Fiber Bragg Grating

Sensors
Development and Applications
Fiber Bragg Grating
Sensors
Development and Applications

Authored by
Hisham K. Hisham
Taylor & Francis Group
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 Dedication

To my parents,
To my beloved wife and my children.
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgment.................................................................................................... xiii
Author....................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1 General Introduction.............................................................................1

1.1 Fiber Bragg Gratings..................................................................1
1.2 Fundamentals of Bragg Gratings...............................................2
1.2.1 Physical Descriptions....................................................2
1.2.2 Photosensitivity.............................................................3
1.3 Types of Fiber Bragg Gratings...................................................3
1.3.1 Common Bragg Reflector..............................................3
1.3.2 Chirped Bragg Grating.................................................4
1.3.3 Tilted Bragg Grating.....................................................5
1.4 Fabrication of Fiber Bragg Grating............................................ 5
1.4.1 The Bulk Interferometer................................................ 6
1.4.2 The Phase Mask............................................................7
1.4.3 Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings.......................................8
1.4.4 Slanted Grating........................................................... 11
1.5 Summary.................................................................................. 11
References........................................................................................... 11

Chapter 2 Polymer Fiber Bragg Gratings............................................................ 15

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 15
2.2 Properties of Polymer Optical Fiber......................................... 16
2.3 Photosensitivity in Polymer Optical Fiber................................ 16
2.4 Bragg Gratings in Polymer Fibers............................................ 17
2.5 Tuning Characteristics of Fiber Bragg Gratings...................... 18
2.5.1 Photosensitivity in Optical Fiber................................. 18
2.6 Mode Theory for Optical Fibers..............................................20
2.7 Fiber Modes.............................................................................. 22
2.7.1 Optical Fiber Parameters............................................. 22
2.7.1.1 Numerical Aperture (NA)........................... 22
2.7.1.2 V Number.................................................... 23
2.7.1.3 Cutoff Wavelength....................................... 23
2.8 Coupled-Mode Theory for Bragg Gratings.............................. 23
2.9 Modeling of Fiber Bragg Gratings...........................................25
2.10 Summary..................................................................................26
References...........................................................................................26

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 Properties of Fiber Bragg Gratings .................................................... 29

3.1 Reflectivity of Grating Fiber.................................................... 29
3.2 Bandwidth Characteristics........................................................ 33
3.3 Delay and Dispersion Characteristics......................................34
3.4 Temperature Effect...................................................................40
3.5 Summary.................................................................................. 45
References...........................................................................................46

Chapter 4 Sensor Mechanisms in Fiber Bragg Gratings..................................... 47

4.1 Simulation Methods of Fiber Bragg Gratings.......................... 47
4.1.1 Direct Numerical Integration...................................... 47
4.1.2 Transfer Matrix Method.............................................. 47
4.1.3 Discretized Grating Method........................................ 48
4.2 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor...................................................... 49
4.2.1 Temperature Sensitivity............................................... 51
4.2.2 Strain Sensitivity......................................................... 52
4.3 Temperature Dependence of the Strain Sensitivity.................. 54
4.4 Summary.................................................................................. 57
References........................................................................................... 57

Chapter 5 Fiber Optic Sensors for Oil and Gas Applications.............................. 59

5.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 59
5.2 Downhole Monitoring .............................................................60
5.2.1 Reservoir Pressure and Temperature Monitoring.......60
5.2.2 Flow Monitoring......................................................... 61
5.2.3 Seismic Monitoring..................................................... 61
5.2.4 Pipeline Monitoring.................................................... 62
5.2.5 Power Cable and Transformer Monitoring.................. 63
5.2.6 Status Monitoring of Water Mains.............................. 63
5.3 Fiber Optics Sensors for Detection Applications.....................64
5.3.1 Leak Detection............................................................64
5.3.2 Ground Movement Detection......................................64
5.3.3 Fire Detection.............................................................. 65
5.3.4 Pig Position Detection ................................................ 65
5.4 Gas Network Monitoring.......................................................... 65
5.5 Summary..................................................................................66
References...........................................................................................66

Chapter 6 Fiber Optic Sensors for Civil Applications......................................... 69

6.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 69
6.2 Typical Fiber Optic Sensors in Civil Fields.............................. 69
6.2.1 Crack Sensors.............................................................. 69
6.2.2 Strain Sensors.............................................................. 70
Contents ix

6.2.3 Corrosion Sensors....................................................... 71

6.3 Civil Engineering Applications of the Fiber Optic Sensors .......73
6.3.1 Highway Structures..................................................... 73
6.3.1.1 Bridges......................................................... 73
6.3.1.2 Dams............................................................ 75
6.3.2 Buildings..................................................................... 75
6.3.3 Geotechnical Structures.............................................. 76
6.3.4 Historical Buildings.................................................... 76
6.3.5 Pavements.................................................................... 77
6.3.6 Tunnels........................................................................ 78
6.3.7 Embankments and Slopes........................................... 79
6.3.8 Other Applications...................................................... 79
References........................................................................................... 81

Chapter 7 Fiber Optic Sensors for Biomedical Applications............................... 85

7.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 85
7.2 Biomedical Sensors.................................................................. 85
7.3 Biomedical Applications.......................................................... 86
7.3.1 Glucose Sensor............................................................ 86
7.3.2 Laminate Cure Analysis.............................................. 86
7.3.3 Protein Analysis.......................................................... 87
7.3.4 Dosage Form Analysis................................................ 87
7.3.5 Drug Identification...................................................... 87
7.3.6 Determination of DNA Oligomers.............................. 87
7.3.7 Pesticide Detection...................................................... 87
7.3.8 Effluent Monitoring..................................................... 88
7.3.9 Other Applications...................................................... 88
7.4 Summary.................................................................................. 88
References........................................................................................... 89

Chapter 8 Fiber Optic Sensors for Military Applications.................................... 91

8.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 91
8.2 Fiber Optics for Military Applications..................................... 91
8.3 Some Fiber Optics Sensors’ Military Applications..................92
8.3.1 Communications.........................................................92
8.3.2 Weapon Systems.......................................................... 93
8.3.3 Surveillance/Sensors...................................................94
8.3.4 Aboard Vehicles.......................................................... 95
8.4 Summary..................................................................................96
References...........................................................................................97

Chapter 9 Fiber Optic Sensors for Harsh Environment Applications..................99

9.1 Introduction..............................................................................99
9.2 Grating Types for Harsh Environmental Sensing....................99
x Contents

9.2.1 Type I Gratings............................................................99

9.2.2 Type II Gratings........................................................ 100
9.2.3 Type In (Formerly Type IIA).................................... 100
9.2.4 Chemical Composition/Regenerated Gratings.......... 100
9.2.5 Femtosecond Pulse Duration Infrared
Laser‑Induced Gratings............................................. 101
9.3 Harsh Environmental Sensing Applications of FBGs............ 101
9.3.1 High Temperature...................................................... 101
9.3.2 High Radiation.......................................................... 103
9.3.3 Multi-Parameter Sensing in Harsh Environments....... 103
9.3.4 High-Pressure Sensing.............................................. 104
9.3.5 High-Pressure Hydrogen Detection.......................... 104
9.3.6 High Reliability FBGs for High-Strain
Measurements............................................................ 105
9.4 Summary................................................................................ 105
References......................................................................................... 106

Chapter 10 Other Applications............................................................................ 111

10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 111
10.2 Ship Cargo Handling Systems................................................ 111
10.2.1 Longitudinal/Transversal Ship Hull Strength
Monitoring................................................................. 112
10.2.2 Measuring the Mass Loaded or Discharged Cargo......113
10.2.3 Liquid Level Readings in Different Tanks................ 113
10.2.4 Monitoring Temperature/Humidity in a
Ship’s Cargo.............................................................. 114
10.2.5 Load Forces and Strain Effects ................................ 114
10.3 Fiber Optic Sensing for Satellite Communications................ 115
10.4 Summary................................................................................ 115
References......................................................................................... 116

Index....................................................................................................................... 117
Preface
Sensing technologies based on optical fiber have many inherent advantages that
make it an important and attractive option for a wide range of industrial sensing
applications. Many have been published in recent years, including a number of
papers and books. However, given the importance of this advanced and growing
technology in various fields, it is clear that there was need for a more comprehensive
book of various industrial applications. The tremendous development of this technol-
ogy in various fields made the timing of this book extremely important, raising the
challenge. However, the efforts made to collect many research and studies in this
field have made us believe that this is applicable and enabled us to create a great
multi-faceted idea and present it fully. Therefore, our goal was to provide a compre-
hensive and up-to-date overview of the subject, which is the basis for building future
works. As part of this ideal we have included more than 400 references. This work
is primarily suitable for the researcher or academic in the field of optical sensing
technology; however, its independent form is generally suited to engineers or gradu-
ate students and requires only basic knowledge of light properties and fiber Bragg
gratings (FBGs) structure.
The book begins with a brief introduction to fiber Bragg gratings, followed by the
detailed explanation of physical description, photosensitivity, types, and manufac-
turing techniques.
Chapter 2 provides a detailed explanation to the polymer optical fiber (POF).
A  brief comparison between silica optical fiber (SOF) and polymer optical fiber
Bragg gratings is made. The polymer properties, photosensitivity, and grating’s
manufacturing are dealt with Chapter 2. The tuning characteristics of fiber grating
and a brief summary for theory that describes the propagation characteristics of light
waves in optical fibers are described in Chapter 2. The relatively simple fiber modes,
optical parameters, coupled-mode theory, and modeling of fiber Bragg grating is
also described in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 is interested in discussing the basic details of Bragg grating properties
(i.e. reflectivity, bandwidth, delay time, and dispersion) of both silica and polymer
fibers. It also provides essential details regarding the temperature-induced wave-
length shift properties. Chapter 4 informs the reader of the most important sensor
mechanisms in fiber Bragg gratings, gratings simulation methods and developments,
while also providing essential details for the treatment of temperature dependence of
the strain sensitivity theory.
Chapter 5 details the basics of fiber optic sensors in the field of oil and gas appli-
cations; the essentials of optical fibers for downhole power transmission and data
measuring remotely; and the distributed sensor for temperature (DTS), the acous-
tics (DAS) and the strain (DSS) measurements; the downhole monitoring (i.e. res-
ervoir pressure and temperature monitoring, flow monitoring, seismic monitoring,
pipeline monitoring, power cable and transformer monitoring, status monitoring of
water mains). It also provides essential details regarding the fiber optic sensors for

xi
xii Preface

detection applications (i.e. leak detection, ground movement detection, fire detec-
tion, pig position detection) and the principles of gas network monitoring.
Chapter 6 explores fiber optic sensors in civil applications, an area where Bragg
gratings have had a tremendous impact. The applications include those related to
infrastructure sensors (i.e. crack, strain, corrosion). Also, this chapter provides
information about the optical sensor application to highway structures (bridges,
dams, buildings), geotechnical structures, historical buildings, pavements, tunnels,
embankments, slopes, and other applications.
An increasingly important field is fiber optic sensors, and an expansive treat-
ment of Bragg grating for biomedical applications is provided in Chapter 7. Essential
information about the basic biomedical instrumentation system and the application
fields of biomedical sensors (i.e. glucose sensor, laminate cure analysis, protein anal-
ysis, dosage form analysis, drug identification, determination of DNA oligomers,
pesticide detection, effluent monitoring) and others are provided.
Chapter 8 discusses the use of optical fiber in one of the most important and
sensitive areas of the sensor, the field of military applications. The chapter provides
information about the benefits of the use of fiber optic technology in military com-
munications systems and sensor fields in various military applications (i.e. commu-
nications, weapon systems, surveillance, aboard vehicles) and others.
Chapter 9 discusses the applications of fiber optic sensors in the field of harsh
environments, the types of optical fibers that are suitable for harsh conditions, how
to use it in the field of sensing, and how the measured data are transmitted. It also
provides very important information about the most important harsh environmental
sensing parameters (i.e. temperature, radiation, pressure, hydrogen detection, high
strain measurements) and others.
Chapter 10 highlights the use of fiber optic sensors in other important industrial
applications, for example, a ship’s cargo handling system, longitudinal/transver-
sal ship’s hull strength monitoring, measuring the mass of cargo loaded or dis-
charged, liquid level readings in different tanks, monitoring temperature/humidity
in a ship’s cargo, load forces and strain effects, and fiber optic sensing for satellite
communications.
Acknowledgment
We are grateful to the following for permission to produce copyright materials:
Figures 1.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9 from Applications of fiber
optic sensors in civil engineering, Struct. Eng. Mech. 25(5), 577–596, 2007.
In some instances, we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material,
and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.
I would like to express my great gratitude for the many comments and to the bril-
liant suggestions which were made by the dedicated reviewers who encouraged and
stimulated improvements to the text.
I would also like to thank the authors of the many journals, conference papers,
articles, theses, and books that have been relied on, as well as the references, publish-
ers, and scientific institutions that have granted us permission to use drawings and
pictures.
I am also very grateful to my family and to my friends who have shown their con-
tinued support and great interest over a long period of work on the book, and here I
must mention my dear friend Dr. Ghafour Amouzad Mahdiraji.
Finally, I would like to thank Marc Gutierrez, for his patience, constant support,
and dedication, which enabled me to complete this mission, and to all those who
helped me to make this a success.

Hisham K. Hisham

xiii
Author
Hisham K. Hisham obtained his Ph.D degree from the Centre of Excellence for
Wireless and Photonic Networks (CEWPN), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM),
Malaysia in 2012. His Ph.D. work on fiber laser design produced a patent.
He has authored and coauthored several technical papers, which include journal
articles and conference proceedings. His research interests are in optical communi-
cations, fiber lasers, devices, and sensors.

xv
 1 General Introduction

1.1 FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

The discovery of photosensitivity in optical fibers [1] has had major role in the devel-
opment of telecommunication and sensor systems technologies, the effect being used
to develop devices for many applications. The construction of a fiber Bragg grating
(FBG) is usually based on the photosensitivity property of silica fiber doped with
germanium. Photosensitivity means that exposure of ultraviolet (UV) light results
in a rise in the refractive index of certain doped glasses. Therefore, when exposed
to a UV radiation, the fiber exhibits a permanent change in the refractive index of
the core, which depends on the pattern and the properties of the UV exposure beam
[2, 3].
When a side of fiber is exposed to a UV radiation by the interference of two inter-
secting beams, a FBG is fabricated with a user-defined central wavelength indepen-
dent of the wavelength of the writing beam. This UV exposure of the fiber will write
a regular form of a periodicity half the required Bragg wavelength into the fiber core
over lengths in the range of millimeters to centimeters. This flexibility in the fabri-
cation of FBGs allows Bragg wavelengths to change from the visible region to well
beyond the telecommunications wavelength of 1550 nm to be written [2].
When the optical fiber refractive index is changed, the light that is transmitted
through the fiber will be reflected back to the source; thereby, based on this property,
FBGs serve as a wavelength-selective device within the optical fiber. Because of this
selectivity, a narrow band of the incident field within the optical fiber is reflected by
successive, coherent scattering from the index variations, transmitting the rest. This
operation is shown in Figure 1.1. Due to fiber refractive index sensitivity, therefore,
any change in the induced grating period will lead to a shift in the reflected and
transmitted wavelength spectra. This property makes FBGs useful as tuning mecha-
nisms [2, 3].
In recent years, FBGs have been a growing interest due to their ability in design
for wide wavelength-selective range; therefore, they can be used in a variety of appli-
cations. For telecommunications, probably the most promising applications have
been dispersion compensation and wavelength-selective devices such as filters for
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) [4–8].
FBGs have also become popular as sensing devices, ranging from structural mon-
itoring to chemical sensing [9–12]. Any change in the fiber properties, such as strain
or temperature, changes the fiber index or grating pitch, which leads to changing the
Bragg wavelength [13–18]. Therefore, by determining the peak reflectivity wave-
length of the grating, we will get information about the sensing parameters. Another
important application of fiber gratings is to use them as wavelength reflectors for
fiber lasers [15, 18–20].

1
2 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

FIGURE 1.1  Fiber Bragg gratings as a wavelength-selective element within the optical
fiber [37].

1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF BRAGG GRATINGS

1.2.1 Physical Descriptions
A Bragg grating formed by UV exposure without physical trenches is referred to as
a bulk index grating, and a Bragg grating formed by physical deformation is referred
to as a surface relief grating. Bragg gratings can be found in widely photonic compo-
nents and systems, including distributed feedback laser diodes (DFB-LDs), distrib-
uted Bragg reflector laser diodes (DBR-LDs) and can be formed in optical fibers, as
well as in planar waveguides [21]. Two of the most popular forms of Bragg gratings
are shows in Figure 1.2 and 1.3; a fiber Bragg grating, i.e. a Bragg grating formed in
a fiber, and a planar Bragg grating (PBG), i.e. a Bragg grating in a planar waveguide.
An FBG is usually a bulk index grating, while both surface relief and bulk indexing
are used to create a polymer Bragg grating [22–25].

Optical fiber
Grating
Incident Core Transmitted
Wave Wave
Cladding
Reflected
Wave

FIGURE 1.2  Fiber Bragg grating structure [37].

General Introduction 3

g
din
d
cla
g
tin
Gra
gg

at e
Bra

str
Sub
Core Waveguide

FIGURE 1.3  Planar Bragg grating structure.

1.2.2 Photosensitivity
Photosensitivity in optical fiber usually refers to the permanent change in the refrac-
tive index of the optical fiber core that is induced by exposure to highly UV light
radiation [2]. Photosensitivity is a nonlinear effect, which can be seen as a growth in
intensity of the light that is reflected from an optical fiber after the fiber was exposed
to intense laser radiation. The discovery of this effect led to a revolutionary spread of
the fiber Bragg grating structure. Widespread studies of this effect on an optical fiber
have allowed an absolute control of the characteristics of the refractive index gratings.
There are several techniques for improving the optical fiber photosensitivity;
some of these include: increased concentration of germanium doping, heat treating,
boron co-doping, hydrogen loading, thermal-induced refractive index change, dop-
ing Ge Si fiber with boron and tin and hot hydrogenation, cold hydrogenation under
high pressure [2].

1.3 TYPES OF FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS

There are several different kinds of FBG structures: the common Bragg grating
reflector, the chirped Bragg grating, and the tilted Bragg grating [2, 3]. These FBGs
are characterized either through the grating pitch or tilt.

1.3.1 Common Bragg Reflector

For a common Bragg reflector, the grating period (Λ) remains constant throughout
the grating length and the reflection is the strongest at the Bragg wavelength λ B . The
Bragg resonant wavelength is a function of Λ and the mode effective reflection index
4 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

FIGURE 1.4  Schematic diagram of a common Bragg reflector.

(neff) [2]. Thus, the light at the Bragg wavelengthλ B propagated in the fiber undergoes
reflection and the rest of the light is transmitted through the grating unimpeded. The
spectral characteristics depend on the grating parameters, such as the amplitude of
the refractive modulations, grating length, the coupling strength, and the overlap
integral of the forward- and backward-propagating modes. A typical reflection spec-
trum of a uniform FBG is shown in Figure 1.4 [2].
Bragg grating reflectors are considered to be excellent temperature and strain
sensing elements [26–28] because the measurements are an encoded wavelength.
Due to this, the problems of intensity fluctuations that exist in many other types of
fiber-based sensor systems are eliminated [2].
Because each Bragg grating reflector can be designated its own wavelength-
encoded signature, a series of gratings can be written in the same fiber, each having
a distinct Bragg resonance signal. Moreover, Bragg grating reflector has also proven
to be a very useful element in tunable semiconductor laser [29–31], serving as one or
both ends of the laser cavity, depending on the laser configuration. By changing the
Bragg reflected feedback signal, the grating tunes the laser wavelength.

1.3.2 Chirped Bragg Grating

The refractive index profile of the grating can be modified to add other features,
such as a linear, quadratic, or jump variation in the grating period. Therefore, the
gratings have a non-uniform period along their length; this form is called a chirp,
as shown in Figure 1.5. In a chirped FBG, the Bragg condition varies as a function
of position along the grating. This is achieved by ensuring that the periodicity, Λ,
varies as a function of position, or that the effective mode index, neff, varies as a func-
tion of position along the FBG, or through a combination of both. In this case, the
reflected wavelength changes with the grating period, which results in a broadening
in the reflected spectrum. A grating possessing a chirp has the property of adding
dispersion, in which different wavelengths reflected from the grating will be subject
to different delays [2, 3].
Chirped gratings have many important applications. Particularly, linearly chirped
grating has found a special place in optics, such as a dispersion-correcting and com-
pensating device [32, 33]. This application has also triggered the fabrication of
General Introduction 5

Gratings with
different Length Λ1 Λn

Incident Fiber Core

Transmitted
Wave Reflected Wave
Wave
Cladding

Grating Length

FIGURE 1.5  Chirped Bragg grating.

ultra-long, broad-bandwidth gratings of high quality, for high-bit-rate transmission

[34] and in WDM transmission [35]. Some of the other applications include chirped
pulse amplification [23], chirp compensation of gain-switched semiconductor lasers
[27], sensing [26–29], higher-order fiber dispersion compensation [35], amplifier
gain flattening [3], and band-pass filters [2].

1.3.3 Tilted Bragg Grating

In standard FBG, the gratings or the variations of the fiber core effective refractive
index is along the length of the optical fiber axis and is typically uniform across the
width of the fiber core. In contrast, in a tilted FBG, the variation of the fiber core
effective refractive index is at an angle to the optical axis, as shown in Figure 1.6.
The angle of tilt in tilted FBG has an effect on the reflected wavelength and band-
width; the grating planes tilt and index modulation strength determine the coupling
efficiency and the bandwidth of the light that is tapped out [2, 3].
The condition to satisfy the Bragg criteria of a tilted grating is similar to that of
the uniform Bragg reflector [2]. Tilted Bragg grating has important applications in
communication systems, such as flattening the gain spectrum of the erbium-doped
fiber amplifier and mode conversion [3].

1.4 FABRICATION OF FIBER BRAGG GRATING

Fiber Bragg gratings are fabricated by techniques that are widely divided into two
groups: holographic and non-interferometer, which are based on simple exposure to

Tilted Bragg Gratings

Incident Fiber Core
Transmitted
Wave Wave
Cladding

FIGURE 1.6  Tilted fiber Bragg grating structure.

6 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

UV radiation periodically along a piece of fiber [2, 3]. The previous techniques used
a beam splitter to divide a single input UV beam into two, interfering them at the
fiber; the latter depend on periodic exposure of a fiber to pulsed sources or through a
spatially periodic amplitude mask.

1.4.1 The Bulk Interferometer

The bulk interferometer method is one classified as a standard holography, with the
UV beam divided into two at a beam splitter and then collected together at a mutual
angle of θ, by reflections from two UV mirrors as shown in Figure 1.7 [3]. This
method allows the Bragg wavelength to be chosen independently of the UV wave-
length as [3]

neff λ uv
λB = (1.1)
nuvsin ( θ / 2 )
where nnv is the refractive index of silica in the UV, λ uv is the wavelength of the
writing radiation, and θ is the mutual angle of the UV beams. This method was
originally successfully used to write gratings at visible wavelengths [2, 3].
The interferometer is ideal for single-pulse writing of short gratings, and extreme
care should be taken in the design of the optical mounts. Mechanical vibrations and
the inherently long path lengths in air can cause the quality of the overlap to change
over a period of time, limiting its application to short exposures. For low-coherence
sources, the path difference between the two interfering beams must be equalized; a
simple method is to introduce a mirror blank in one arm to compensate for the path
imbalance imposed by the beam splitter, as shown in Figure 1.7 [3, 4].

Mirror 1
Li nt
V e

t
gh
U ncid
I

Optical fiber

Mirror 2
gs
in
at
Gr

FIGURE 1.7  UV interferometer for writing Bragg gratings in optical fibers.

General Introduction 7

1.4.2 The Phase Mask

The phase mask method represents a major step toward easier fiber gratings fabrica-
tion, which is made possible by the application of it as a component of the interfer-
ometer. A phase mask is a relief grating etched in a silica plate [2, 3]. The significant
characteristics of the phase mask are the grooves etched into a UV-transmitting sil-
ica mask plate, with a carefully controlled mark–space ratio as well as etch depth [3].
The principle of operation is based on the diffraction of an incident UV beam into
several orders, m = 0, ±1, ±2. ... This is shown schematically in Figure 1.8. The inci-
dent and diffracted orders satisfy the general diffraction equation, with the period
Λ pm of the phase-mask given as [3, 4]

mλ uv
Λ pm = (1.2)
sin (θ m 2 ) − sin θi
where θ m 2 is the angle of the diffracted order, l uv the wavelength, and θi the angle
of the incident UV beam. In the cases when the period of the grating lies between l uv
and l uv 2 , the incident wave is diffracted into only a single order (m = −1) with the
rest of the power remaining in the transmitted wave (m = 0) [3].
When the UV beam radiation is incident at θi = 0, the diffracted radiation is split
into m = 0 and m = ±1 orders, as shown in Figure 1.9.
The interference pattern at the fiber of two such beams of orders ± 1 brought
together by parallel mirrors has a period Λ g related to the diffraction angle θ m 2
by [3, 4]

λ uv Λ
Λg = = pm (1.3)
2 sin (θ m 2 ) 2
The depth (d) of the etched fiber sections of the grating is a function of the UV beam
wavelength, but the period is dependent only on the Bragg wavelength and the effec-
tive index of the mode. However, in the case of UV writing of gratings, it is neces-
sary to ensure that the intensity of the transmitted zero-order beam is minimized
and, ideally, blocked from arriving at the fiber [3, 4].

Incident UV Light

Mask

Optical Fiber

Negative 1 Order
Zero Order
Bragg Gratings

FIGURE 1.8  Schematic of the diffraction of an incident beam from a phase mask.
8 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

Incident UV Light

Mask

Optical Fiber

Negative 1 Order
Positive 1 Order
Bragg Gratings

Zero Order

FIGURE 1.9  Normally incident UV beam diffracted into two ±1 orders.

1.4.3 Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings

Chirped FBGs require a variation of the grating period Λ or a variation of the fiber
effective refractive index neff along the length of the grating. Period chirped FBGs
can be fabricated by bending the fiber with respect to the interferogram, as shown in
Figure 1.10 [2], where the projection of the interference pattern onto the curved fiber
creates a variation in the period. Bending the fiber creates a functional dependence
of the grating period upon the radius of curvature, so that a linear or a quadratic
chirp may be created.
Another technique for fabricating chirped FBGs is more flexible; it is capable of
producing Bragg reflection with wide bandwidth, exploits the interference of beams
with dissimilar wavefronts as shown in Figure 1.11 [4].
By introducing lenses of different focal length into the paths of the two beams
in the holographic arrangement, the wavefront curvatures will differ at the fiber [2].

UV light

Optical fiber

Gratings

FIGURE 1.10  Writing a linearly chirped FBG by bending the optical fiber.
General Introduction 9

Splitter

UV light
Lens

Mirror Mirror

Optical fiber

Gratings

FIGURE 1.11  Using lens of different focus for writing chirped FBGs.

When the two beams are brought together to interfere, the resulting interferogram
will no longer have constant period; the period varies as a function of distance along
the axis of the fiber. Phase masks with constant period can also be used to fabricate
chirped FBGs, as is shown in Figure 1.11 [2, 3]. By placing the fiber parallel to a
constant period phase mask, a constant period is embossed into the core of the fiber.
If the fiber is tilted, the period embossed is a function of the incident angle [2, 4]. The
angle of incident of the collimated UV beam can be changed by the introduction of
a lens, as shown in Figure 1.12 [4]. In this technique, a periodicity varying with grat-
ing length is produced and the inscribed chirp is determined based upon the mask’s
period, the inclined angle α, and lens characteristics.
The well-known phase mask technique is the simplest and easiest to use; however,
it suffers from a lack of tunability of the Bragg wavelength when compared to the
holographic method [2]. In addition to the common Bragg reflector, phase masks can
be used to inscribe a continuously chirped period FBG [2, 3]. The chirp phase mask
consists of a continuously varying mask period, as is shown in Figure 1.13 [2]. In this
case, the writing process requires the fiber to be in close proximity to the phase mask
but does not require that the fiber is tilted.

UV light

Lens
Mask

Optical fiber

gratings

FIGURE 1.12  Using uniform phase mask to write a linear chirp FBG.
10 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

Incident UV Light

Mask

Optical Fiber

Negative 1 Order
Positive 1 Order
Chirp Bragg Gratings

Zero Order

FIGURE 1.13  Using a chirped phase mask for writing a chirped FBG.

Previous sections have shown that a chirp period can be produced by making the
effective refractive index vary periodically along the FBG. Furthermore, chirped
FBGs can also be produced by making the effective refractive index of the propaga-
tion mode vary along the FBG [2, 3, 4, 27]. This can be realized by changing the
guiding properties along the grating length, such as varying the diameter of the clad-
ding of the fiber to a taper. This tapered fiber can be produced by differential etching
by using a timed chemical etching method as shown in Figure 1.14. The taper can
be produced by etching chemical technique [2, 3, 27] or by extending the fiber [36].
When a uniform periodic effective refractive mode index is writing in the fiber core
of the tapered section, the chirped FBG can be created.

Incident UV light

Fiber with different

cross sectional area

FIGURE 1.14  Using a tapered fiber to create a chirped FBG.

General Introduction 11

Incident UV light

Mask

Mirror Mirror

Fiber

FIGURE 1.15  Method for writing slanted gratings.

1.4.4 Slanted Grating
If the fiber is tilted out of the plane of Figure 1.9, the grating inscribed in the fiber
will be slanted in the direction of propagation of the mode [2, 3]. This, however,
requires the interfering beams to have a large cross-sectional area so that the beams
may overlap. However, this is inconvenient for most interferometers, since the cylin-
drical lens focuses the beams in the plane of the figure, unless the unfocused beam
intensity is already high. An alternative and simple method for inscribing slanted
gratings is to tilt the fiber in the plane of the figure, as shown in Figure 1.15 [3]. In
this case, the coherence properties of the laser will determine the visibility of the
fringes at the fiber. Since the fiber is at an angle to the incoming beams, the inscrip-
tion of the grating depends on the overlap of the two beams [3].

1.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter, a brief review on the photosensitivity in optic fiber and an overview
of the fundamental theory of fiber Bragg gratings and their development has been
presented. The chapter also provided a review of the FBG types and the mechanisms
for their fabrications.

REFERENCES
1. Hill, K.O., Fujii, Y., Johnson, D.C., and Kawasaki, B.S. Photosensitivity in optical
fiber waveguides: Application to reflection filter fabrication. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1978, 32,
647–649.
2. Othonos, A., and Kalli, K. Fiber Bragg Gratings-Fundamentals and Applications in
Telecommunications and Sensing, Artech House, Boston, MA, 1999.
3. Kashyap, R. Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press, 2009.
4. Romero, R., Frazão, O., Marques, P.V.S., and Salgado, H.M. Ring chirped fibre Bragg
grating for dynamic dispersion compensation. Opt. Commun. 2004, 242, 417–423.
5. Liu, H.Y., Liu, H.B., Peng, G.D., and Chu, P.L. Observation of type I and type II grat-
ings behavior in polymer optical fiber. Opt. Commun. 2003, 220, 337–343.
6. Lin, D., Wang, L., and He, J.-J. Rate equation analysis of high speed Q-modulated
semiconductor laser. J. Lightwave Technol. 2010, 28, 3128–3135.
12 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

7. Moon, D.S., Sun, G., Lin, A., Liu, X., and Chung, Y. Tunable dual-wavelength fiber laser
based on a single fiber Bragg grating in a Sagnac loop interferometer. Opt. Commun.
2008, 281, 2513–2516.
8. Honzatko, P. All-optical wavelength converter based on fiber cross-phase modulation
and fiber Bragg grating. Opt. Commun. 2010, 283, 1744–1749.
9. Biswas, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Kesavan, K., Parivallal, S., Sundaram, B.A., Ravisankar,
K., and Dasgupta, K. Investigation on packages of fiber Bragg grating for use as embed-
dable strain sensor in concrete structure. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 2010, 157, 77–83.
10. Li, H., Ou, J., and Zhou, Z. Applications of optical fibre Bragg gratings sensing tech-
nology-based smart stay cables. Opt. Lasers Eng. 2009, 47, 1077–1084.
11. Payo, I., Feliu, V., and Cortázar, O.D. Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensor system for
highly flexible single-link robots. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 2009, 150, 24–39.
12. Nevers, D., Zhao, J., Sobolev, K., and Hanson, G. Investigation of strain-sensing materi-
als based on EM surface wave propagation for steel bridge health monitoring. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 3024–3029.
13. Cheng, W.H., Chiu, S.F., Hong, C.Y., and Chang, H.W. Spectral characteristics for a
fiber grating external cavity laser. Opt. Quant. Electron. 2000, 32, 339–348.
14. Suhara, T. Semiconductor Laser Fundamentals, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, 2004.
15. Timofeev, F.N., Simin, G.S., Shatalov, M., Gurevich, S., Bayvel, P., Wyatt, R., Lealman,
I., and Kashyap, R. Experimental and theoretical study of high temperature-stability
and low-chirp 1.55 µm semiconductor laser with an external fiber grating. Fiber Integr.
Opt. 2000, 19, 327–353.
16. Wu, Z.M., Xia, G.Q., Deng, T., and He, Y.P. A theoretical model used to analyze the
output characteristics of fiber grating external cavity semiconductor lasers. Optik 2009,
120, 136–140.
17. Zhou, H., Xia, G., Fan, Y., Deng, T., and Wu, Z. Output characteristics of weak-cou-
pling fiber grating external cavity semiconductor laser. Opto-Electron. Rev. 2005, 13,
27–30.
18. Xia, G., wu, Z., and Zhou, H. Influence of external cavity length on lasing wavelength
variation of fiber grating semiconductor laser with ambient temperature. Optik 2003,
114, 247–250.
19. Liu, Q., Ye, Q., Pan, Z., Luo, A., Cai, H., Qu, R., and Fang, Z. Synthesis of fiber Bragg
grating for gain-narrowing compensation in high-power Nd: Glass chirped pulse
amplification system. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2011, 17, 185–190.
20. Ugale, S.P., and Mishra, V. Modeling and characterization of fiber Bragg grating for
maximum reflectivity. Optik 2011, 122, 1990–1993.
21. Ming, M., and Liu, K. Principle and Applications of Optical Communication, McGraw-
Hill, New York, NY, 1996.
22. Park, S.-J., Lee, C.-J., Jeong, K.-T., Park, H.-J., Ahn, J.-G., and Song, K.-H. Fiber-to-
the-home services based on wavelength-division-multiplexing passive optical network.
J. Lightwave Technol. 2004, 22, 2581–2591.
23. Vázquez-Sánchez, R.A., Kuzin, E.A., García-Lara, C.M., May-Alarcón, M., Camas-
Anzueto, J.L., Righini, G.C., and Miridonov, S.V. Radio-frequency interrogation of a
fiber Bragg grating sensor in the configuration of a fiber laser with external cavities.
Optik 2010, 121, 2040–2043.
24. Yeh, C.H., and Chi, S. Utilizations of fiber Bragg gratings and Fabry–Perot lasers for
fast wavelength switching technique. Opt. Commun. 2005, 256, 73–77.
25. Lee, J.-R., Chong, S.Y., Yun, C.-Y., and Yoon, D.-J. A lasing wavelength stabilized
simultaneous multipoint acoustic sensing system using pressure-coupled fiber Bragg
gratings. Opt. Lasers Eng. 2011, 49, 110–120.
General Introduction 13

26. Yang, D.X., Yu, J.M., and Tao, X.M.Structural and mechanical properties of polymeric
optical fiber. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2004, A364, 256–259.
27. Hill, K.O., and Meltz, G. Fiber Bragg grating technology fundamentals and overview.
J. Lightwave Technol. 1997, 15, 1263–1276.
28. Han, J.-M., Baik, S.-J., Jeong, J.-Y., Im, K., Moon, H.-M., Noh, H.-R., and Choi, D.-S.
Output characteristics of a simple FP-LD/FBG module. Opt. Laser Technol. 2007, 39,
313–316.
29. Liaw, S.-K., Hung, K.-L., Lin, Y.-T., Chiang, C.-C., and Shin, C.-S. C-band continu-
ously tunable lasers using tunable fiber Bragg gratings. Opt. Laser Technol. 2007, 39,
1214–1217.
30. Yang, J., Tjin, S.C,, and Ngo, N.Q. Wideband tunable linear-cavity fiber laser source
using strain-induced chirped fiber Bragg grating. Opt. Laser Technol. 2004, 36,
561–565.
31. Khijwania, S.K., Goh, C.S., Set, S.Y., and Kikuchi, K. A novel tunable dispersion
slope compensator based on nonlinearly thermally chirped fiber Bragg grating. Opt.
Commun. 2003, 227, 107–113.
32. Baskar, S., Suganthan, P.N., Ngo, N.Q., Alphones, A., and Zheng, R.T. Design of tri-
angular FBG filter for sensor applications using covariance matrix adapted evolution
algorithm. Opt. Commun. 2006, 260, 716–722.
33. Zhao, Y., and Zhou, C. Fast characterization of low-reflectance Bragg gratings in a
polarization maintaining fiber using a reference grating. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2011, 17,
242–246.
34. Liang, S., Tjin, S.C., Ngo, N.Q., Zhang, C., and Li, L. Novel tunable fiber-optic edge
filter based on modulating the chirp rate of a π-phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating in
transmission. Opt. Commun. 2009, 282, 1363–1369.
35. Tan, Z., Yong, C., Liu, Y., Zhi, T., Jihong, C., Tigang, N., Kai, Z., Ting, C., and Jian, S.
Cross-phase modulation in long-haul systems with chirped fiber Bragg gratings-based
dispersion compensators. Optik 2007, 118, 216–220.
36. Mora, J., Villatoro, J., Díez, A., Cruz, J.L., and Andrés, M.V. Tuneable chirp in Bragg
gratings written in tapered core fibers. Opt. Commun. 2002, 210, 51–55.
37. Deng, L., and Cai, C.S. Applications of fiber optic sensors in civil engineering. Struct.
Eng. Mech. 2007, 25(5), 577–596.
References
CHAPTER 1
1. Hill, K.O., Fujii, Y., Johnson, D.C., and Kawasaki, B.S. Photosensitivity in optical
fiber waveguides: Application to reflection filter fabrication. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1978, 32,
647–649.
2. Othonos, A., and Kalli, K. Fiber Bragg Gratings-Fundamentals and Applications in
Telecommunications and Sensing, Artech House, Boston, MA, 1999.
3. Kashyap, R. Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press, 2009.
4. Romero, R., Frazão, O., Marques, P.V.S., and Salgado, H.M. Ring chirped fibre Bragg
grating for dynamic dispersion compensation. Opt. Commun. 2004, 242, 417–423.
5. Liu, H.Y., Liu, H.B., Peng, G.D., and Chu, P.L. Observation of type I and type II grat-
ings behavior in polymer optical fiber. Opt. Commun. 2003, 220, 337–343.
6. Lin, D., Wang, L., and He, J.-J. Rate equation analysis of high speed Q-modulated
semiconductor laser. J. Lightwave Technol. 2010, 28, 3128–3135.
7. Moon, D.S., Sun, G., Lin, A., Liu, X., and Chung, Y. Tunable dual-wavelength fiber laser
based on a single fiber Bragg grating in a Sagnac loop interferometer. Opt. Commun.
2008, 281, 2513–2516.
8. Honzatko, P. All-optical wavelength converter based on fiber cross-phase modulation
and fiber Bragg grating. Opt. Commun. 2010, 283, 1744–1749.
9. Biswas, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Kesavan, K., Parivallal, S., Sundaram, B.A., Ravisankar,
K., and Dasgupta, K. Investigation on packages of fiber Bragg grating for use as embed-
dable strain sensor in concrete structure. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 2010, 157, 77–83.
10. Li, H., Ou, J., and Zhou, Z. Applications of optical fibre Bragg gratings sensing tech-
nology-based smart stay cables. Opt. Lasers Eng. 2009, 47, 1077–1084.
11. Payo, I., Feliu, V., and Cortázar, O.D. Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensor system for
highly flexible single-link robots. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 2009, 150, 24–39.
12. Nevers, D., Zhao, J., Sobolev, K., and Hanson, G. Investigation of strain-sensing materi-
als based on EM surface wave propagation for steel bridge health monitoring. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 3024–3029.
13. Cheng, W.H., Chiu, S.F., Hong, C.Y., and Chang, H.W. Spectral characteristics for a
fiber grating external cavity laser. Opt. Quant. Electron. 2000, 32, 339–348.
14. Suhara, T. Semiconductor Laser Fundamentals, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, 2004.
15. Timofeev, F.N., Simin, G.S., Shatalov, M., Gurevich, S., Bayvel, P., Wyatt, R., Lealman,
I., and Kashyap, R. Experimental and theoretical study of high temperature-stability
and low-chirp 1.55 µm semiconductor laser with an external fiber grating. Fiber Integr.
Opt. 2000, 19, 327–353.
16. Wu, Z.M., Xia, G.Q., Deng, T., and He, Y.P. A theoretical model used to analyze the
output characteristics of fiber grating external cavity semiconductor lasers. Optik 2009,
120, 136–140.
17. Zhou, H., Xia, G., Fan, Y., Deng, T., and Wu, Z. Output characteristics of weak-cou-
pling fiber grating external cavity semiconductor laser. Opto-Electron. Rev. 2005, 13,
27–30.
18. Xia, G., wu, Z., and Zhou, H. Influence of external cavity length on lasing wavelength
variation of fiber grating semiconductor laser with ambient temperature. Optik 2003,
114, 247–250.

15
16 References

19. Liu, Q., Ye, Q., Pan, Z., Luo, A., Cai, H., Qu, R., and Fang, Z. Synthesis of fiber Bragg
grating for gain-narrowing compensation in high-power Nd: Glass chirped pulse
amplification system. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2011, 17, 185–190.
20. Ugale, S.P., and Mishra, V. Modeling and characterization of fiber Bragg grating for
maximum reflectivity. Optik 2011, 122, 1990–1993.
21. Ming, M., and Liu, K. Principle and Applications of Optical Communication, McGraw-
Hill, New York, NY, 1996.
22. Park, S.-J., Lee, C.-J., Jeong, K.-T., Park, H.-J., Ahn, J.-G., and Song, K.-H. Fiber-to-
the-home services based on wavelength-division-multiplexing passive optical network.
J. Lightwave Technol. 2004, 22, 2581–2591.
23. Vázquez-Sánchez, R.A., Kuzin, E.A., García-Lara, C.M., May-Alarcón, M., Camas-
Anzueto, J.L., Righini, G.C., and Miridonov, S.V. Radio-frequency interrogation of a
fiber Bragg grating sensor in the configuration of a fiber laser with external cavities.
Optik 2010, 121, 2040–2043.
24. Yeh, C.H., and Chi, S. Utilizations of fiber Bragg gratings and Fabry–Perot lasers for
fast wavelength switching technique. Opt. Commun. 2005, 256, 73–77.
25. Lee, J.-R., Chong, S.Y., Yun, C.-Y., and Yoon, D.-J. A lasing wavelength stabilized
simultaneous multipoint acoustic sensing system using pressure-coupled fiber Bragg
gratings. Opt. Lasers Eng. 2011, 49, 110–120.
26. Yang, D.X., Yu, J.M., and Tao, X.M.Structural and mechanical properties of polymeric
optical fiber. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2004, A364, 256–259.
27. Hill, K.O., and Meltz, G. Fiber Bragg grating technology fundamentals and overview.
J. Lightwave Technol. 1997, 15, 1263–1276.
28. Han, J.-M., Baik, S.-J., Jeong, J.-Y., Im, K., Moon, H.-M., Noh, H.-R., and Choi, D.-S.
Output characteristics of a simple FP-LD/FBG module. Opt. Laser Technol. 2007, 39,
313–316.
29. Liaw, S.-K., Hung, K.-L., Lin, Y.-T., Chiang, C.-C., and Shin, C.-S. C-band continu-
ously tunable lasers using tunable fiber Bragg gratings. Opt. Laser Technol. 2007, 39,
1214–1217.
30. Yang, J., Tjin, S.C,, and Ngo, N.Q. Wideband tunable linear-cavity fiber laser source
using strain-induced chirped fiber Bragg grating. Opt. Laser Technol. 2004, 36,
561–565.
31. Khijwania, S.K., Goh, C.S., Set, S.Y., and Kikuchi, K. A novel tunable dispersion
slope compensator based on nonlinearly thermally chirped fiber Bragg grating. Opt.
Commun. 2003, 227, 107–113.
32. Baskar, S., Suganthan, P.N., Ngo, N.Q., Alphones, A., and Zheng, R.T. Design of tri-
angular FBG filter for sensor applications using covariance matrix adapted evolution
algorithm. Opt. Commun. 2006, 260, 716–722.
33. Zhao, Y., and Zhou, C. Fast characterization of low-reflectance Bragg gratings in a
polarization maintaining fiber using a reference grating. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2011, 17,
242–246.
34. Liang, S., Tjin, S.C., Ngo, N.Q., Zhang, C., and Li, L. Novel tunable fiber-optic edge
filter based on modulating the chirp rate of a π-phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating in
transmission. Opt. Commun. 2009, 282, 1363–1369.
35. Tan, Z., Yong, C., Liu, Y., Zhi, T., Jihong, C., Tigang, N., Kai, Z., Ting, C., and Jian, S.
Cross-phase modulation in long-haul systems with chirped fiber Bragg gratings-based
dispersion compensators. Optik 2007, 118, 216–220.
36. Mora, J., Villatoro, J., Díez, A., Cruz, J.L., and Andrés, M.V. Tuneable chirp in Bragg
gratings written in tapered core fibers. Opt. Commun. 2002, 210, 51–55.
37. Deng, L., and Cai, C.S. Applications of fiber optic sensors in civil engineering. Struct.
Eng. Mech. 2007, 25(5), 577–596.
References 17

CHAPTER 2
1. Park, S.-J., Lee, C.-J., Jeong, K.-T., Park, H.-J., Ahn, J.-G., and Song, K.-H. Fiber-to-
the-home services based on wavelength-division-multiplexing passive optical network.
J. Lightwave Technol. 2004, 22, 2581–2591.
2. Hisham, H.K., Polymer Optical Fiber Bragg Gratings Technology: Spectral Response
and Tuning Characteristics, Lambert Academic Publishing, 2016.
3. Han, J.-M., Baik, S.-J., Jeong, J.-Y., Im, K., Moon, H.-M., Noh, H.-R., and Choi, D.-S.
Output characteristics of a simple FP-LD/FBG module. Opt. Laser Technol. 2007, 39,
313–316.
4. Mora, J., Villatoro, J., Díez, A., Cruz, J.L., and Andrés, M.V. Tuneable chirp in Bragg
gratings written in tapered core fibers. Opt. Commun. 2002, 210, 51–55.
5. Lin, D., Wang, L., and He, J.-J. Rate equation analysis of high speed Q-modulated
semiconductor laser. J. Lightwave Technol. 2010, 28, 3128–3135.
6. Liu, Q., Ye, Q., Pan, Z., Luo, A., Cai, H., Qu, R., and Fang, Z. Synthesis of fiber Bragg
grating for gain-narrowing compensation in high-power Nd: Glass chirped pulse
amplification system. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2011, 17, 185–190.
7. Li, H., Ou, J., and Zhou, Z. Applications of optical fibre Bragg gratings sensing tech-
nology-based smart stay cables. Opt. Lasers Eng. 2009, 47, 1077–1084.
8. Timofeev, F.N., Simin, G.S., Shatalov, M., Gurevich, S., Bayvel, P., Wyatt, R., Lealman,
I., and Kashyap, R. Experimental and theoretical study of high temperature-stability
and low-chirp 1.55 µm semiconductor laser with an external fiber grating. Fiber Integr.
Opt. 2000, 19, 327–353.
9. Yeh, C.H., and Chi, S. Utilizations of fiber Bragg gratings and Fabry–Perot lasers for
fast wavelength switching technique. Opt. Commun. 2005, 256, 73–77.
10. Yang, D.X., Yu, J.M., and Tao, X.M. Structural and mechanical properties of polymeric
optical fiber. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2004, A364, 256–259.
11. Hill, K.O., and Meltz, G. Fiber Bragg grating technology fundamentals and overview.
J. Lightwave Technol. 1997, 15, 1263–1276.
12. Hisham, H.K. Bandwidth characteristics of FBG sensors for oil and gas applications.
Am. J. Sensor Technol. 2017, 4, 30–34.
13. Moon, D.S., Sun, G., Lin, A., Liu, X., and Chung, Y. Tunable dual-wavelength fiber laser
based on a single fiber Bragg grating in a Sagnac loop interferometer. Opt. Commun.
2008, 281, 2513–2516.
14. Suhara, T. Semiconductor Laser Fundamentals, Marcel Dekker, New York, 2004.
15. Kuzyk, M.G. Polymer Optical Fiber: Materials, Physics, and Applications, Taylor &
Francis Group, 2007.
16. Zhao, Y., and Zhou, C. Fast characterization of low-reflectance Bragg gratings in a
polarization maintaining fiber using a reference grating. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2011, 17,
242–246.
17. Tan, Z., Yong, C., Liu, Y., Zhi, T., Jihong, C., Tigang, N., Kai, Z., Ting, C., and Jian, S.
Cross-phase modulation in long-haul systems with chirped fiber Bragg gratings-based
dispersion compensators. Optik 2007, 118, 216–220.
18. Ugale, S.P., and Mishra, V. Modeling and characterization of fiber Bragg grating for
maximum reflectivity. Optik 2011, 122, 1990–1993.
19. Othonos, A., and Kalli, K. Fiber Bragg Gratings-Fundamentals and Applications in
Telecommunications and Sensing, Artech House, Boston, 1999.
20. Hisham, H.K. Numerical analysis of thermal dependence of the spectral response of
polymer optical fiber Bragg grating. Iraq J. Electr. Electron. Eng. (IJEEE) 2016, 12.
21. Liu, H.Y., Liu, H.B., Peng, G.D., and Chu, P.L. Observation of type I and type II grat-
ings behavior in polymer optical fiber. Opt. Commun. 2003, 220, 337–343.
18 References

22. Honzatko, P. All-optical wavelength converter based on fiber cross-phase modulation

and fiber Bragg grating. Opt. Commun. 2010, 283, 1744–1749.
23. Biswas, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Kesavan, K., Parivallal, S., Sundaram, B.A., Ravisankar,
K., and Dasgupta, K. Investigation on packages of fiber Bragg grating for use as embed-
dable strain sensor in concrete structure. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 2010, 157, 77–83.
24. Payo, I., Feliu, V., and Cortázar, O.D. Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensor system for
highly flexible single-link robots. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 2009, 150, 24–39.
25. Nevers, D., Zhao, J., Sobolev, K., and Hanson, G. Investigation of strain-sensing materi-
als based on EM surface wave propagation for steel bridge health monitoring. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 3024–3029.
26. Liu, M.M.-K. Principles and Applications of Optical Communications, Richard D.
Iriwn Inc, Homewood, IL, 1996.
27. Senior, J.M. Optical Fiber Communications Principles and Practice, 3rd British
Library, 2009.

CHAPTER 3
1. Othonos, A., and Kalli, K. Fiber Bragg Gratings: Fundamentals and Applications in
Telecommunications and Sensing, Artech House, Norwood, MA, 1999.
2. Hisham, H.K. Bandwidth characteristics of FBG sensors for oil and gas applications.
Am. J. Sensor Technol. 2017, 4 (1), 30–34.
3. Hisham, H.K. Numerical analysis of thermal dependence of the spectral response of
polymer optical fiber Bragg gratings. Iraq J. Electr. Electron. Eng. 2016, 12 (1), 85–95.
4. Hisham, H.K. Low dispersion performance of plastic fiber grating using genetic algo-
rithms. Al-Nahrain J. Eng. Sci. In Press, 21 (1).
5. Kuzyk, M.G. Polymer Optical Fiber: Materials, Physics, and Applications, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2007.
6. Hisham, H.K. Effect of temperature variations on strain response of polymer Bragg
grating optical fibers. Iraq J. Electr. Electron. Eng. 2017, 13, 53–58.
7. Hisham, H.K. Design methodology for reducing RIN level in DFB lasers. Iraq J. Electr.
Electron. Eng. 2016, 12, 207–213.
8. Hisham, H.K. Turn_on time reduction in VCSELs by optimizing laser parameters. Iraq
J. Electr. Electron. Eng. 2016, 12.

CHAPTER 4
1. Othonos, A., and Kalli, K. Fiber Bragg Gratings: Fundamentals and Applications in
Telecommunications and Sensing, Artech House, Boston, MA, 1999.
2. Kashyap, R. Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press, New York, NY, 2009.
3. Hill, K.O., and Meltz, G. Fiber Bragg grating technology fundamentals and overview.
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