◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆INTRODUCT ION

What Is Philosophy?
 ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ CHAPTER 1

The Task
of Philosophy
Why Do We Need Philosophy?
◆ What Are the Traditional
Branches of Philosophy?
◆ Is There a Basic Method of Philo
sophical Thinking?
◆ How May Philosophy Be Used?
◆ Is Philosophy of Education
Useful?
◆ What Is Happening in Philosophy
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES Today?
Reflection—thinking things over—.
In this chapter we will address the
following questions: . . [is] the beginning of philosophy.1
◆ What Does “Philosophy” Mean? ◆

The Meanings of Philosophy ◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆

Each of us has a philos ophy, “having” and “doing”—cannot be a philosophy in the formal,
even though we may not be treated en tirely independent of personal sense, then we could not
aware of it. We all have some each other, for if we did not have do a philosophy in the
ideas concerning physical objects, our fellow philoso phy; there are skills of argumentation
persons, the meaning of life, death, God, right to be mas tered, techniques of analysis to be
and wrong, beauty and ugliness, and the like. employed, and a body of material to be
Of course, these ideas are acquired in a appropriated such that we become able to
variety think philosophically.
of ways, and they may be vague and Philosophers are reflective and critical.
confused. We are continuously engaged, They take a second look at the material
especially during the early years of our lives, presented by common sense. They attempt to
in acquiring views and attitudes from our think through a variety of life’s problems and
family, from friends, and from various other to face all the facts involved impartially. The
individuals and groups. These attitudes also accumulation of knowledge does not by itself
may be greatly influenced by movies, lead to under standing, because it does not
television, music lyrics, and books. They may necessarily teach the mind to make a critical
result from some reflection on our part, or evaluation of facts that entail consistent and
they more likely may result from a conven coherent judgment.
tional or emotional bias. This broad, popular, Critical evaluations often differ. Philoso
man-in-the-street (common-sense) view of phers, theologians, scientists, and others
philos ophy is not adequate for our purposes. disagree, first because they view things from
It does not describe the work and task of the different points of view and with different
philoso pher. We need to define philosophy assumptions. Their personal experiences,
more specif ically; the broad view is vague, cultural back grounds, and training may vary
confused, and superficial. widely. This is especially true of people living
The word philosophy is derived from the at different times and in different places. A
Greek words philia (love) and sophia second reason philoso phers disagree is that
(wisdom) and means “the love of wisdom.” A they live in a changing uni verse. People
definition of philosophy can be offered from a change, society changes, and nature
number of perspectives. Here we present five, changes. Some people are responsive and
although some philosophers may wish to sensi tive to change; others cling to tradition
exclude one or more of them. Each approach and the status quo, to systems that were
must be kept in mind for a clear formulated some time ago and that were
understanding of the many meanings of declared to be authorita tive and final. A third
philosophy and what particular phi losophers reason philosophers dis agree is that they
may say about the nature and function of deal with an area of human ex perience in
philosophy. which the evidence is not complete. The
1. Philosophy is a set of views or evidence we do have may be interpreted in
beliefs about life and the universe, which various ways by different people. Despite
are often held uncritically. We refer to this these disagreements, however, philosophers
meaning as the informal sense of philosophy continue to probe, examine, and evaluate the
or “having” a philosophy. Usually when a material with the hope of presenting
person says “my philosophy is,” he or she is consistent principles by which we can live.
referring to an in formal personal attitude to
whatever topic is being discussed. The Task of Philosophy ◆ 3
2. Philosophy is a process of 3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to
reflecting on and criticizing our most look at the world as a whole. Philosophy
deeply held conceptions and beliefs. This seeks to com bine the conclusions of the
is the formal sense of “doing” philosophy. various sciences and human experience into
These two senses of philosophy— some kind of consistent world view.
critical, reflective sense. Philosophers wish to see life, not with the
Having a philosophy, however, is not suffi specialized slant of the scientist or the
cient for doing philosophy. A genuine philo businessperson or the artist, but with the
sophical attitude is searching and critical; it is overall view of someone cognizant of life as a
open-minded and tolerant—willing to look at totality. In speaking of “speculative
all sides of an issue without prejudice. To philosophy,” which he distinguishes from
philoso phize is not merely to read and know “critical philosophy,” C. D. Broad says, “Its
object is to take over the results of the various use of terms in science and everyday affairs.
sciences, to add to them the results of the 5. Philosophy is a group of perennial
religious and ethical experiences of mankind, prob lems that interest people and for
and then to reflect upon the whole. The hope which philoso phers always have sought
is that, by this means, we may be able to answers. Philosophy presses its inquiry into
reach some general conclusions as to the na the deepest problems of human existence.
ture of the universe, and as to our position Some of the philosophical questions raised in
and prospects in it.”2 the past have been answered in a manner
Although there are difficulties and dangers satisfactory to the majority of phi losophers.
in setting forth any world view, there also are Many questions, however, have been
dangers in confining attention to fragments of answered only tentatively, and many
human experience. Philosophy’s task is to problems remain unsolved.
give a view of the whole, a life and a world What are philosophical questions? The
view, and ques tion “Did John Doe make a false
to integrate the knowledge of the sciences statement on his income tax return?” is
with that of other disciplines to achieve a merely a question of fact. But the questions
consistent whole. Philosophy, according to “What is truth?” and “What is the distinction
this view, at tempts to bring the results of between right and wrong?” have philosophical
human inquiry— religious, historical, and importance.
scientific—into some meaningful Most of us stop at times—sometimes be
interpretation that provides knowl edge and cause of startling events, often out of simple
insight for our lives. curiosity—and think seriously about fundamen
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of tal life issues: What is life and why am I here?
lan guage and the clarification of the Why is there anything at all? What is the
meaning of words and concepts. Certainly place of life in this great universe? Is the
this is one func tion of philosophy. In fact, universe friendly or unfriendly? Do things
nearly all philoso phers have used methods of operate by chance or through sheer
analysis and have sought to clarify the mechanism, or is there some plan or purpose
meaning of terms and the use of language. or intelligence at the heart of things? Is my life
Some philosophers see this as the main task controlled by outside forces, or do I have a
of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only determining or even a partial degree of
legitimate function of philosophy. Such control? Why do people struggle and strive for
persons consider philosophy a specialized their rights, for justice, for better things in the
field serving the sciences and aiding in the fu ture? What do concepts like “right” and
clari fication of language rather than a broad “justice” mean, and what are the marks of a
field reflecting on all of life’s experiences. This good society?
out look has gained considerable support Often men and women have been asked
during the twentieth century. It would limit to sacrifice their lives, if need be, for certain
what we call knowledge to statements about values
observable facts and their interrelations—that and ideals. What are the genuine values of
is, to the business life and how can they be attained? Is there
really a fun damental distinction between
4 ◆ Chapter 1 right and wrong, or is it just a matter of one’s
of the various sciences. Not all linguistic own opinions?
analysts, however, define knowledge so What is beauty? Should religion count in
narrowly. Al though they do reject and try to a person’s life? Is it intellectually valid to
“clean up” many nonscientific assertions, believe in God? Is there a possibility of a “life
many of them think that we can have after death?” Is there any way we can get an
knowledge of ethical principles and the like, answer to these and many related questions?
although this knowledge is also experientially Where does knowl edge come from, and can
derived. Those who take the narrower view we have any assurances that anything is
neglect, when they do not deny, all true?
generalized world views and life views, as These questions are all philosophical.
well as traditional moral philosophy and The attempt to seek answers or solutions to
theology. From this more narrow point of view, them has given rise to theories and systems
the aim of philosophy is to expose confusion of thought, such as idealism, realism,
and nonsense and to clarify the meaning and pragmatism, analytic philosophy,
 existentialism, phenomenology, and process tides, and the winds is likely to change our
philosophy. Philosophy also means the vari lives beyond even our wildest imaginations.
ous theories or systems of thought developed Yet despite our amazing advances, many
by the great philosophers—Socrates, Plato, thoughtful people are disturbed and anxious.
Aristo tle, Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes, They are concerned that our physical power,
Spinoza, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, Hegel, sci entific knowledge, and wealth stand in
Nietzsche, Royce, James, Dewey, sharp contrast with the failure of governments
Whitehead, and others. Without these people and individuals to come to grips with the
and their thoughts philosophy would not have pressing in tellectual and moral problems of
the rich content it has today. Even though we life. Knowledge seems divorced from values;
may be unconscious of the fact, we are it is possible to have great power without
constantly influenced by ideas that have insight.
come down to us in the traditions of society. Perhaps the most striking example is to
be found in the onset of a nuclear age, which
we have created through an application of
scientific and technological power. We are
unable, how ever, to solve the question of
arms control. Nu clear weapons cannot be
Why We Need realistically used in
We are living in a pe the actual fighting of a war; using even one is
faster, have more comforts and labor-saving likely to lead to an earthly cataclysm. Despite
de vices, and produce more goods in fewer the appalling dangers of nuclear war, some
hours than ever before. The extension of the people argue that we need to manufacture
role of the computer and the age of nuclear weapons as a means of deterring
automation undoubt edly will eliminate more nuclear aggres sion by a potential enemy;
drudgery and further increase production and that is, a nuclear war cannot be planned with
reduce working hours. Controlling new the aim of winning it. Once again, we are in a
sources of energy from the atom, the sun, the paradoxical situation: we
Philosophy stages of the Graeco-Roman ingenuity.
civiliza The twentieth century has been
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
are unable to offer a solution to a character
riod that resembles the late
problem that stems from our own
tion, the Renaissance, the Reformation, and
the Industrial Revolution, when basic shifts The Task of Philosophy ◆ 5
took place in human thinking, values, and redirection of our society. They believe that
practices. Changes are occurring that reach to we are adrift without moral and intellectual
the founda tions of human life and society. We lead ership. No doubt our period is
now have im mense power over nature, characterized by personal and social
including outer space; we have made giant instability. We are at a loss to form genuine
strides in the areas of sci ence, technology, communities that would lend satisfaction and
agriculture, medicine, and the social sciences. hope to their members; we find commitment to
In this century, especially in the last few selfishness and competition rather than to
decades, we have seen great advances self-interest and cooperation. Our civilization
in society—men and women live longer, travel often has been diagnosed; the diag nosticians
ized by a war of ideas as well as of people, are eloquent in their descriptions of the
ma terials, and conflicting national interests. diseases, but it is a rare individual who pro
Irrec oncilable philosophies compete for poses a cure; the most the critics can agree on
allegiance. Earlier in the century, the is that it is time for a change.
difference between life in the democratic and Changes in customs and in history
in the fascist countries was not a difference in usually begin with people who are convinced
technology, or in science, or even in general of the
education; it lay in basic ideas, ideals, and . . . anyone who would argue for freedom to
loyalties. In a similar way, commu nism day has to concern himself with the nature of
challenged many of our beliefs and ideals. technique—its scope and its limits— . . . The
Editorials, articles, books, films, and tele question of technique is, in itself, an
vision commentators unite in appealing for a important
one for philosophy—and more important
 par ticularly for modern philosophy, which their limits or possible consequences.4
has so often let matters of technique blind
its vision.
More significantly still, the question bears
upon the uncertainties of a whole Traditional
technological civilization, which even as it Historically, philo
wields its great technical powers is unsure of
worth of some ideal or who are motivated by a belief that sophical concerns have been
captured by some vision of a Branches treated under these broad
different way of life. Following the categories: logic, metaphysics,
Middle Ages, many people began
of Philosophy epis
to con ceive of a way of life ◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆

life on this earth is worthwhile in itself. In the Any subject pursued far enough reveals within
broadest sense, this belief made possible the itself philosophical problems.
Re naissance, the Reformation, and our
modern world with its factories, mass
LOGIC
production, money and banks, rapid
transportation, and, more re cently, atomic Philosophy endeavors to understand the
power and exploration of outer space. All nature of correct thinking and to discover
these are calculated to make this world better what is valid reasoning. One thread running
and to give us more control over it. But unless throughout the history of philosophy is its
we develop some fairly consistent and appeal to reason, to argumentation, to logic.
comprehensive view of human nature, the na We all use arguments in everyday life to sup
ture of the total order within which we live, port our opinions and to refute the opinions of
and some reasonable scale of values based others with whom we disagree. But how do we
on an or der beyond mere human desires, distinguish between valid and invalid
such things are not likely to provide an arguments? Basically, an argument is simply
enduring basis for our world. Philosophy, in the reasons
conjunction with other disciplines, plays a (called the premises) for or against a position
central role in guiding us to ward new desires (called the conclusion). An inference is a
and aspirations. conclusion derived either from general
In his book The Illusion of Technique,3 premises (deduction) or from factual evidence
William Barrett proposes that today, more (induc tion). Deduction and induction are
than any other time in history, it is necessary both pro cesses of reasoning that we need to
to place the idea of scientific technique in a understand if we are to avoid serious fallacies
new relation to life. As we have noted, ours is in our thinking. They are terms used to
a society more and more dominated by describe methods by which we move from
technique. Barrett is convinced that modern evidence to conclusions based on the
philosophy must re spond to technique and evidence. Deduction is the process by which
technology, or human ity will permanently lose we draw a conclusion from one or more
purpose, direction, and freedom. premises. If our inference is correct and the
conclusion does follow, we say that the
deduction is valid. For example, if we say, “All
6 ◆ Chapter 1 men are mortal” and “Socrates is a man,” we
temology, and value theory. We have may conclude that “Socrates is mortal.” Here
organized our text around the basic issues of the premises are all the evidence that is
philosophy; therefore we will merely glance at relevant to the soundness of the conclusion.
the definitions of the traditional branches, Induction, on the other hand, is empirical, in
trusting that the chapters that follow will that it deals with matters of fact. It attempts to
further develop these definitions. draw conclusions concerning all the members
In addition to the broad categories men of a class after examining only some of them
tioned, philosophy also deals with the or concerning an unexamined member of a
systematic body of principles and class. The aim is to make statements or
assumptions underlying a particular field of propositions that are true. For example, after
experience. For example, there are examining some crows, or even a large
philosophies of science, education, art, mu number of them, is it valid for us to conclude
sic, history, law, mathematics, and religion. that all crows are black? May we conclude
that the next crow we see will be black? existence of God, and the belief in personal
Argumentation and dialectic are immortality.
indispens able tools of the philosopher. The Today philosophers disagree about
arguments must have a sound and reasonable whether a world view or a metaphysics is
basis. The task of devising tests to determine possible. Some contemporary philosophers,
which arguments are valid and which are not with their emphasis on sense perception and
belongs to that branch of philosophy known as objective scientific knowledge, are skeptical
logic. Logic is the systematic study of the about the possibility
rules for the correct use of these supporting of metaphysical knowledge and the meaning
reasons, rules we can use to distinguish good fulness of metaphysical questions. There are,
arguments from bad ones. Most of the great however, many philosophers, ancient and mod
philosophers from Aristotle to the present ern, who believe that problems of value and
have been convinced that logic permeates all religion—metaphysical problems—are closely
other branches of philosophy. The ability to related to one’s conception of the fundamen
test arguments for logical consistency, tal nature of the universe. Many of these
understand the logical consequences of philosophers believe there is in humanity
certain assumptions, and distinguish the kind some thing that transcends the empirical
of evi dence a philosopher is using are order of nature.
essential for “doing” philosophy.
METAPHYSICS

Some of the philosophical outlooks that we EPISTEMOLOGY

will consider in Part Four will take us into that
branch of philosophy traditionally known as In general, epistemology is the branch of phi
metaphysics. For Aristotle (See biography losophy that studies the sources, nature, and
and excerpt, pp. 8–9), the term metaphysics validity of knowledge. What is the human mind
meant “first philosophy,” discussion of the most capable of knowing? From what sources do
uni versal principles; later the term came to we gain our knowledge? Do we have any
mean “comprehensive thinking about the genuine knowledge on which we can depend,
nature of things.” or must
Metaphysics undoubtedly is the branch of we be satisfied with opinions and guesses?
philosophy that the modern student finds most Are we limited to knowing the bare facts of
difficult to grasp. Metaphysics attempts to sense
offer a comprehensive view of all that exists. It
is con cerned with such problems as the
relation of mind to matter, the nature of The Task of Philosophy ◆ 7
change, the mean ing of “freedom,” the
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Aristotle A ristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) was a philosopher, scientist, and educator. He is widely
considered to be one of the most influ
ential thinkers in Western civilization. He was born in Stagira
in Northern Greece and at age eighteen years entered Plato’s
Academy, where he remained for nearly two decades until the
death of Plato. For a time he traveled, and for four years he
was the tutor of the prince Alexander, who later became “The
Great.” About 334 B.C.E., Aristotle returned to Athens and
founded his own school, the Lyceum. He summarized and
developed the knowledge of his day and enriched it by his own
investigations and critical thinking.
Aristotle was interested in medicine and zoology among
many other things, and set up laboratories and museums. At one
time his royal patrons are said to have placed at his disposal one
thousand men throughout Greece and Asia who collected and
reported details concerning the life conditions and habits of liv
ing things. He also collected constitutions and documents con
cerning the political arrangements of many states.
His writings show an interest in all areas of knowledge in
 cluding science (nature), society and the state, literature and the
arts, and the life of man. His logic (Organon) developed deduc
tive, or syllogistic, logic; his ethics (Nicomachean Ethics) was the
first systematic treatise in the field and is still read.

experience, or are we able to go beyond what

the senses reveal?
The technical term for the theory of knowl
edge is epistemology, which comes from the
Greek word episteme, meaning “knowledge.”
There are three central questions in this field:
(1) What are the sources of knowledge?
Where does genuine knowledge come from or
how do we know? This is the question of
origins. (2) What is the nature of knowledge?
Is there a real world outside the mind, and if
so can we know it? This is the question of
appearance ver sus reality. (3) Is our
knowledge valid? How do we distinguish truth
from error? This is the ques tion of the tests of
truth, of verification.5

8 ◆ Chapter 1
Traditionally, most of those who have of
fered answers to these questions can be
placed in one of two schools of VALUE THEORY
thought—rationalism or empiricism. The Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every
rationalists hold that human reason alone can action and pur suit, is thought to aim at some
discover the basic principles good; and for this reason the good has rightly
of the universe. The empiricists claim that all been declared to be that at which all things aim.
knowledge is ultimately derived from sense But a certain difference is found among ends;
expe rience and, thus, that our knowledge is some are activities, others are products apart from
limited to what can be experienced. It should the activities which produce them. Where there
be clear that there is a necessary relation are ends apart from the actions, it is the nature of
between metaphysics and epistemology. Our the products to be better than the activities. Now,
conception of reality depends on our as there are many actions, arts, and sciences,
understanding of what can be known. their ends also are many; the end of the medical
Conversely, our theory of knowledge depends art is health, that of ship building a vessel, that of
on our understanding of ourselves in re lation strategy victory, that of economics wealth. But
to the whole of reality. where such arts fall under a single capacity—as
Excerpt from Aristotle: bridle-making and the other arts concerned with
Nicomachean Ethics, Book I (1094) the equip ment of horses fall under the art of
riding, and this and every military action under
strategy, in the same way other arts fall under yet
others—in all of these the ends of the master arts
are to be preferred to all the subordinate ends; for
it is the sake of the former that the latter are
pursued. It makes no difference whether the
activities themselves are the ends of the actions,
or something else apart from the activities, as in
the case of the sciences just mentioned.
 consider the conduct of individuals,
R. McKeon, ed., The Basic Works of Aristotle
tional and racial groups. Descriptive ethics is
(New York: Random House, 1941).
in part an attempt to distinguish what is from
what ought to be.
A second level of inquiry is normative
ethics (what ought to be). Here philosophers
try to work out acceptable judgments
regarding what ought to be in choice and
value. “We ought to keep our promises” and
“you ought to be hon orable” are examples of
normative judgments— of the moral ought,
the subject matter of ethics. From the time of
the early Greeks, philosophers have
formulated principles of explanation to ex
amine why people act the way they do, and
what

The Task of Philosophy ◆ 9

the principles are by which people ought to
live; statements of these principles are called
ethical theories.6
Third, there is the area of critical or
metaethics. Here interest is centered on the
analysis and meaning of the terms and
language used in ethical discourse and the
kind of reason ing used to justify ethical
statements. Metaethics does not propound
any moral principle or goal (except by
implication), but rather consists en tirely of
philosophical analysis. What is the meaning of
“good?” and Can ethical judgments be
or personal morality; the conduct of groups, or justified? are typical problems for metaethics.
social morality; and the culture patterns of na be used in determining the scope of political
Value theory is the branch of philosophy that power, and what rights or freedoms should be
studies values. It can be subdivided into immune from political or legal control? To what
ethics, aesthetics, and social and political positive goals should political power be
philosophy. directed, and what are the criteria for
In broad terms ethics concerns itself with determining this? Conflicting answers and
the question of morality. What is right and applications of these philosophical questions
what is wrong in human relations? Within permeate human his tory; the values and
morality and ethics there are three major moral convictions of human beings are
areas: descriptive ethics, normative ethics, reflected in our daily social and polit ical life.
and metaethics. De scriptive ethics seeks to
identify moral experience in a descriptive way.
We seek to identify, within the range of human Philosophical
conduct, the motives, de sires, and intentions Because philosophy be
as well as overt acts them selves. We
Philip Wheelwright has written a dards of right and wrong by ◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
clear and precise definition of which it is to be gins with wondering, questioning,
ethics: “Ethics may be de fined Methodology— and re flecting about our fun
as that branch of philosophy damental assumptions, we need
which is the systematic study of
Socratic
to consider
reflective choice, of the stan Dialectic
guided, and of the goods toward which it may and beauty are considered to be part of the
ultimately be directed.”7 realm of values because many philosophical
Broadly speaking, aesthetics concerns problems in aesthetics involve critical
the theory of art and beauty. Questions of art judgments. There are wide differences of
opinion as to what ob jects call forth the opposing positions. Socra tes, and many later
aesthetic response, and what beauty really is. philosophers,8 believed that
Our concepts of beauty may dif fer not through the process of this dialogue, in which
because of the nature of beauty itself, but each participant in the conversation was
because of varying degrees of preparation in forced to clarify her or his ideas, the final
dis cerning beauty. Therefore, if we cannot outcome of the conversation would be a clear
perceive beauty in objects that others find statement of what was meant. What is
beautiful, it may be wise to withhold judgment important is that the dialectic is the
until we are capable ourselves of making a development of thought through an interplay
competent analy sis of the aesthetic of ideas.
experience. Dialectical thinking, and consequently di
Social and political philosophy alectic as a method, attempts to develop a sus
investigates value judgments concerning tained pattern of argument in which the implica
society, the state, and the individual’s relation tions of different positions are drawn out and
to these institutions. The following questions interact with each other. As the argument un
reflect the concerns of social and political folds, we find that neither position represents
philosophy: Why should indi viduals live in a complete understanding of the truth; new
society? What social ideals of lib erty, rights, considerations and alternatives emerge. At
justice, equality and responsibility are each stage of the dialectic we gain a deeper
desirable? Why should anyone obey any insight into the original problem, and by so
government? Why should some individuals or doing per haps come closer to the truth.
groups have political power over others? When entering a course of study, a
What criteria are to be used in determining student is generally prepared to memorize
who should have political power? What facts, learn for mulas, or master a set of
criteria are to material; philosophy demands something
quite different. By using the dialectical
10 ◆ Chapter 1 method, we come closer to the truth but often,
how it proceeds to answer questions. in fact frequently, the original philo sophical
Philosoph ical problems cannot be resolved problem remains unsolved. There are always
by appealing exclusively to the facts: how more questions to be asked, more ar guments
then does philoso phy solve the problems it to be challenged. The student of phi losophy,
raises? What method does philosophy however, must not despair. With this method
employ? we can arrive at tentative answers; some
We have defined philosophy as a process answers will appear to be more
of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply philosophically satisfactory than others, some
held beliefs. To achieve that end, we believe we will abandon altogether.
that the basic method of philosophical inquiry In Socratic fashion, philosophy proceeds
is dialectical. by attempting to correct incomplete or
Philosophy proceeds through the inaccurate notions, by “coaxing” the truth out
dialectic of argument. The term dialectic of the situa tion. Socrates is famous for his
refers to a process of thinking that originated belief that the un examined life is not worth
with the philosopher Socrates. In Plato’s living. Similarly, phi losophy proceeds with the
dialogues, Socrates (See biography and conviction that the unexamined idea is not
excerpt from Plato’s writings, pp. 12 and 13) worth having. Dialectic necessarily involves
is the main char acter—the protagonist. critical reflection.
Socrates employs the method of dialectic; he
engages in argumenta tion, in a relentless
analysis of any and every sub ject. Socrates
was convinced that the surest way to attain The Uses
reliable knowledge was through the practice Before registering for
of disciplined conversation, with the in study philosophy?” “What use is philosophy?”
vestigator acting as an intellectual midwife; “Is philosophy of any value to me personally,
we call the method he used dialectic. This is a and will it help my career?”
de ceptively simple technique. It always
begins with a discussion of the most PHILOSOPHY AS INESCAPABLE
commonly accepted aspects of any problem.
The dialectical process is a dialogue between Everybody has some notion of reality.
 Whether fully examined or not, ideas about reasoning, and assertions with flimsy
the origin, destiny, and fabric of foundations prevent a truly enlightened
existence—including views about God and citizenry. Persuasive orators can sway minds
human nature—have a place in each person’s and hearts and thereby wage wars, gain
mind. Everyone also has some no tion of political control, establish cults, and otherwise
knowledge. Ideas about the authentic sources seduce an unsuspecting public. Un aware of
of knowledge, about subjective beliefs in the complexities of an issue, unfamiliar with a
contrast to objective truths, and about comprehensive view of a topic, unable to
methods that prove a conclusion true or false distinguish between valid and invalid
form a part of everyday life. We all have some reasoning, ready to yield to authoritarian
notion of val ues, including right or wrong. approaches, indi viduals and entire
Most of us try to think correctly and to reason communities have been asked to sacrifice
in a valid fashion so that others will heed us their lives for certain values and ideals.
when we set forth our ideas. Far from being However, people who have studied
merely a classroom exer cise, issues of philosophy are more likely to pursue an issue
metaphysics, epistemology, values, and logic in depth and to examine it comprehensively
are part of everyday living. with sound reason ing. Having the courage to
question the conven tional and traditional is
useful for individuals in achieving intellectual
THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY
autonomy and in helping communities to
Shallowness, incompleteness, poor make informed choices.
of Philosophy Failure to obtain a specific answer
to a philo sophical question or an
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
acceptable solution to a
an introductory philos ophy
problematic issue frequently leads
course, students frequently ask:
to frustration. The Task of Philosophy ◆ 11
“Why
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆

Socrates Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.) was a Greek philosopher of Athens. Famous for his view of
philosophy as a pursuit necessary to all
intelligent humans, Socrates lived by his principles even though
they ultimately cost him his life. Socrates was widely known
for his intellectual power and use of the dialectical method.
According to Plato’s report of Socrates’ speech in the Apology,
the oracle at Delphi pronounced that there was no one wiser
than Socrates in all of Greece. However, Socrates never himself
claimed to be wise; he always professed ignorance. Thus, he
became convinced that his calling was to search for wisdom
about right conduct by which he might guide the intellectual
and moral development of the Athenians. Neglecting his own
affairs, he spent his time discussing virtue, justice, and piety
wherever his fellow citizens congregated. In 399 B.C.E., Socrates
was brought to trial for corrupting youth and for religious here
sies. The trial and death of Socrates are described in the Apology,
the Crito, and the Phaedo of Plato with great dramatic power.
 actions and ages of each of us in all that we do.
And the same may be said of vice, Socrates.
Socrates: How fortunate I am, Meno! When I ask
you for one virtue you present me with a swarm of
them, which are in your keeping. Suppose that I
carry on the figure of the swarm, and ask of you,
What is the nature of the bee? and you answer
that there are many kinds of bees, and I reply: But
do bees differ as bees because there are many
and different kinds of them; or are they not rather
to be distinguished by some other quality, as for
example, beauty, size, or shape? How would you
answer me?
Meno: I should answer that bees do not differ from
one another, as bees.
Socrates: And if I went on to say: That is what I
desire to know, Meno; tell me what is the quality in
which they do not differ, but are all alike. . . .
Nonetheless, exploration of the possible,
Plato, Five Dialogues, trans. G. Grube.
reason able solutions clarifies the options
(Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett, 1981).
open to thoughtful persons. The usefulness of
choosing from reasoned, researched
alternatives rather than from bigoted,
impulsive, and unclear claims is apparent in
all dimensions of our lives. Ideally, the study
of philosophy nurtures our capacity for able view?9 “I believe in God”: How is such be
making informed choices. lief supported? What kind of God? “That paint
ing is beautiful”: What is beauty? “I’m a Gem
ini”: Are there solid premises for the
12 ◆ Chapter 1 predictions of astrology?
SPECIFIC PERSONAL USES “Developing a philosophy of life” was an
objective considered essential or at least
Examining our everyday language often leads impor tant by about 45 percent of American
to philosophical questions. “I want to do the college
right thing” is an expression regularly used by freshmen in 1993.10 More important were, in
all of us; ethical reflection can illuminate an as cending order, helping others who are in
individual’s sense of right. “Wait and see what diffi culty, becoming an authority in one’s field,
happens” may imply philosophical fatalism: Is rais ing a family, and being very well-off
fatalism a reason financially. We wonder whether the responses
Excerpt from Plato: were based on a clear understanding of the
nature of values and the possible meanings of
Meno, 71B–72A (c. 390 B.C.E.)
Socrates: . . . Meno, be generous and tell me “developing a philoso phy of life.” Were the
what you say that virtue is; for I shall be truly surveyed students aware of
delighted to find that I have been mistaken, and
that you and Gorgias do really have this knowl
edge, although I have just been saying that I have The Task of Philosophy ◆ 13
never found anybody who had. the meanings, branches, and tools of philoso
Meno: There will be no difficulty, Socrates, in phy? Had they any notion of the benefits of
answering your question. Let us first take the choosing adequate views of reality and main
virtue of a man—he should know how to taining a coherent, consistent world view? We
administer the state, and in the administration of it propose that a mature person’s philosophic
to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; and be liefs are well established; such a man or
he must also be careful not to suffer harm himself. woman is well integrated, and sustains a
. . . Every age, every condi tion of life, young or harmony be tween thought and action that is
old, male or female, bond or free, has a dif ferent indispensable to his or her well-being.
virtue: there are virtues numberless, and no lack As the ancient philosophers long ago dis
of defini tions of them; for virtue is relative to the cerned, philosophy is a quest for wisdom. We
all are aware that a person can have a great For those in the health-care professions,
deal of knowledge and still be a learned fool. the thorny ethical issues regarding
In our age of confusion and uncertainty, we reproductive technologies, allowing or helping
need a sense of direction. Wisdom is what chronically and terminally ill patients to die
provides us with that sense: it is an affair of with dignity, suicide, patients’ rights, genetic
values. As Abraham Kaplan has written engineering, and public health care are in the
regarding wisdom: forefront of investigations.
Each occupation is in the process of
Whatever else wisdom may be, it is in
identi fying the ethical issues it confronts in
some sense an understanding of life. It is
not a practice. The usefulness of identifying and
ing practices, respective rights of employers understanding the options—a task
and employees, social responsibilities of undertaken by philoso phers—is evident.
business, re sponsibilities of business to the “Applied philosophy” today is not only a
consumer, the role of government in useful part of our lives, it is necessary to our
business, and so on? daily existence.
dom is a matter of seeing ◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
things—but as they are, not
purely cerebral attainment; wisdom
subjectively.11 Elaborating on our discussion of
is as much a matter of what we do
personal and vocational uses of
and feel as it is of how we think. ButValues and
philosophy, we shall
thought is central to it. . . . Wis
Education
philos ophy course a good one? Is your
Wisdom is intelligent conduct of human
instructor a good teacher? Such common
affairs. We experience intellectual discomfort
questions ask for an eval uation of an
when confronted with fragmentary and con
institution, a course, and a profes sional. A
fused views of the world. Without some unity
rating based on some scale or standard of
of outlook, the self is divided. Among other
values is sought; to answer these questions,
bene fits, study of philosophy gives our lives
an individual must have some idea of what he
an inner integration, helps us to decide what
or she values in a college, course, or
to approve and what to disapprove, and
instructor.
provides a sense of the meaning of human
Some students believe that for a college
existence.
to qualify as “good” it must be internationally
pres tigious; apparently they value privately
funded and well-known institutions. By this
SPECIFIC VOCATIONAL USES
standard, neither public nor local colleges can
In recent years, professionals and businesses be rated as “good.”
have begun to pay attention to the ethical A philosophy course may be rated “good”
dimensions of their practices. In business if the instructor demands little work and gives
ethics, many of the following issues are high grades, if the reading assignments are
discussed: What is the goal of a corporation? short and
What are the ethics of “whistle blowing”? entertaining, and if the emphasis is
What is fair in competition? How can we immediate relevance and obvious utility. A
resolve conflicts of profit making with the demanding course with long-range as well as
good of the environment? Ought we to some immedi ate benefits, dedicated to
demand truth telling in advertising? How traditional knowledge, may be judged a “bad”
should we view job discrimination, course.
affirmative-action hir A teacher may be valued highly because
of personal qualities, such as speaking ability,
14 ◆ Chapter 1 warmth, and participation in extracurricular
now explore briefly a pertinent philosophical student activities. Professional standards such
area, the philosophy of education. as thoroughness, up-to-date subject
Philosophical thinking about education knowledge, and reasonable academic
(indeed, about the courses for which this expectations for stu dents may be ignored or
textbook is intended) is linked to our values entirely overlooked when those students rate
and to our convictions about the role of the an instructor.
liberal arts in various curricula.
Do you go to a good college? Is your
 questions. Throughout the world, institutions
of higher education have different purposes,
teaching and learning methods, and curricula.
RELEVANCE OF PHILOSOPHY
If a college or university system lacks a
TO EDUCATION co herent educational philosophy, the result
If we are to give thoughtful answers to can be a series of conflicting objectives and
evaluative questions about education, we aims, ran dom teaching and learning
must acknowl edge their dependence on methods, and unsta ble, trendy curricula.
philosophy. Educa tional value judgments, Similarly, if a local public school board
like all value judgments, are debatable: Do appoints or elects members with conflicting
they express subjective feel ings or objective philosophies, an incoherent patch work of
knowledge? On what bases are particular aims, methods, and curricula may result.
educational values justified?
Other relevant philosophical A DILEMMA : LIBERAL ARTS
considerations are: (1) What is meant by
OR VOCATIONAL TRAINING?
education? Is it the learning of skills for a job?
Is it the memorization of data? Is it, as Alfred Many students today, perhaps the majority,
Whitehead said, a collec tion of “inert be lieve that the basic objective of all
ideas—ideas that are merely re ceived into education, es pecially at the college or
the mind without being utilised, tested, or university level, is to provide vocational
thrown into fresh combinations?”12 Is it a training; that is, to prepare students for a job
process of continuous reinterpretation of one’s or career. They believe that the need for
individual and social life? (2) What is hu man occupational skills should be the basis of a
nature? Which image reflects accurately the curriculum; methods of teaching and learn ing
creature to be educated? How do human should include whatever means are available
beings learn? What is the mind?13 (3) What is to communicate clear-cut vocational informa
knowl edge? What are the sources and nature tion; a diploma or college degree should be
of knowl edge? What methods can we use to an entry ticket to a good job. One student,
distinguish valid from invalid knowledge?14 study ing philosophy because it was required
Different philosophical outlooks and reli in a vo cational program, exclaimed in
gious traditions present contrasting anguish during a
explanations of value, human nature,
knowledge, and educa tion.15 For example, The Task of Philosophy ◆ 15
the pragmatism of John Dewey offers a provocative class session, “You’re messing
particular interpretation of reality (including up my mind! I didn’t come here to think; I
human nature), knowledge, and val ues with came for an education.” One wonders
definitive consequences for an approach whether such a stu dent has connected a
to education. A Hindu’s understanding of view of education with re flected
these issues would be quite different. comprehension of human nature, knowl edge,
and values. Are students to be trained only in
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
order to get a job? Should worthwhile knowl
edge be defined only as that which can be
The application of general philosophical posi used to earn a living? Is occupational
tions to educational problems is called competence the only valuable purpose of
philosophy of education. One model of this education?
field focuses on three issues: (1) basic Many believe that if vocational training is
objectives and specific goals of education; (2) the sole content of education, the graduate
methods of teaching and learning; and (3) enters the marketplace unprepared. One
curricula. To establish a college requires a reason is voca tional training can become
philosophy of education, and the an swers to obsolete very quickly. New technologies, new
a number of basic questions: What are the products, new manage ment styles, and new
basic objectives and specific goals of the industries appear so rapidly that skills learned
school? What methods of teaching and today are inadequate only a few years later.
learning are consistent with these basic Training of men and women solely with
objectives? What will constitute the occupational information often ignores their
curriculum? Various founders of colleges and need for a better understanding of them
universities have different an swers to these selves and the world. An education that has
the humanities at its core provides the student
with permanent knowledge, the ability to think
criti cally, and exposure to powerful minds,
EVALUATING EDUCATION
inquiring intellects, and events of human
significance. Whether vocational training Any evaluation of a school, a course, or a
takes place along side such “freeing arts” (the teacher depends on the general philosophy of
literal meaning of “liberal arts”), at separate the evalu ators, including their position on
institutions, or in the marketplace depends on values, philos ophy of education, and
the educational philoso phies of individual commitment to the hu manities. Clearly, many
institutions. Over a decade ago a national educational philosophies are possible, and
magazine asserted that, in addi tion to good evaluators disagree, whether they are
technical training, new leaders need to be members of an accrediting team or stu dents
educated in the humanities.16 They need to chatting in a cafeteria. The evaluation of a
have the kind of understanding of the human college, course, or professor as “good” is a
psyche—of the struggle against regressive philosophical judgment that reflects a wide
and ir rational forces—that comes from range of other philosophical convictions. If
reading great writers such as Sophocles, peo ple have no understanding of logic,
Plato, Shakespeare, and Ibsen who make us ethics, and metaphysics, their evaluations of
see how difficult it is for human beings to deal philosophies of education are of questionable
with each other. worth because a philosophy of education
Some people think that many of our needs to be grounded in an articulated
leaders display a lack of understanding about philosophy.
human na ture, that they appropriate The educational philosophy of a university
simple-minded psy chological theories of what dedicated to research may differ legitimately
motivates people and tend to believe that from the aims, methods, and curriculum of a
everyone is motivated by small teaching college. Both may have value
the desire for money or to “keep up with the if
Joneses.” They seem to lack the qualities their respective philosophies are well imple
gained from exposure to the liberal arts and mented. A course or a teacher may be judged
social “good” if consistent with the philosophy of
their institution. Frequently, poor evaluations
16 ◆ Chapter 1 expressed informally reflect primarily other
sciences, qualities that are essential in an crite ria that are, at best, of secondary
effective leader. significance. To avoid a course in physics
A commission funded by the Rockefeller because of its difficulty, to degrade the
Foundation credits the humanities with University of Leipzig because it is not well
enabling men and women to make critical known by the average American stu dent, or
judgments about ethics and social policy, to to rate Nietzsche poorly as a teacher be cause
understand di verse cultures, and to interpret he was not entertaining is to render an un
current events in light of the past. The reasonable and superficial judgment. Sound
thirty-two-member group described the evaluations require thoughtfulness and philo
humanities as integral to elemen tary and sophical awareness.
secondary education. They recom mended There are a multitude of problems facing
that subjects such as languages, history, American education today. Within a
philosophy, and English, which nurture critical democratic society, how can we harmonize
thinking, be taught early in the student’s the different tra ditions out of which American
acade mic career. 17
Consistent with the higher education springs? Where can moral
commission’s recommendations is the and financial support be found that will permit
Institute for the Ad vancement of Philosophy American scholarship to maintain its freedom
for Children. Founded in 1974, the Institute and standards? How can a substantial
has been responsible for the development of relationship be established between an
curriculum materials and teaching methods increasingly technologically oriented culture
that improve thinking and problem-solving and the institutions and ideals of the
skills. For similar reasons, the American humanities? As we have tried to indicate,
Philosophical Association has active these questions have no easy answers, but
committees concerned with the teaching of we agree with Profes sor Charles Frankel
phi losophy at all levels. when he writes:
 corporate communities. Philosophers are
In the final analysis, however, these are the
professionals like doctors, law yers, and
problems of teachers and scholars whose
mission is the same as that of scholars tennis players: philosophers get paid for being
anywhere. That mission is to keep the specialists in the area of ideas.
tradition of disin terested learning alive; to add Many people today have become
to the knowledge possessed by the race; to dissatisfied with narrow analytic conceptions
keep some solid, just, and circumspect record of philosophy; in the 1980s, philosophy began
of the past; and to use what knowledge, skill, to be concerned with nontraditional fields,
and critical intelligence exists for the such as brain research, cognitive science,
improvement of the human estate. This is the and artificial intelligence; and with new issues,
function of universities wherever they are such as animal rights, defining life and death,
permitted to attend to their own proper establishing the nature and role of technology
business.18 in modern thought, and experimen tation with
human subjects; and with raising
philosophical questions in relation to outer
Philosophy Today space, gender issues, literature, sports,
For most of its history, violence, social norms, and the environment.
clusively to questions about the nature and Moreover, as is apparent from newsletters of
role of philosophy or to a discussion of the the American Philosophical Association, many
terms and language through which thoughts philosophers are giving attention to other
are expressed. A knowledge of terms and the topics such as “The Black Experience,”
structure and uses of language is important, “Feminism and Philosophy,” “Computer Use
but we need not sub stitute the study of In Philosophy,” and “Philoso phy and Law.”
instruments—logic, seman tics, and linguistic Applied philosophy has captured the interest
analysis—for the study of the basic of many philosophers who do not regard
problems—the perennial problems of linguistic analysis as the sole job of phi
philosophy. losophy. In this book, we view philosophy as a
Recently, however, a growing number of process of reflecting upon and criticizing our
philosophers have broadened the scope of most deeply held beliefs. We hope to show
their interests. They are working with that the activity of philosophy belongs to all
hospitals, busi ness and industry to help solve thinking persons.
the problems of health care delivery and
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
philosophy has been concerned
with the

Reflections
problems of everyday, human attention almost ex The usefulness of phi losophy is
situations; in re cent decades, well attested to in this excerpt:
however, many philosophers in ◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
the Western world turned their

The Task of Philosophy ◆ 17

Far from being an academic luxury, philosophy
should play a central part in any well balanced
college or university curricula. The study of phi ◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
losophy contributes distinctively and substan
tially to the development of students’ critical Glossary Terms
thinking. It enhances their ability to deal ra
Philosophical reflection can be brought to bear on any
tionally with normative issues. It extends their
subject matter whatsoever; every discipline raises
understanding of interdisciplinary questions. It
questions which philosophical investigation can help
strengthens their grasp of our intellectual his
clarify; and every domain of human existence confronts
tory and of our culture in relation to others. It
us with problems on which philosophical reflection can
increases their capacity to articulate and assess
shed light. The study of philosophy can help students in
world views. And it improves their skills in writ
all the ways this suggests, and the philosophical
ing and speaking. . . .
techniques they assimilate can help them both in their
other academic work and in their general problem
solving over the years.19
 18 ◆ Chapter 1
INDUCTION Reasoning that attempts to reach a
conclusion concerning all the members of a class
AESTHETICS The branch of philosophy concerned
with art and the nature of the work of art. af ter inspection of only some of them. Inductive
knowledge is empirical. The conclusion of an
CONCLUSION A proposition inferred from the induc tive argument, unlike that of a deductive
premises of an argument. one, is not logically necessary.

DEDUCTION An inference in which the conclusion INFERENCE A conclusion derived either from gen
follows necessarily from one or more premises. eral premises (deduction) or from factual
When the conclusion does so follow, the deduction evidence (induction). Not to be confused with
is said to be valid. implication;
one proposition is said to imply another when
DIALECTIC As most frequently used by philoso their relation is such that if the first is true the
phers, the critical analysis of conceptions in order second must also be true.
to determine their meaning, implications, and
presup positions. Also, a method of reasoning LOGIC The branch of philosophy that deals with the
used by Socrates, Hegel, and others in which nature and problems of clear and accurate
opposites are reconciled. thinking and argument.

EMPIRICISM (EMPIRICAL) The view that knowledge METAPHYSICS A critical study of the nature of real
comes from experience or through the senses, in ity. Metaphysics is often divided into ontology
op position to rationalism. and cosmology.

EPISTEMOLOGY Theory of knowledge; the branch of PREMISE A proposition supporting or helping to

philosophy which studies the sources, nature, and support a conclusion.
va lidity of knowledge.
RATIONALISM The view that the mind has the power
ETHICS The study of moral conduct. The term may to know some truths that are logically prior to expe
also be applied to the system or the code followed rience and yet not analytic.
(such as “Buddhist ethics.”)
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆ Chapter
Review
uncertain about the meaning of life and of
which direction they should take in life.
THE MEANINGS OF PHILOSOPHY
2. Philosophy, in conjunction with other disci
1. Every individual has a philosophy, even plines, plays a central role in guiding us
though he or she may not be aware of it. toward new desires and aspirations.
2. The word philosophy is derived from the
Greek words philia (love) and sophia
TRADITIONAL BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
(wisdom) and means “the love of wisdom.”
3. One must consider each approach to 1. The text is organized around basic issues of
philosophy to have a clear understanding of phi losophy. The traditional branches of
the many meanings of philosophy and what philosophy are logic, metaphysics,
particular philosophers say about the nature epistemology, and value theory.
and function of philosophy. 2. Logic is the systematic study of the rules for
the correct use of supporting reasons, rules
we can use to distinguish valid arguments
WHY WE NEED PHILOSOPHY
from specious ones.
1. Humanity has acquired a great new power in 3. Metaphysics traditionally has been
science and technology; numerous techniques concerned with the ultimate nature of
for gaining greater security and comfort have things.
been developed. At the same time, people
4. Epistemology is in general the branch of
feel insecure and anxious because they are
 philos ophy that studies the sources, nature,
and valid ity of knowledge.
5. Value theory is concerned with the nature of THE USES OF PHILOSOPHY
values; it can be subdivided into ethics,
1. Philosophy is inescapable; issues of
aesthet ics, and social and political
metaphysics, epistemology, values, and logic
philosophy.
are part of everyday living.
6. Ethics is concerned with questions of morality.
Within morality and ethics there are three 2. The study of philosophy nurtures the
major areas: descriptive ethics, normative capacity for making informed choices.
ethics, and metaethics. 3. Specific personal and vocational uses add to
7. Aesthetics focuses on the theory of art the benefits of philosophical studies.
and beauty.
8. Social and political philosophy investigates
VALUES AND EDUCATION
value judgments concerning the individual in
society. 1. Philosophy of education is explored briefly as
an elaboration of the discussion of personal
and vo cational uses of philosophy.
PHILOSOPHICAL METHODOLOGY —
2. To evaluate a college, course, or instructor,
SOCRATIC DIALECTIC we must determine what we value in these
areas.
1. The basic method of philosophical inquiry is di
alectical. The dialectic is the development of 3. Evaluative issues in education depend on
thought through an interplay of ideas. Dialecti several philosophical attitudes.
cal thinking attempts to develop a sustained 4. The application of general philosophical posi
pat tern of argument in which the implications tions to educational problems is called
of different positions are drawn out and philoso phy of education.
contrasted with each other.

The Task of Philosophy ◆ 19

5. A current educational dilemma is whether the applica tions to human living.
basic objective of all education is to provide
vo cational training or “permanent education”
of the liberal arts.
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆
PHILOSOPHY TODAY Study Questions and Projects
1. Philosophy has in recent decades been con
cerned almost exclusively with questions
about the nature and role of philosophy or a 1. Is there justification for saying that our age is
discus sion of the terms and language facing unprecedented problems? Are these prob
through which thoughts are expressed. lems any different, except in degree and inten
sity, from the problems of past ages? Which
2. Recently a growing number of some philoso contemporary conditions or trends do you con
phers have broadened the scope of their sider encouraging, and which discouraging?
inter
ests. Applied philosophy, concerned with 2. Does each person need a philosophy? Can one
areas such as brain research, cognitive really choose whether he or she is to have a phi
science, artifi cial intelligence, definitions of losophy of life?
life and death, 3. What justification can you give for saying that
the nature and role of technology in modern some of the great issues of our time are philo
thought, gender issues, animal rights, value sophical problems? In what sense are some of
or moral problems in medicine and these issues also timeless?
business, and so on, has captured the
interest of many philosophers.

REFLECTIONS (a) “There is no more direct way of elevating our life

than by elevating our ideas.” —Ernest Dimnet
1. The usefulness of philosophy is well attested (b) “Make it thy business to know thyself, which is the
to by its several theoretical and practical most difficult lesson in the world.”—Cervantes
(c) “Money buys everything except love, per sonality, Review; Philosophical Studies in Ed ucation;
freedom, immortality, silence, and peace.”—Carl Philosophy and Phenomenological Re-
Sandburg search; Philosophy East and West; Review of
(d) “The great sickness of our age is aimless ness, Meta physics; Free Inquiry; Public Affairs
boredom, and lack of meaning and purpose in Quarterly; The Thomist.
living.”—Dr. Dana L. Farnsworth 8. State the difference between “first-order
ques tions” and “second-order questions”
4. Organize some of your present beliefs and and give some examples. See Mortimer J.
con victions regarding life and the world into a Adler, The Conditions of Philosophy, pp.
statement of no more than 2000 words. Keep 42–48.
a copy of this statement of personal
philosophy and compare it with a similar 9. Do you think teachers of philosophy should
statement that you write toward the end of the be committed and speak out, or neutral and
course. silent, on the great pressing, but
controversial, issues of the day?
5. Has your secondary and college education
de veloped in you any set of convictions or 10. What is meant by the statement that
values regarding your personal life, social “civiliza tion is basically a set of ideas and
relationships, and the world in general? ideals?”
Should education be concerned with such 11. What is the meaning of the word philosophy,
questions or only with de scriptive knowledge and in what ways do philosophers
in specialized areas? understand the nature and function of
philosophy?
6. Indicate the extent and areas of your
agreement or disagreement with the 12. Write an article for a junior high school
following statements: news paper entitled “Philosophy: Its
Meaning, Method, and Branches.”
13. Evaluate your school according to its
20 ◆ Chapter 1
philosophy of education as published in its
7. Philosophical journals are an important store
current cata logue. (Offices of admissions and
house of current thinking in the field. Familiar
the registrar usually have catalogues
ize yourself with as many of them as you can
available.)
and see how many of them are in your library.
Fairly complete lists may be found in The 14. Respond to the student in an introductory phi
Ency clopedia of Philosophy and in the losophy class who complained angrily, “I
Directory of American Philosophers. The didn’t come here to think; I came here for an
following is a partial list: Ethics; The educa tion.”
Humanist; International Philo sophical 15. In a carefully organized, thoughtful essay com
Quarterly; The Journal of Aesthetics and Art ment on the following statement: “Many groups in
Criticism; The Journal of Philosophy; The the United States provide definitive answers to
Journal of the History of Ideas; The Journal of questions of reality, truth, and values for their
the History of Philosophy; The Journal of members. Their firm convictions have elimi nated
Symbolic Logic; The Monist; The the need to reflect philosophically.”
Philosophical Forum; The Philosophical

◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆

Suggested Readings
Barth, E. M. Women Philosophers: A
Adler, M. J. The Conditions of Philosophy. New Bibliography of Books through 1990. Bowling
York: Dell, 1967. Green, Ohio: Phi losophy Documentation
A clear statement of the nature of Center, 1992.
philosophy and what is needed to restore it More than 2,800 philosophical works written
to a place of eminence in the by women are listed.
contemporary world.
Brumbaugh, R. S., and Lawrence, N. M.
Barrow, R., and Woods, R. An Introduction to Phi Philosophers on Education: Six Essays on the
losophy of Education. 3rd ed. New York: Foundations of Western Thought. Lanham,
Rout ledge, 1989. Md.: University Press of America, 1986.
An excellent introduction for students with First published in 1963, this book studies
no previous background in philosophy. edu cational theories developed by Plato,
 Aristotle, Rousseau, Kant, Dewey, and education.
Whitehead.
Copleston, F. C. History of Philosophy. 9 vols. Lipman, M., Sharp, A. M., and Oscanyan, F. S.
New York: Image/Doubleday, 1976. Phi losophy In The Classroom. 2nd ed.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980.
An excellent, comprehensive history of
Western philosophy. The authors argue for the integration of think
ing skills into every aspect of the curriculum.
Edwards, P. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. 8 vols. New York: Macmillan/Free Ozmon, Howard A., and Samuel M. Craver.
Philo sophical Foundations of Education, 4th
Press, 1967. A mine of information on the
ed. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1990.
subjects related to the field of philosophy. Many
articles written from the point of view of analytic In their widely used text, Ozmon and
philosophy. Craver present a well-done introduction to
the most important schools of educational
Ewing, A. C. The Fundamental Questions of philosophy.
Philoso phy. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1951. Professor Ewing seeks to deal Parkinson, G. H. R. (ed.). The Handbook of
with all the main issues of philosophy insofar Western Philosophy. New York: Macmillan, 1988.
as they can be stated and discussed profitably Although some articles are quite technical,
and simply. Among other questions, he treats the topics are of current interest and are
the place of reason in knowledge and life, the grouped
relation of body and mind, the problem of evil,
and the existence of God.
Hocking, W. E. Types of Philosophy. New York:
Scrib ner’s, 1939.
Hocking’s classic introduction to the
problems of philosophy is still a good book
for those “who are not devoting their lives to
22 ◆ Chapter 1
the study of philosophy.”
within six parts: Meaning and Truth; Theory
of Knowledge; Metaphysics; Philosophy of
The Task of Philosophy ◆ 21 Mind; Moral Philosophy; and Society, Art
Hoy, R. C., and Oaklander, L. N. (eds.). Meta and Religion.
physics: Classic and Contemporary
Readings. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1991. Pelikan, J. The Idea of the University—A
Reexamina tion. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
An anthology that delves into five University Press, 1992.
topics—time, identity, mind, freedom, and
reality. The author provides an analysis of what a
uni versity is and ought to be; he explains
Jones, W. T. A. A History of Western Philosophy. why uni versities are indispensable to a
2nd ed. New York: Harcourt Brace and modern society.
World, 1969–1975.
Post, J. F. Metaphysics: A Contemporary
A five-volume history of western philosophy Introduction. New York: Paragon, 1991.
that, in addition to being an excellent history,
reveals a great deal about the philosophical Topics include defining metaphysics, why
en terprise and the role that philosophy plays there is anything at all, whether time and the
in the general culture. universe have a beginning, conflicting ideas
about God, and so forth.
Kim, J., and Sosa, E. (eds.). A Companion to
Meta physics. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, Schoedinger, A. B. (ed.). Introduction to
1993. Metaphysics: The Fundamental Questions.
Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1991.
An alphabetically arranged survey of
metaphysics with more than 200 articles by An introductory anthology of historical and
distinguished scholars. contemporary readings concerning the
problem of universals, causation, personal
Knight, George R. Issues and Alternatives in identity, free will and agency, and artificial
Educa tional Philosophy, 2nd ed. Berrien Springs, intelligence.
Mich.: Andrews University Press, 1989.
Taylor, R. Metaphysics. 4th ed. Englewood
Knight presents a succinct and clearly Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1992.
written survey of the major philosophies
and philo sophic issues relevant to In the “Foundations of Philosophy Series,”
 this text explores the need for metaphysics,
persons and bodies, the mind as a function Thomson, G. An Introduction to Modern
of body, freedom and determinism, fate, Philosophy. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1993.
space and time, the relativity of time and An introduction to the claims and arguments
space, temporal pas sage, causation, God, of Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke,
polarity, and metaphysics and meaning. Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.
◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆ Notes
Edu cation (Newark: American Philosophical
Associ ation, University of Delaware, 1980), p.
1. G. W. F. Hegel, Encyclopedia of the
13.
Philosophical Sciences, trans. W. Wallace
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), sec. 7.
2. C. D. Broad, Scientific Thought (New
York: Harcourt, Brace, 1923), p. 20.
3. W. Barrett, The Illusion of Technique
(Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Anchor, 1978).
4. Barrett, The Illusion of Technique, p. xv.
5. These questions are considered in Chapters
9 and 10. Note especially the discussion of
“com mon sense” on pp. 169–170.
6. Ethical theories are more fully discussed
in Chapter 7.
7. P. Wheelwright, A Critical Introduction to
Ethics, 3rd ed. (New York: Odyssey
Press, 1959), p. 4.
8. Philosophers as different as Plato, Aristotle,
Hegel, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Marx, and Hei
degger have stressed the importance of
dialectic.
9. See pp. 87–89 for a detailed explanation
of philosophical fatalism.
10. As reported in The Chronicle of Higher The Task of Philosophy ◆ 23
Educa tion (January 26, 1994), p. A31.
11. A. Kaplan, In Pursuit of Wisdom (Beverly
Hills, Calif.: Glencoe Press, 1977), p. 16.
12. A. N. Whitehead, The Aims of Education
(New York: Macmillan, 1929), p. 1.
13. See Part I, The Nature of Human Nature, for
a discussion of several aspects of this issue.
14. See Part III, Knowledge and Science.
15. See Parts IV, Philosophical Perspectives, and
V, Religion: East and West.
16. M. Maccoby, “Who Will Lead ‘This New Breed’
of Americans?” U.S. News and World Re port
(March 15, 1982): 81.
17. See Commission on Humanities, The
Humani ties in American Life: A Report
(Berkeley: Cali fornia University Press,
1980). This book is the commission’s full
report.
18. C. Frankel, ed., Issues in University
Education (New York: Harper, 1959), pp.
174–75.
19. The Role of Philosophy Programs in Higher