CT) Cog CTT Second Edition AN INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Beit breve Grammar and Semantics Pushpinder Syal ¢ D.V. JindalCHAPTER2 What is Linguistics? 2.1. DEFINITION Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The word ‘language’ here means language in general, not a particular language. If we were concerned with studying an individual language, we would say “I'm studying French... or English,” or whichever language we happen to be studying. But linguistics does not study an individual language, it studies ‘language’ in general. According to Robins (1985), linguistics is concerned with human language as a universal and recognizable part of the human behaviour and of the human faculties perhaps one of the most essential to human life as we know it, and one of the most far-reaching of human capabilities in relation to the whole span of mankind's achievements. Does this not sound a little abstract? It is, because there is no way of studying ‘language’ without referring to and taking examples from particular languages. However, even while doing so, the emphasis of linguistics is different. Linguistics does not emphasise practical knowledge or mastery of a particular language. Linguists may know only one language, or may know several, or may even study a language they do not know at all. They try to study the ways in which language is organised to fulfil human needs, as a system of communication. There is a difference between a person who knows many languages (called a polyglot), and a linguist, who studies general principles of language organisation and language behaviour, often with reference to some actual language or languages. Any language can be taken up to illustrate the principles of language organisation, because all languages reveal something of the nature of language in general. (Of course, it may be of help to a linguist to know more languages so that differences and contrasts as well as similarities between the languages can also be studied in a better way.) ‘We can say that linguistics is learning about language rather than learning language. This distinction is often explained as the difference between learning how a car works and learning how to drive a car. When we learn how to drive a car, we learn a set of habits and do some practice—this is similar to learning how to speak a language. When we learn how the car works, we open up its mechanism, Study it and investigate the relationship of its parts to one another. This is similar 1344 An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammar and Semantics to what we do in a scientific study of language, OF linguistics: we investigate the mechanism of language, its parts, and how all these parts fit together to perform particular functions, and why they are arranged or organised in a certain manner. Just as while driving a car we are using its various components, while ‘speaking a language we are using the sounds, words, etc. of that language; behind these uses is the mechanism which enables us to do so. We study language because it is important for us to understand this mechanism. ; Every language is a system; sO it does not matter which language we take up to illustrate the working of ‘language’ in human life. In earlier times, the study of language was considered to be the study of the grammar of some presti or classical language such as Latin, Sanskrit, or Greek. Today we consider all languages as fit objects of language study. 2.2 LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE Linguistics can be understood as a science, in both general and specific terms. Generally, we use the term ‘science’ for any knowledge that is based on clear, systematic and rational understanding. Thus we often speak of the ‘science of politics’ or statecraft, or ‘the science of cooking’. However, we also use the term “science’ for the systematic study of phenomena, enabling us to state some principles or theories regarding the phenomena. This study proceeds by examination of publicly verifiable data obtained through observation of phenomena, and experimentation; in other words, it is empirical and objective. Science must also provide explanation after adequate observation of data, which should be consistent, Pe there should be no contradiction between different parts of the explanation or statement; and economical, i.e. a precise and non-redundant statement is to be preferred. Let us apply these criteria of science to linguistics. Linguistics studies language: language is a phenomenon which is both objective and variable. Like natural phenomena in the physical world, like organisms in the living world, it has a concrete shape and occurrence. In the same way as a physicist or chemist takes materials and measures their weights, densities etc. to determine their nature, and in the same way as a biologist takes a specimen of some form of life and examines it under a microscope, the linguist studies the components of language, ¢.8. observing the occurrence of speech-sounds, or the way in which words begin or end. Language, like other phenomena; is objective because it is observable with the senses, i.e., it can be heard-with the ear, it can be seen when the vocal organs are in movement, or when reading words on a page. ‘Observation leads to processes of classification and definition. In science, ‘each observable phenomenon is to be given a precise explanation. Its nature has to be described completely. Thus, for example, the chemist classifies elements into metals and non-metals; a biologist classifies living beings into plants and animals; further classifications are then made according to the characteristics of Re objects belonging to a particular class, sub class, etc. Similarly, linguistics piers Cs pete of language, classifies these features as being sound features epee types, or words belonging to particular classes on the basis of similarity or difference with other sounds and words.What is Linguistics? 15 But while linguistics shares some of the characteristics of empirical science, it is also a social science because it studies language which is a form of social behaviour and exists in interaction between human beings in society. Language is also linked to human mental Processes. For these reasons, it cannot be treated always as objective phenomena, In empirical sciences, the methods of observation and experimentation are known as inductive procedures. This means that phenomena are observed and data collected without any preconceived idea or theory, and after the data are Studied, some theory is formulated. This has been the main tradition in the history of western science. But there is also the opposite tradition—the tradition of rationalism—which holds that the mind forms certain concepts or ideas beforehand in terms of which it interprets the data of observation and experience. According tradition, the deductive procedure is employed in which we have a Preliminary hypothesis or theory in our minds. We try to prove this hypothesis by applying it to the data. This procedure was considered to be unscientific according to the empirical scientists because they felt that pre-existent ideas can influence the kind of data we obtain, i.e. we search only for those pieces of data that fit our theory and disregard others and, therefore, it is not an objective method. On the other hand, it has been observed by some thinkers (such as Karl Popper) that no observation can be free of some theory; it cannot be totally neutral. We can, however, reconcile these two procedures. There are aspects of language which we can observe quite easily and which offer concrete instances of objective and verifiable data. At the same time, we need to create a tentative or working hypothesis to explain this data, which we may accept, reject or modify as we Proceed further. With such an open attitude, we may collect more data This alternation of inductive and deductive Procedures may help us to arrive at explanations which meet all the requirements of science, they are exhaustive, consistent and concise. Thus, linguistics is both an empirical science and a social science. In fact, it is a human discipline since it is concerned with human language; so it is part of the study of humanities as well. This includes the study of literature, and appreciation of the beauty and music of poetry. In understanding language, humankind can understand itself. Moreover, since every branch of knowledge uses language, linguistics is central to all areas of knowledge. The traditional distinctions of science, art and human are not relevant for linguistic: Lyons puts it, linguistics has natural links with a wide range of academic disciplines. To say that linguistics is a science is not to deny that, by virtue of its subject matter, it is closely related to such eminently human disciplines as philosophy and literary criticism (Lyons, 1981, p. 45). 2.3 SCOPE OF LINGUISTICS Linguistics today is a subject of study, independent of other disciplines. Before the twentieth century, the study of language was not regarded as a separate area of study in its own right. It was considered to be a part of studying the history of language or the philosophy of language, and this was known not as linguistics16 An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammar and Semantics but as philosophy. So, ‘Linguistics’ is a moder name which defines a specific discipline, in which we study language not in relation to some other area such as history or philosophy, but language as itself, as a self-enclosed and autonomous system, worthy of study in its own right. It was necessary at the beginning of the growth of modern linguistics to define this autonomy of the subject; otherwise, it would not have been possible to study the language system with the depth and exhaustiveness which it requires. However, now we acknowledge that while Iso linked to other disciplines and there linguistics is a distinct area of study, it is al are overlapping areas of concern. The main concern of modern linguistics is to describe language, to study its nature, and to establish a theory of language. That is, it aims at studying the components of the language system and to ultimately arrive at an explanatory statement on how the system works. In modern linguistics, the activity of describing the language system is most important, and so modern linguistics is generally known as descriptive. But linguistics has other concerns as well, which fall within its scope, and these include historical and comparative study of language. These differ from the descriptive approach in their emphasis; otherwise, these approaches also involve description of language. They are discussed in detail below. 2.31 Descriptive, Comparative and Historical Linguistics From Robins (1985, p. 3), we have the definition: Descriptive linguistics is concemed with the description and analysis of the ways in which a language operates and is used by a given set of speakers at a given time. ‘This time may be the present or the past at a given time, the language is described irrespective of what preceded it or may follow it. Descriptive linguistics is emphasized in modern linguistics as it is the fundamental aspect of the study of language. It contrasts with prescriptive linguistics of earlier times, because it deals with description of how language actually works, rather than how it should be; in itself rather than in relation to other languages: In descriptive linguistics, we describe the language systematically at all levels, i.e. phonology, grammar and semantics. We analyse and describe the structure of the language. Modern descriptive linguistics is based on a structural approach to language, as exemplified in the work of Bloomfield and others (sce Chapter 4). With regard to historical linguistics, Robins (1985, p. 5) explains: Historical linguistics is the study of the developments in languages in the course of time, the ways in which languages change from period to period and of the causes and results of such changes... it must be based on a description of two or more stages in the development of the language being studied. __ The terms synchronic and diachronic given by Saussure (1916) are used (© distinguish between the description of a stage of a language at a given time and the description of changes that take place in language during the passage of time.What is Linguistics? 17 A synchronic description is non-historical, a diachronic description traces the historical development of a language (Lyons, 1981, p. 219). If we study the changes that have taken place in English from Old English to Middle English and to Modern English, it is a diachronic (or historical) study. If we study the structure of English as it exists today and describe it without reference - to how it was used in the past, it is synchronic study (Also see Chapter 3 for explanation of this distinction). Comparative linguistics is concerned with comparing two or more languages. When the history of these languages is compared with a view to discovering the historical relation between these languages, it is known as comparative historical study (or philosophy). This kind of study was dominant in the 19th century. An example is the work of Sir William Jones in India {also see Section 3.1). As modem languages are held to have descended from ancient languages, historical comparative linguistics describes this Process of evolution and development as well as the similarities in the process of this language change. The comparative and historical methods are based on discovering relationships between languages. A language (say, L) from which other languages have developed is called a proto-language, or a parent language. Languages that develop from it (cg. Ly, Lz) are in a sense later stages of this proto-language, and these languages Li, La, ... are sister languages. All these taken together form a language family, ¢.g, an earlier language, called Proto-Indo-European, was the parent language, from which languages such as Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and German, developed. A simplified chart illustrating this is shown in Fig. 2.1. Proto-Indo-European (some of its branches) Germanic ltalic Greek Slavic Indo-Iranian | acre ne nN English Latin Russian Indic Iranian German I Czech, and | | Dutch French so on Sanskrit Persian Spanish Hindi Pashto, Portugese Gujarati, and others Italian, and and others others Fig. 2.1 Language family. This proto-language is not something that exists now; it is reconstructed by historical linguists on the basis of written records, coins, inscriptions, and so on. A proto-language can never be reconstructed completely, and it is a complex and laborious task to trace the similarities between languages that enable the reconstruction of the proto-language. However, historical and comparative linguists make lists of words from different languages and compare the sound similarities and the occurrence of sounds in particular position in these words. That is, these18 An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammer and Semantics espondences and build cognates. A cognate is a wory to other words which together form a set of cognates age. For example, there is a set of words: linguists look for sound corr which is related genetically descended from a proto-langu: frater (Latin) brother (English) bhrata (Sanskrit) These are cognates belonging to a set relating to a word which may have existed in Proto-Indo-European. In each cognate there is some sound similarity that shows that there is a genetic link; however, there is also a sound change which indicates that each belongs to different languages. In this way, the comparative linguist attempts to construct cognate sets and attempts to reconstruct proto-forms so as to give an account of the changes that have occurred in the development of languages. Though historical linguistics and comparative linguistics study the laws operating in language change and in the formation and development of languages, this can only be done by describing the related languages. Hence this type of study is related to descriptive linguistics. Also, descriptive linguistics takes account of language change -when it studies two or more varieties of a language that exist at a particul time. When two or more descriptions of language are contrasted (e.g. Tamil and Hindi), it is known as contrastive linguistics. This is based on synchronic description of the languages, ile. it is not historical. ‘The distinction between descriptive (synchronic) and historical (diachronic) linguistics is made by means of a diagram, given in Chapter 3, where the distinction is also explained in detail. To sum up: Modem linguistics is mainly descriptive because it attempts to describe fully and accurately the structure of a language as it exists at a given time. It is @ synchronic study of language. It describes systems in a language at all levels of structure: The phonological level or system of sounds, the morphological level or system of word formation, the syntactic level, or level of sentence formation, and the semantic system or level of meaning. This is discussed in detail in Section 24. 2.4 LEVELS OF LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS In studying language which is the subject-matter of linguistics, we mark or sub- divide the area in order to study it in an analytical and systematic way. Languas® has a hierarchical structure. This means that it is made up of units which a themselves made up of smaller units which are made of still smaller units till we have the smallest indivisible unit, i.¢. a single distinguishable sound, called a phoneme. Or we can put it the other way round, and say that single sounds or phonemes combine together to make larger units of sounds. These combine into a larg meaningful unit called a morpheme; morphemes combine to form larger units 0! fom a ad combine to form a large unit or sentence; and several sentences r interconnect to make a unified piece of 5 iting, which we cal! a text or discourse. At each stage (or evel, there ae eee banc whichWhat is Linguistics? 19 permit the occurrence and combination of smaller units, So we can say that rules of phonology determine the occurrence and combination of particular phonemes, rules of word-formation cover the behaviour of particular morphemes; rules of senienca. formation determine the combination and Positioning of words in a sentence. Each level is a system in its own right, It is important to remember that, because of the existence of rules at each level, we can analyse each level independently of the other. This means that if we study one level, €.8. phonology or the sound-system, we need not necessarily study another level, Say that of sentence-formation. We can study phonology on its own, and syntax on its own. Although these levels are linked in that one is lower in the hierarchy and another is higher in the hierarchy, and the higher level includes the lower, still each level is independent because it has its own rules of operation that can be described, analysed and understood. We can represent these levels in the following manner, with each level of analysis corresponding to each level of the structure of the language: Levels of Analysis Levels of Structure Phonetics and Phonology Sounds Morphology Word Formation Syntax Sentence Formation Semantics Meanings Discourse Connected Sentences A careful look at the above representation will show that the levels of language structure are not completely separate from one another. In fact, there are important and vital linkages between the levels. In earlier studies, it was supposed that phonology, the level of sound structure, had no link whatsoever with semantics or the level of meaning structure. Now we know that links between these levels are far more complex than we had earlier thought of. With regard to discourse, we can see that it is made up of all the levels of language working together, while semantics incorporates analysis of meaning at the level of both words (word- meaning) and of sentence-meaning. However, we can study these links only after we describe and analyse structure at each level separately. Thus Phonetics studies language at the level of sounds: How sounds are articulated by the human speech mechanism and received by the auditory mechanism, how sounds can be distinguished and characterised by the manner in which they are produced. Phonology studies the combination of sounds into organised units of speech, the formation of syllables and larger units. It describes the sound system of a particular language and the combination and distribution of sounds which occur in that language. Classification is made on the basis of the concept of the phoneme, i.e. a distinctive, contrasted sound unit, e.g. Itv/, /9/, /p/. These distinct sounds enter into combination with others. The rules of combination are different for different languages. Though phonology is considered to be the surface or superficial level of language (since it is concrete and not abstract as in the case of meaning), there are some aspects of it such as tone which contribute to the meaning of an utterance,20 An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammar and Semantics Morphology studies the patterns of formation of words by the combinatio of sounds into minimal distinctive units of meaning called morphemes. A morpheme cannot be broken up because if it is, it will no longer make sense, ¢.g. a morphene ‘pat’ is made up of three sounds: Tol [zi and /v. This combination makes up the single morpheme ‘bat’, and if broken up, it will no longer carry the meaning of “bat”, Words can be made up of single morphemes such as ‘bat’ or combinations of morphemes, e.g. ‘bats’ is made up of two morphemes: ‘bat’ + ‘s’. Morphology deals with the rules of combination of morphemes to form words, as suffixes or prefixes are attached to single morphemes to form words. It studies the changes that take place in the structure of words, ¢.g. the morpheme ‘take’ changes to ‘took’ and ‘taken’. These changes signify a change in tense. The level of morphology is linked to phonology 0” the one hand and to semantics on the other. It is clear in the above example of “take’ that the change to ‘took’ involves a change in one of the sounds in this morpheme. It also involves a change in meaning: ‘take’ means the action ‘take’ + time present and ‘took’ means the action ‘take’ + time past. So morphological changes often involve changes at the levels of both sound and meaning. Syntax is the level at which we study how words combine to form phrases, phrases combine to form clauses, and clauses join to make sentences. The study of syntax also involves the description of the rules of positioning of elements in the sentence such as the nouns/noun syntax phrases, verbs/verb phrases, and adverbial phrases. A sentence must be composed of these elements arranged in @ particular order. Syntax also attempts to describe how these elements function in the sentence, i.e. what is their role in the sentence. For example, the word “boy’ is a noun. However, in each of the following sentences, it functions in different roles: (a) The boy likes cricket. (b) The old man loved the boy. In sentence (a), it functions as the subject of the sentence. In sentence (b), it functions as the object. A sentence should be both grammatical sentence like ‘Colourless green ideas sleep furiously’ is grammatically correct but it is not meaningful. Thus, rules of syntax should be comprehensive enough 1 explain how sentences are constructed which are both grammatical and meaningful Semantics deals with the level of meaning in language. It attempts to analyse the structure of meaning in a language, ¢.g. how words similar or different ae related; it attempts to show these inter-relationships through forming “categories” Semantics tries to give an account of both word and sentence meaning ant attempts to analyse and define that which is considered to be abstract. It may be easy to define the meanings of words such as ‘tree’ but not so easy to define the meanings of words such as ‘love’ or similar abstract things. This is why semantics is one of the less clearly definable areas of language study. ‘An extension of the study of meaning or semantics is pragmati deals with the eontextual aspects of meaning in particular situations. A‘ 1 and meaningful. For example, @ ies. Pragmatics s distinctWhat is Linguistics? 21 from the study of sentences, pragmatics considers utterances, i.e. those sentences which are actually uttered by speakers of a language. Discourse is the study of chunks of language which are bigger than a single sentence. At this level, we analyse inter-sentential links that form a connected or cohesive text. Cohesion is the relation established in a sentence between it and the sentences preceding and following it, by the use of connectives such as ‘and’, ‘though’, ‘also’, ‘but’ etc. and by the manner in which reference is made to other parts of the text by devices such as repetition or by use of pronouns, definite articles, etc. By studying the elements of cohesion we can understand how a piece of connected language can have greater meaning that is more than the sum of the individual sentences it contains, In addition to these levels of linguistic analysis, we also study Graphology which is the study of the writing system of a language and the conventions used in representing speech in writing, e.g. the formation of letters. Lexicology studies the manner in which lexical items (words) are grouped together as in the compilation of dictionaries, Linguists differ in their views on what precisely is the scope of linguistic studies. Some consider the proper area of linguistics to be confined to the levels of phonology, morphology and syntax. This can be called a Micro-linguistic Perspective. However, some take a broader, or macro-linguistic view which includes the other levels of analysis mentioned above, as well as other aspects of language and its relationship with many areas of human activity. 2.5 BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS The core of linguistic studies is the study of language structure at different levels as discussed above. In the growth of modern linguistics as an autonomous field Of knowledge, it has been necessary to emphasize this aspect of linguistics since no other field of study describes language structure systematically and completely. However, there are many areas of human activity and knowledge in which langua ge Plays a part and linguistics is useful in these areas. The study of language in relation to the many areas of knowledge, where it is relevant, has led to the growth of many branches of linguistics. Thus, the scope of linguistics has grown to include these branches. Like other sciences, linguistics has a ‘pure’ or ‘theoretical’ aspect which is concerned with the building of theories about language and with description and analysis of particular levels of language such as phonology and syntax without regard to any particular applications that these may have. It also has an ‘applied’ aspect which is concerned with the application of that knowledge in areas such as the learning and teaching of languages, or correction and improvement of Speech disorders, or in helping us to appreciate the use of language in literature. Thus, ‘applied linguistics’ covers many of the branches of linguistics that explore the practical application of the theories, concepts and analyses provided by linguists. All the applications are first and foremost based on a thorough description of languages, As Corder (1973, p. 148) writes:22 An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammar and Semantics Whether it is speech therapy, psychiatry, literary criticism, translation, ‘what all these fields of application have in common is the necessity for descriptions of the various languages involved. Various branches of linguistics have grown because language is intimately related both to the inner world of man’s mind and to the outer world of Society and social relationships. Each of these aspects has led to the study of psycho. linguistics and sociolinguistics, respectively. 2.51 Psycholinguistics Since language is a mental phenomenon, mental processes are articulated in language behaviour. Psycholinguistics studies these mental processes, processes of thought, and concept formation and their articulation in language, which reveal a great deal about the structures of both human psychology and of language, ‘Cognitive’ psychology is the area which explores how meanings are understood by the human brain, how syntax and memory arc linked, how messages are ‘decoded’ and stored. Psycholinguistics also studies the influence of psychological factors such as intelligence, motivation, anxiety etc. on the kind of language that is understood and produced. For instance, in the case of errors made by a speaker, there may be psychological reasons which influence comprehension or production that are responsible for the occurrence of an error. Our perception of speech sounds or graphic symbols (in writing) is influenced by the state of our mind. One kind of mental disability, for example, results in the mistakes made by children in reading when they mistake one letter for another (Dyslexia). Psycholinguistics can offer some insights and corrective measures for this condition. Psycholinguisties is concerned with the learning of language at various stages: the early acquisition of a first language by children and later stages in acquisition of first and other languages. Psycholinguists attempt to answer questions such as whether the human brain has an inborn language ability structured in such 2 way that certain grammatical and semantic patterns are embedded in it, which can explain how all human beings are capable of learning a language. This exploration may lead us to determining whether all the languages in the world have some ‘universal’ grammar that lies in the mind of every human being and is transformed in particular situations to produce different languages. Psycholinguistic studies in language acquisition are very useful in the area language teaching because they help teachers to understand error production and individual differences among learners and thus devise appropriate syllabi and materials for them. One specialized area within psycholinguistics is neurolinguistics that studies the physiological basis of language and language disorders such as aphasia, loss of memory, etc. Another relation of language with mind is that of logic. It was held by some ancient philosophers that the human mind is rational and capable of thinking los cally and, therefore, language too is logically ordered and rational. Others held that, just as irrationality is present in the mind, irregularity or anomaly is present in uma language. Since then there has been a debate about the nature of language and theWhat is Linguistics? 23 relation between language and logic. One of the problems discussed by philosophers of language is whether language can be an adequate medium for philosophical inquiry. Since all our thoughts are known to us through language, we must examine the kind of language we use when we approach philosophical issues and analysis. 2.52 Sociolinguistics The branch of linguistics that deals with the exploration of the relation between language and society is known as sociolinguistics, and the sociology of language. Sociolinguistics is based on the fact that language is not a single homogeneous entity, but has different forms in different situations. The changes in language occur because of changes in social conditions, for example, social class, gender, regional and cultural groups. A particular social group may speak a different variety of a language from the rest of the community. This group becomes a speech community. Variation in language may occur because the speakers belong to a different geographical region. Taking the example of English, we find that it is not a single language but exists in the form of several varieties. One kind of English is called R.P. (or Received Pronunciation). This kind of English is used in the south west of England and particularly associated with the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and the BBC. It is an educated and formal kind of English. But there are other varieties of English, such as the English that is spoken in the north of England, in Yorkshire and Lancashire; in Scotland (Scottish English); Wales (Welsh English), etc. A less educated variety of English is that spoken by working class people in London often called Cockney English. Then there are the varieties of English spoken by >cople of different countries around the world, e.g. American English, Indian English and Australian English. Sociolinguistics is the study of language variation and change—how varieties of language are formed when the speakers belong to a geographical region, social class, social situation and occupation, etc. Varieties of a language that are formed in various geographical regions involve a change in the pronunci ‘iation as well as vocabulary. Such changes result in the formation of a distinctly different variety of the language or a dialect. Sometimes these changes may be present within the same geographical region due to the social differences between different economic sections, e.g. working class and aristocracy. These changes result in class-dialects, In sociolinguistic studies, we consider the linguistic features of these dialects, e.g. syntax variations such as ‘I've gotten it’ or ‘I ain't seen nothing’ and lexical variations such as ‘lift’ (British English) for ‘elevator’ (American English). The study of the demarcation of dialect boundaries across a region and of specific features of each dialect is called dialectology. One dialect may be demarcated from another by listing a number of features which occur in a particular region The point at which a certain feature (of pronunciation or vocabulary) ceases to be prevalent and gives way to another feature is a dialect boundary or ‘isogloss’. Dialects may acquire some importance and prestige and evolve into distinct languages. This usually happens when they are codified, e.g. in written and literary forms, and when their grammar and lexicon are standardized. Usually, thisnguage, Grammar and Semantics 24 An Introduction to Lingui happens when the dialect is given political and social importanc That is why it is said “A language is a dialect with an army, and navy”. Sociolinguists chan, the evolution of such changes. : Variation in language may also be due to the specific area of human activity in which language is used. Again taking the example of English, this language is used in different fields—of law, religion, science, sports etc. In each of these areas there is a specific vocabulary and manner of. use of English, which defines the legal language, the scientific language etc. ‘This variety of language according to its use, is called register. Sociolinguists examine the particular characteristics of different registers, i.e. legal register, scientific register, etc., to see how these differ. This kind of study is useful because it enables us to understand how language-use is tied to a social context. The notion of register is important in showing that language use in communication is not arbitrary or uncontrolled, but is governed by rules of situational and contextual appropriateness. "The sociology of language includes the study of attitudes to language held by social groups, for instance, they may consider some languages or dialects as more (or less) important. It includes the planning of language education, e.g. which languages should be the medium of instruction, which language should be taught as second language; and language policy, i.e. which languages are legally and constitutionally recognised and what status they are given. The sociology of language is thus linked with other aspects of our social world, the political, economic, educational, etc. 2.53 Anthropological Linguistics The evolution of language in human society and its role in the formation of and culture. This is studied in culture is another aspect of language, society anthropological linguistics. The structure of language has a social and cultural basis in the same way as other customs, conventions and codes such as those related to dress and food. Each culture organises its world in its own way, giving ames to objects, identifying areas of significance or value and suppressing other areas. Language becomes a way of embodying the world view and beliefs of a Culture, and the things that culture holds sacred; for example, a culture in which family relationships occupy the most significant position will have many kinship terms in their language, with each relationship specified by a particular term. If you compare the kinship terms in English such as grandfather, grandmother, uncle, aunt, etc, with kinship terms in Hindi, you will find that there are many more such terms in Hindi specifying particular relationships such as a paternal/maternal grandfather (da : da/na ; na) and many such terms that specify the relationships elaborately. Similarly, terms specifying colours, emotions, natural phenomena, and so 07 are differently organised in every culture, and reveal a great deal about that culture. The study of these specific cultural elements is called the ethnography of a culture. A specific way of communication in a culture is thus studied as the ethnography of communication. ‘Anthropological studies have explored the relation between language and culture. Language is invented to communicate and express a culture. Tt alsoWhat is Linguistics? 25 happens that this language then begins to determine the way we think and see the world. Since this language is the means by which we understand and think about the world, we cannot go beyond it and understand the world in any other way. This is the view expressed by the linguist BL. Whorf whose hypothesis is that we dissect nature along the lines laid by our native language. There is still a debate about this, but it is true that to some extent we are bound to see the world according to the terms specified by our own language. These aspects of language and culture are still being discussed by anthropological linguists, philosophers of language and ethnographers. 2.54 Literary Stylistics The study of variation in language and the use of language in communication has also led to new ways of studying literary texts and the nature of literary communication. If you consider again the notion of register discussed above, you may realise that register is in fact a kind of ‘language’ that is considered appropriate for a particular subject matter, e.g. the style of a religious sermon, the style of Sports commentary. Similarly we may use this notion to describe the style of a literary work. That is, we may describe its features at the levels of phonology, syntax, lexis, etc. to distinguish it from other texts and to appreciate how it achieves some unique effects through the use of language. This kind of study is called literary stylistics. Literary writers use the system of language in their own way, i.e. they create a style. This is done by deliberate choice (e.g. out of a whole range of words available, “hey choose one which would be particularly effective), sometimes by deviation from or violation of the rules of grammar (e.g. ‘he danced his did’ in Cummings’ poem). Poets and even prose writers may invert the normal order of items in a sentence (e.g. ‘Home is the sailor...) or create a pattern by repetition of some items (e.g. the sound /f/ in ‘the furrow followed free’). By these and other devices, they are able to manipulate language so that it conveys some theme or meaning with great force and effectiveness. In literary stylistics, we read the text closely with attention to the features of language used in it, identifying and listing the particular features under the heading of ‘lexis’, ‘grammar’, ‘phonology’ or ‘sound patterns’. When we have obtained a detailed account of all these features, we co-relate them or bring them together in an interpretation of the text. That is, we try to link ‘what is being said’ with ‘how it is being said,’ since it is through the latter that writers can fully express the many complex ideas and feelings that they want to convey. Stylistic analysis also helps in a better understanding of how metaphor, irony, paradox, ambiguity etc. operate in a literary text as these are all effects achieved through language and through the building up of a coherent linguistic structure. 2.55 Relationship between Branches of Linguistics ‘We can understand the extension of the scope of linguistics to its various branches with the help of Fig. 2.2, which also helps us to see the interconnection between these different and yet interrelated areas of study.26 An Introduction to Linguistics: Language, Grammar and Semantics Theories about Language Language as Applied System-Phonology Linguistics Morphology, Lexis 4 Syntax, Semantics, etc. Stylistics Philosophy Language and Logic T Teaphing Language and Mind Psycholinguistics Language and Society Sociolinguistics Dialectology Anthropological Linguistics Language Policy Language Change —> History of Language Language Universals Pathology and Physiology Fig. 2.2 Branches of linguistics. Language as a system described at all levels is at the centre of the diagram. It relates om one side to man’s outer world, i. the social, cultural, educational, his world, on the other side to man’s and literary aspects of use of language in t iver world, ie, psychological and mental processes and activities, thought and logic. The arrows indicate the inter-relationships between all these areas (This diagram is a modification from Halliday, 1978; p. 16). SUMMARY Linguistics is defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics is a science in that (® it is empirical and objective; Gi) its explanation of language is based on observation of language phenomena; and its explanations are consistent and economical. Gi ‘The concem of linguistics (its scope) is (a) to describe language, (b) to study the nature of language, and (c) to establish a theory of language. In undertaking language study, linguists follow several approaches: 1. Descriptive approach which means describing the structure of language. 2. Comparative approach which entails comparing languages and establish correspondences between them. 3. Historical approach which involves examining the history and evolution of languages.What is Linguistics? 27 The levels of linguistic analysis, corresponding to the levels of language structure, are: Phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, which take sounds, words, sentences, and meanings, respectively as discrete units. Discourse is the level of language beyond the sentence. __ As modem linguistics has developed, it has grown from an autonomous discipline to one linked with various other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, Philosophy, literary studies, etc. Thus, many branches of linguistics have developed, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, language pathology, anthropological linguistics, dialectology, literary stylistics, and so on. Research in all these areas has facilitated the application of insights from linguistics in language teaching and planning of language education and policies. COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS ~ |. What is the particular way in which linguists approach language as opposed to a layman’s view of language? 2. What is the difference between a linguist and a polyglot? 3. What scientific procedures do linguists employ in the study of language? j.. Define: (a) Descriptive linguistics (b) Historical linguistics (©) Comparative linguistics Do you find any inter-relationship between these approaches to the study of language? = 5. How is linguistics an autonomous discipline? 6. Illustrate how we describe language at different levels of hierarchical organisation. 7. How are different linguistic levels linked to each other? 8. Why are there several branches of linguistics and what are they? 9. How does the study of sociolinguistics help us in understanding language? What aspects of language are emphasized by this branch of linguistics?