.4 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

The densities of solids and liquids are commonly expressed in either grams per
cubic centimeter (1g/cm3) or grams per milliliter (1g/mL). The densities of some common
substances are listed below (Table 1.5).

Table 1. 5 Densities of Selected Substances at 25℃

Substance Density (g/cm3)
Air 0.001
Balsa wood 0.16
Ethanol 0.79
Water 1.00
Ethylene glycol 1.09
Table sugar 2.16
Table salt 2.16
Iron 7.9
Gold 19.32

It is no coincidence that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL; the gram was originally
defined as the mass of 1 mL of water at a specific temperature. Because most substances
change volume when they are heated or cooled, densities are temperature dependent,
and so temperature should be specified when reporting densities. If no temperature is
reported, we assume 25 °C, close to normal room temperature.

The terms density and weight are sometimes confused. A person who says that
iron weighs more than air generally means that iron has a higher density than air—1 kg
of air has the same mass as 1 kg of iron, but the iron occupies a smaller volume, thereby
giving it a higher density. If we combine two liquids that do not mix, the less dense liquid
will float on the denser liquid.

Sample Exercise 1.2

Practice Exercise 1.2

Finding Density and Volume
(a) Calculate the density of a 374.5-g sample of copper if it has a volume of 41.8 cm3.
(b) A student needs 15.0 g of ethanol for an experiment. If the density of ethanol is 0.789
g/mL, how many milliliters of ethanol are needed?
(c) What is the mass, in grams, of 25.0 mL of mercury (density = 13.6 g/mL)?

LESSON 4. UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

Two kinds of numbers are encountered in scientific work:

• Exact numbers are those whose values are known exactly. For example, there
are exactly 12 eggs in a dozen, exactly 1000 g in a kilogram, and exactly 2.54 cm
in an inch.
Exact numbers can also result from counting objects. For example, we can count
the exact number of marbles in a jar or the exact number of people in a classroom.

• Inexact numbers are those whose values have uncertainty. Numbers obtained by
measurement are always inexact. The equipment used to measure quantities
always has inherent limitations (equipment errors), and there are differences in
how different people make the same measurement (human errors).

Precision and Accuracy

Figure 3. Precision and Accuracy

Source: http://climatica.org.uk/climate-science-information/uncertainty
 The terms precision and accuracy are often used in discussing the uncertainties
of measured values. Precision is a measure how closely individual measurements agree
with one another. Accuracy refers to how closely individual measurements agree with
the correct, or “true” value. The dart analogy in Figure 3 illustrates the difference between
these two concepts.

In the laboratory, we often perform several “trials” of an experiment and average

the results. The precision of the measurements is often expressed in terms of the
standard deviation, which reflects how much the individual measurements differ from the
average. We gain confidence in our measurements if we obtain nearly the same value
each time – that is when the standard deviation is small. But precise measurements can
be inaccurate. For example, if a very sensitive balance is poorly calibrated, the masses
we measure will be consistently either high or low. They will be inaccurate even if they
are precise.

LESSON 5. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

When measurements are combined mathematically, the uncertainty of the

separate measurements must be correctly reflected in the final result. A set of rules exists
for this task, which depend on keeping track of the significant digits, or significant figures,
in each separate measurement.
What are significant figures in a measurement? The certain digits and the
estimated digit of a measurement are together called the significant digits of the
measurement. For example, there are three significant digits in 31.7 milliliters: two certain
digits (the 3 and the 1) plus one estimated digit (the 7).

Determining the Number of Significant Figures

1. All nonzero digits are significant.

2. Zeros between nonzero digits are always significant – 1005 kg (four significant
figures); 7.03 cm (three significant figures).
3. Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant; they merely indicate the
position of the decimal point – 0.02 g (one significant figure); 0.0026 cm (two
significant figures).
4. Zeros at the end of a number that contains a decimal point are always significant
– 0.0200 g (three significant figures); 3.0 cm (two significant figures).

A problem arises when a number ends with zeros but contains no decimal point. In
such cases, it is normally assumed that the zeros are not significant. Exponential notation
can be used to indicate whether end zeros are significant. For example, a mass of 10,
300 g can be written to show three, four, or five significant figures depending on how the
measurement is obtained:
1.03 𝑥 104 𝑔 (𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠)
1.030 𝑥 104 𝑔 (𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠)
4
1.0300 𝑥 10 𝑔 (𝑓𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠)

In these numbers, all the zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant (rules
2 and 4). (The exponential term 104 does not add to the number of significant figures).

Multiplying and Dividing

The rule in multiplication and division is that the final answer should have the same
number of significant figures as there are in the number with the fewest significant
figures.

Example:
14. 36 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 10.12 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 6.02 𝑐𝑚
(4 sig figures) (4 sig figures) (3 sig figures)

= 874. 845 𝑐𝑚3 = 875 𝑐𝑚3 (3 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠)

Adding and Subtracting

In addition and subtraction, the rule is completely different. The number of

significant figures in each number doesn’t matter. The answer is given to the same
number of decimal places as the term with fewest decimal places.

Example:
12.04 + 245.5 + 6.049 = 263.589 = 263. 6
(2 dec places) (1 dec place) (3 deci places) (1 decimal place)

Rounding Off

When we have too many significant figures in our answer, it is necessary to round
off. If the first digit dropped is 5,6,7,8 or 9. We raise the last digit kept to the next number,
otherwise, we do not.

Example: (a) 33.679 = 33.7; (b) 2.4715 = 2.47; (c) 1.1145 = 1.11; (d) 3.52 = 4

LESSON 6. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

In science it is common to work with very large and very small numbers. For
example, a drop of water contains approximately 1,700,000,000,000,000,000,000
molecules (or particles of water). On the other hand, a single E. coli bacterium tact is only
about 0.000 002 meters long. To make numbers such as easier to work with, they can be
written in scientific notation.

When a number is written in scientific notation, it is separated into two parts. The
first part is the coefficient - must be a number greater than or equal to 1 and less than
10. The second part is the exponent or the power of 10.

To write numbers in scientific notation, the proper exponent can be found by

counting how many times the decimal point must be moved to bring it to its final position.
When the decimal point is moved to the right, the exponent is written as a negative
number. When the decimal point is moved to the left, the exponent is written as a
positive number.

Examples: (a) 0.00225 = 2.25 x 10-3; (b) 7070000.0 = 7.07 x 106

Adding and subtracting numbers in scientific notation.

If both have the same exponents, add or subtract the coefficients and leave the
exponent as it is. When it is necessary to add or subtract two numbers that have different
exponents, simply change any of the number to make exponents the same.

Examples:

(a) the same exponent (b) different exponents

2.25 x 105 2.25 x 105 2.25 x 105 2.25 x 105

+ 1.61 x 105 1.61 x 105 + 1.61 x 103 + 0.0161 x 105
3.86 x 105 2.2661 x 105 ≈ 2.27 x 105

In example (b) where the two given has different exponents, you have to choose
which will you change. It is recommended that you change the given value with exponent
that is lesser compare to the other. So, the exponent of the second value is changed from
3 to 5 by moving the decimal point two steps to the left so that we can add +2, to have 5
as an exponent. Then, since the two values has now the same exponents you can now
add both of them. Applying the rule in significant figures on addition, your final answer is
given to the same number of decimal places as the term with fewest decimal places.
Multiplying and dividing numbers in scientific notation.

To multiply numbers in scientific notation, first multiply the coefficients in the usual
way and then algebraically add the exponents.
To divide numbers expressed in exponential notation, the process is reversed.
First divide the coefficients and then algebraically subtract the exponents.

Examples:
(𝑎) (5.0 × 103 ) 𝑥 (2.5 × 10−5 ) = 12.5 × 103+(−5) = 12.5 × 10−2
= 1.25 × 10−1 ≈ 1.3 × 10−1
(𝑏) (5.0 × 103 ) ÷ (2.5 × 10−5 ) = 2.0 × 108

In example (a) after we multiplied the coefficients and added the exponents, we
get the answer 12.5 × 10−2 , but that is not the final answer. As we have learned,
coefficients must be a number greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. Since we have
12.5, we need to move the decimal point one step to the left. As we moved one step to
the left, +1 is added to the exponent, so we have -2 + (+1) = -1, so the new answer is
1.25 × 10−1 . Applying the rule in significant figures on multiplication, the final answer
should have the same number of significant figures as there are in the number with the
fewest significant figures. Thus, the final answer is 1.3 × 10−1 .
As you have observed, rules in significant figures are still applied in scientific
notation and movement of the decimal point, to the left and to the right, is still observed.

Practice Exercise 1.3

Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a Measurement

How many significant figures are in each of the following numbers (assume that each
number is a measured quantity)?

1. 4.003 m 4. 6.023 x 1023 m/s

2. 5000 in 5. 3.549 g
3. 2.3 x 104 cm 6. 0.00134 m3

Practice Exercise 1. 4
Determining the Number of Significant Figures in a Calculated Quantity

1.The width, length and height of a small box are 15.5 cm, 27.3 cm, and 5.4 cm
respectively. Calculate the volume of the box, using the correct number of significant
figures in your answer.

2. It takes 10.5 s for a sprinter to run 100.00 m. Calculate her average speed in meters
per second and express the result to the correct number of significant figures.

Practice Exercise 1.5

Scientific Notation

Write the following numbers in scientific notation or vice versa:

1. 1 005 000 ____________________________

2. 0.000 543 ____________________________
3. 0.000 000 870 ____________________________
4. 5.67 x 10-3 ____________________________
5. 54.56 x 105 ____________________________
LESSON 7. DIMENSIONAL ANAYSIS

Because measured quantities have units associated with them, it is important to

keep track of units as well as numerical values when using the quantities in calculations.
In dimensional analysis, units are multiplied together or divided into each other along with
the numerical values. Equivalent units cancel each other. Using dimensional analysis
helps ensure that solutions to problems yield the proper units. Moreover, it provides a
systematic way of solving many numerical problems and of checking solutions for
possible errors.

Conversion Factors

The key to using dimensional analysis is the correct use of conversion factors to
change one unit into another. A conversion factor is a fraction whose numerator and
denominator are the same quantity expressed in different units. For example, 2.54 cm
and 1 in. are the same length: 2.54 cm = 1 in. This relationship allows us to write two
conversion factors:
2.54 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛.
𝑎𝑛𝑑
1 𝑖𝑛. 2.54 𝑐𝑚

We use the first factor to convert inches to centimeters. For example, the length
in centimeters of an object that is 8.50 in. long is:

Desired Unit
2.54 𝑐𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 = (8.50 𝑖𝑛. ) = 21.6 𝑐𝑚
1 𝑖𝑛.

Given Unit

The unit inches in the denominator of the conversion factor cancels the unit
inches in the given data (8.50 inches), so that the centimeters unit in the numerator of the
conversion factor becomes the unit of the final answer. Because the numerator and
denominator of a conversion factor are equal, multiplying any quantity by a conversion
factor is equivalent to multiplying by the number 1 and so does not change the intrinsic
value of the quantity. The length 8.50 in. is the same as the length 21.6 cm.
In general, we begin any conversion by examining the units of the given data and
the units we desire. We then ask ourselves what conversion factors we have available to
take us from the units of the given quantity to those of the desired one. When we multiply
a quantity by a conversion factor, the units multiply and divide as follows:
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
If the desired units are not obtained in a calculation, an error must have been made
somewhere. Careful inspection of units often reveals the source of the error.

Using Two or More Conversion Factors

It is often necessary to use several conversion factors in solving a problem. As
an example, let’s convert the length of an 8.00-m rod to inches. The table on the back
inside cover does not give the relationship between meters and inches. It does,
however, give the relationship between centimeters and inches (1 in. = 2.54 cm). From
our knowledge of SI prefixes, we know that 1 cm = 10-2 m. Thus, we can convert step by
step, first from meters to centimeters and then from centimeters to inches:
 Given: Find:
Use Use
m cm in.
1𝑐𝑚 1𝑖𝑛.
10−2 𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚

Combining the given quantity (8.00 m) and the two conversion factors, we have
1𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 = (8.00𝑚) ( ) ( ) = 315 𝑖𝑛.
10−2 𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚
The first conversion factor is used to cancel meters and convert the length to
centimeters. Thus, meters are written in the denominator and centimeters in the
numerator. The second conversion factor is used to cancel centimeters and convert the
length to inches, so it has centimeters in the denominator and inches, the desired unit, in
the numerator.
Note that you could have used 100 cm = 1 m as a conversion factor as well in
the second parentheses. As long as you keep track of your given units and cancel them
properly to obtain the desired units, you are likely to be successful in your calculations.
Practice Exercise 1.6
Converting Units

1. If a woman has a mass of 115 lb, what is her mass in grams? (1lb = 453.6g)
2. By using a conversion factor, determine the length in kilometers og a 500.0-mi
automobile race.

Practice Exercise 1.7

Converting Units Using Two or More Conversion Factors

1. The average speed of a nitrogen molecule in air at 25 is 515 m/s. Convert this speed
to miles per hour.
2. A car travels 28 mi per gallon of gasoline. What is the mileage in kilometers per liter?

What’s More

CHEMISTRY ANDTECHOLOGY
Technology is the application of science to improve the quality of human life.
Cellphones, compact discs, a variety of processed food, and the Internet are some of the
products of technology. Technology can bring about even a change in one’s physical
appearance.
Let us consider some of the more recent applications of technology.

Figure 4. The cost of energy generated by

photovoltaic modules. The median price per
watt of electricity generated has dropped by
two-thirds since 1998. The cost figures here
include the cost for fully installed residential
solar panels.
 Solar Energy Steps Up. Given the challenges society faces in trying to mitigate the
effects of climate change, the need for affordable clean energy has never been greater. Given
the massive amount of energy our planet receives from the Sun, solar energy has long been
touted as a technology of the future. The problem for decades has been the relatively high
cost of solar power compared to energy generated from burning fossil fuels. However, in
recent years the cost of solar energy has decreased more rapidly than most people thought
possible, decreasing more than 50% in just the past five years. Not surprisingly, over the last
six years the number of solar panel installations worldwide has increased sixfold. Over the
same period, the number of coal plants operating in the United States has decreased by 38%,
from 523 to 323. China is on track to install plants capable of generating more than 18
gigawatts of solar energy in 2015, nearly equal to the entire solar energy capacity of the
United States.
Furthermore, with the price of solar energy dropping rapidly, there is reason to believe
that developing nations may forgo building fossil fuel power plants and skip straight to green
energy technologies like solar and wind. Recently, chemists have discovered a new class of
materials called halide perovskites that have the potential to bring the cost of solar energy
down even further. Solar cells made with halide perovskites have been shown to be nearly
as efficient as single crystal silicon solar cells, but can be prepared from inexpensive solution
methods that differ from the more costly and energy-intensive methods used to produce
silicon solar cells. There are still many challenges to be overcome before halide perovskite
solar cells are produced commercially, but their future looks very promising.

Chemical Approaches to Art Restoration. Works of art are made from materials
that over time can undergo chemical reactions that alter their appearance or undermine their
mechanical stability. Layers of dirt and pollutants can build up on the surface, discoloring
statues, murals, and paintings. Plasters that serve as the base for frescoes react with gases
in the atmosphere. One approach to art restoration is to use selected chemical reactions to
undo or reverse the effects of detrimental reactions that have occurred over time.
One such example involves murals at the ancient Mayan ruins of Mayapan in Mexico’s
Yucatán peninsula. In the 1960s, polymer coatings were applied to these murals in an
attempt to preserve them, but within a decade it became clear that the polymer coatings were
doing more harm than good. Unfortunately, years of oxidation and cross-linking reactions
had rendered the polymer coatings insoluble to nearly every type of organic solvent. In 2008,
a team of Italian chemists found a way to remove the polymer coatings without damaging the
underlying fresco. They treated the murals with a microemulsion, a special type of mixture
where molecules called surfactants encapsulate and carry nanometer-sized droplets of
organic solvents through an aqueous solution to the surface of the fresco. Once the droplets
reach the surface, they can dissolve and carry away the unwanted polymer coating.
Slowing a Progressive Disease. Proteins are very large molecules that play an
essential role in biology and the functioning of living organisms. Out of the myriad different
types of proteins, scientists have identified one class of proteins called prions that play an
important role in certain neurological diseases. We all have prion proteins in our brains, and
for nearly all of us, they cause no harmful effects. For a small fraction of people, though,
something causes the prions to change form and to adopt an incorrectly folded molecular
shape. This process, once begun, is cumulative, propagating throughout the brain; the
misfolded proteins somehow trigger the same misfolding in other prion proteins. Eventually,
the misfolded proteins aggregate into clusters that can destroy neurons, producing
symptoms such as those seen in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases.
Currently, no therapies have been developed to stop the progression of prion
diseases. However, there are encouraging signs that certain small molecules could disrupt
propagation of the disease. They might be able to do this by blocking the interaction between
one prion protein and another that causes the misfolding to propagate. So far, the
experimental work has involved studies of mice infected with prions. Administration of this
compound more than doubled the life spans of treated mice.
Compounds such as this one is not suitable for use in treating prion disease in
humans, but studies conducted thus far point the way toward discovery of molecules that
might in the future provide effective therapies. This work illustrates the complex and
sometimes effective therapies. This work illustrates the complex and sometimes tortuous
path that takes the scientist from promising beginnings to a much-desired goal.
 What I Have Learned

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Express the following measured quantities in scientific notation and indicate the
number of significant figures.

Measured Quantity Scientific Notation Number of Significant Figures

a) 125 g
b) 0.000584 s
c) 880.95 mm
d) 2009.60 mol
e) 2000 K

2. Express the following scientific notation in their expanded notation and indicate the
number of significant figures.

Measured Quantity Scientific Notation Number of Significant Figures

a) 4.58 𝑥 102 𝑘𝑔
b) 1.2 𝑥 103 𝑐𝑚
c) 2.56 𝑥 104 𝑐𝑚
d) 3.407 𝑥 104 𝑚𝑔
e) 1.9 𝑥 102 𝑔

3. Identify the smaller quantity in each pair of measurements.

a) Millimeter and decimeter ____________________________
b) Megagram and kilogram ____________________________
c) Nanometer and micrometer ____________________________
d) Kiloliter and deciliter ____________________________
e) Microsecond and millisecond ____________________________
4. Adrian and Mark weighed the same sample on two different balances. The result were
as follows:

Balance A Balance B
12.11 g 12.1324 g
12.09 g 12.1322 g
12.10 g 12.1323 g

a) Which balance is more precise? Explain your answer.

b) If the mass of the sample is actually 12.1 g, which balance is more accurate?
5. Give the product of 1210 x 0.75 in correct significant figures.
6. Give the sum of 0.801 + 0.6510 + 25.02 in correct significant figures.
7. Using dimensional analysis, solve this problem:
The speed of light in a vacuum is 2.998 x 108 m/s. Calculate its speed in miles per hour.
 What I Can Do

1. Give a type of job or career that requires knowledge in chemistry. Describe the nature
of the work, educational and training requirements, the employment outlook for the field,
working conditions, and other necessary information.

2. Give at least five breakthroughs in chemistry and state how they are useful to human
lives.
 Assessment

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read carefully each statement. Choose the best option that makes
the statement true. Write only the letter on your answer sheet.
1. What is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes?
A. Physics C. Biology
B. Chemistry D. Earth Science
2. Which is the SI unit of temperature?
A. Degree Celsius C. Kelvin
B. Degree Fahrenheit D. Joule
3. Which is the appropriate metric unit to measure the distance between Pagadian City
and Ozamiz City?
A. Meter C. Decimeter
B. Centimeter D. Kilometer
4. Which has the correct answer?
A. (58 + 18 + 52) ÷ 4.000 = 30 C. 97.2 ÷ (114 − 37) = 1.26
B. (15 + 24) 𝑥 3.00 = 13 D. (1.2 − 0.49) 𝑥 4.2 = 2.83
5. A weatherperson incorrectly reported the temperature to be 35℃ instead of 85⁰F. If
the Fahrenheit temperature was correct, how far off was the Celsius temperature?
A. 8℃ C. 6℃
B. 29℃ D. 31℃
6. Which measurement contains 3 significant figures?
A. 0.015 g C. 1158 g
B. 0.0158 g D. 1580 g
7. To determine the density of an irregularly-shaped solid, a student immersed the
object in 25mL of water in a graduated cylinder causing the level of the water to rise
to 30mL. If the object has a mass of 10g, what was the density of the solid?
A. 0.5 g/mL C. 25 g/mL
B. 2.0 g/mL D. 3.0g/mL
8. Which of the following describes best the concept of accuracy?
A. It is the average value of the data.
B. It is the value different from the average.
C. It is the closest value to the correct value.
D. It is the difference between the correct value and the average value of the data.
9. Which of the following is equivalent to one centimeter?
A. 0.0109 yards C. 1.09 yards
B. 0.30 feet D. 2.54 inches
10. Ellen recently purchased a new hybrid car and wants to check her gas mileage. At an
odometer setting of 651.1 mi, she fills the tank. At 1314.4 mi, she requires 16.1 gal to refill
the tank. Assuming that the tank is filled to the same level both times, how is the gas
mileage best expressed?
A. 40 mi/gal C. 41.2 mi/gal
B. 41 mi/gal D. 41.20 mi/gal
 References

Baguio, Butaran, S., Rose Mary M.,B.,. (2006). Breaking Through Chemistry. C&E
Publishing, Inc.
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