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Abstract Cosmology

Ian Beardsley, 2022

Copyright © 2022 by Ian Beardsley

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Abstract Cosmology is not concrete because the truth, if

such a thing can even be shown to exist, escapes us at
every juncture. Abstract cosmology looks for form in the
relationship between point, plane, line, angle, etc…and
and suggests it exists in Nature. With this process we will
determine the radius of the proton, that makes the atom,
predict the relationships between elements, in particular
in the hydrocarbons that are the skeletons of life
chemistry. We will move up in scale to the radius of the
solar system, and in the end predict the relative
abundances of the most abundant elements — the
primordial elements hydrogen and helium — that make
up 98% of the Universe. Along the way we will find the
proportions of the primary constituents of the air that
makes up the Earth atmosphere, and show they are
integral to water geometrically. We will offer
interpretations for space, time, and matter (inertia). It
won’t be as important as to what the interpretations are
as much as it will be that we can have them. It is done like
this because it is suggested that reality is a construct of
the mind, so models are only useful as tools to manipulate
components in the mind.
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The transformation T : ℝ2 → ℝ2 that rotates counter-

clockwise where T ( x ⃗ ) = A x ⃗ is given by the standard
matrix

( sin(θ ) cosθ )
cos(θ ) −sin(θ )
Equation 1. A =

We suggest there is an aspect of Nature founded on six-

fold symmetry, the example of which we are interested in
here is The Periodic Table of the Elements, because it has
18 groups which we can define by carbon, C. This because
we have the following scenario:
Equations 2.
3+3+3=9
2+2+2=6

3 ⋅ 6 = 18
2 ⋅ 9 = 18

2⋅3=6

And, we pull out the 2 and the 3 and write (Fig. 1) Fig. 1 Dividing line in golden
mean.
π π 5+1 π
2cos = 2 , 2cos = , 2cos = 3
4 5 2 6

5+1 a a b
Where =Φ= , = such that a = b + c
2 b b c
b 1 a2 a
ϕ= = which is given by − −1=0
a Φ b2 b
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In general Fig. 2

π
Equations 3. f (n) = 2cos , n = 4,5,6 The point (1,0) can be rotated
n through an angle θ.
π π
= 45∘, π /5 = 36∘, = 30∘
4 6
And these can be mapped by the matrix A onto a linear vector
space (Fig. 2)

( 2sin(θ ) 2cosθ )
2cos(θ ) −2sin(θ )
A= =

( 2sin(30∘) 2cos(30∘) )
2cos(30∘) −2sin(30∘)
A=

3 (0)
3 −1 1
A e 1⃗ = = ( 3,1)
1

3 (1)
3 −1 0
A e 2⃗ = = (−1, 3)
1

( 2sin(36∘) 2cos(36∘) )
2cos(36∘) −2sin(36∘)
A= =

1
Φ − 2
(5 − 5)
1
2
(5 − 5) Φ
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1
A e 1⃗ = Φ, (5 − 5)
2

1
A e 2⃗ = (5 + 5), Φ
2

( 2sin(45∘) 2cos(45∘) )
2cos(45∘) −2sin(45∘)
A= =

2 − 2
2 2

A e 1⃗ = 2, 2

A e 2⃗ = − 2, 2
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π
Our 2cos is based on the square (Fig. 3)
4
π
= 45∘ is the line x2 = x1. The reflection through x2 = x1 Fig. 3
4
is given by:

(1 0)
0 1
Equation 4. A=

π
And our 2cos is the equilateral triangle:
6

Fig. 4

To transform the square into the equilateral triangle we

expand the square of base e 1⃗ with the matrix

( 0 1) ( 0 ) 2
3/2 0 1 3
Equation 5. A = = ,1

And we see e 1⃗ becomes 3/2 and we have added half the

square to itself. (Fig. 4)
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Or, better we can use the contraction Fig. 5

( 0 1) ( 0 ) 2
1/2 0 1 1
A= =

We draw in the diagonal of the the half-square and

reassemble the two half-triangles into an equilateral
triangle (Fig. 8). To get Φ we take the half square and
draw in the circle of radius 1/2. (Fig. 5) We have

1 1 4 5
+ 12 = + = Fig. 6
2 2 4 4 2

5 1 5+1
+ = =Φ
2 2 2
Thus we see the periodic table is 18 groups (Fig. 6).
Carbon is in group 14. We have 18-14=4 valence electrons. Fig. 7
Hydrogen is neither a metal or a non-metal but ionizes
like a metal by losing one electron becoming H + and
carbon being C 4− means it needs 4 positive ions to be
neutral meaning it combines with 4 hydrogens to each C,
or with two hydrogens to a C and a C in long chains Fig. 8
(hydrocarbons) which form the Skeltons of organic
compounds in life chemistry (Fig. 7) .

We now show carbon, the core element of life is six-fold

symmetric with hydrogen in terms of the natural
constants that characterize space, time, and matter:
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mP : 1.67262 × 10−27kg (Proton Mass)

h : 6.62607 × 10−34 J ⋅ s (Planck Constant)

rp : 0.833 × 10−15m (Proton Radius)

−11 m2
G : 6.67408 × 10 N 2 (Gravitational Constant)
kg

c : 299,792,459m /s (light speed)

α : 1/137 (Fine Structure Constant)

We find one second gives six protons which is carbon:

Equation 6. Ue
α2 =

mec 2
1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton ⋅ secon ds = carbon(C ) The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of
α 2 mp Gc the potential energy of an electron in the first
circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of
an electron in the Bohr model times the speed of
We find six seconds gives 1 proton is hydrogen: light squared.

Equation 7.

1 h 4π rp2
= 1proton ⋅ 6secon d = hydrogen(H )
α 2 mp Gc

For time t greater than 6 seconds we have fractional

protons. For t<6 we the have other elements.
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For equation 9 to be perfect Earth day needs to be shorter. A long time ago it
In that we get one second for carbon and 6 seconds for was; the Earth loses energy to the moon. The days become longer by 0.0067
hydrogen very nearly even, that is1 hours per million years. Equation 9 is actually 1.2 seconds:

24h ou rs
= 20h ou rs

1 1 h 4π rp2 1.2
Eq. 8 ⋅ 2 = 1.004996352secon ds
6 α mp Gc 24-20=0.0067t

It is suggested that the second is a natural unit. If it is, t=597 million years

since it comes from designing a calendar that reconciles This was when the earth went through a dramatic change and there was a
the phases of the moon with the Earth year (12 moons per big explosion of life (The Cambrian). The dinosaurs went extinct 65 million
year, approximately) it is suggested the unit of a second years ago giving small mammals a chance to evolve paving the way for
should be in the Earth-Moon-Sun orbital mechanics. The humans.

translational kinetic energy of the moon and earth are:2

24-x=0.0067t

K . E . Moon = 3.67E 28J x=23.5645 hours

K . E . Ear th = 2.649R33j We say 20 hours + 3 hours is 0 hours + 3 hours since 20 hours is the zero of
our cosmic calendar:

It turns out: 2
3c os (0∘ ) + c os (30∘ ) = d i n osa u r − e x t i n c t i o n =

3
Eq . 9
3
(K Eof Moon)(Lun arOrbitalPer iod ) 3h ou rs +
3
h ou rs What is the next term?

1secon d ≈ LunarMonth
EarthDay
(K Eof Ear th) 3 2
20h rs + 3h rs + h rs + =

3 3
Where the Lunar Month can be as much as 31 days and is
based on the lunar orbital period (27.32 days). We have 20+3+0.57735+0.4714=24hours

1 See Appendix 2 that produces our values.

2 See Appendix 1 For Data on Kinetic Energy
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31d ays
Eq. 10 = 31 ≈ π 3 = 31.006
(1Ear th Day)

Essentially we have formed a Planck constant, h, for the

moon by multiplying its kinetic energy over the time for
the period of its orbit:

h = (3.67E 28J )(2.36E6s) = 8.6612E 34J ⋅ s

8.6612E 34J ⋅ s
= 32.696secon ds
K Eof Ear th

If we let the lunar month cancel with moon’s orbital

period, we have:

Eq. 11

1 h 4π rp2 K Eof Moon

≈ 6protons ⋅ ⋅ Ear th Day
α 2 mp Gc K Eof Ear th

Since

1 1 h 4π rp2
⋅ 2
1sec α mp Gc

is units of mass divided by mp we can let it cancel with mp,

the mass of a proton, and write:
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Eq. 12

1 h 4π rp2 K Eof Moon

≈6⋅ ⋅ Ear th Day = (6)1.2secon ds
α mp
2 Gc K Eof Ear th

That is:
1 1 h 4π rp2
⋅ 2 = 1.00secon d
6protons α mp Gc

is phenomenal because It allows multiplication between

degrees and seconds to output our fundamental ratios
( 2, 3, . . . ). We see in the following wave:

A = A0cos(θt), A0 = 1, θ = 30∘,60∘,45∘

Where t=1 second is carbon yielding:

A(60∘) = cos(60∘ ⋅ 1s) = 0.5

A(30∘) = cos(30∘ ⋅ 1s) = 3 /2
A(45∘) = cos(45∘ ⋅ 1s) = 2 /2

And, t=6 seconds is hydrogen yielding:

A(60∘) = cos(60∘ ⋅ 6s) = 1

A(30∘) = cos(30∘ ⋅ 6s) = − 1
A(45∘) = cos(45∘ ⋅ 6s) = 0
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In so far as

1 h 4π rp2 K Eof Moon

≈6⋅ ⋅ Ear th Day ≈ (6)1secon d
α mp
2 Gc K Eof Ear th

relates carbon=1second to the Earth-Moon-Sun orbital

mechanics and to the radius of a proton through six-fold
symmetry:

1 h 4π rp2
=6
α 2 mp Gc

can we bring in our relationships

π
f (n) = 2cos , n = 2,3,4,5.6.,...
n

f (2) = 2, f (6) = 3

to expand the Earth-Moon-Sun orbital mechanics to the

size of the Solar System? We consider:
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Equations 13.

( 2 3)
1 1 1
∫
6 dt = 6 − = 0.78
2 t2

2
1 π −4
∫ 6( )
cos −1(x /2)d x = 3π − 6 = = 0.21
3 2 2 = 0.21

We move down from carbon in the periodic table to

silicon (Si) and down from there to germanium (Ge).
Their densities are Si=2.33 g/cm3 and Ge=5.323 g/cm3.
We have 0.21Si+0.78Ge=4.64124 g/cm3. Consider this
the starting point for the density of a thin disc decreasing
linearly from the Sun to Pluto (49.5 AU=7.4E14cm).

Equation 14.

∫0 0 ( R)
2π R
r πρ0 R 2
∫0
M= ρ 1− rdrdθ =
3

π (4.64124)(7.4E14)2
= = 2.661E 30g
3
The sum of the masses of the planets is 2.668E30 grams.
The accuracy is:

2.66
100 = 99.736
2.668
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We have the radius of the solar system is given by:

Equation 15.

3Mp
Rs =
π (0.78Ge + 0.21Si )

Interestingly, the relative abundances of Nitrogen and

oxygen are 0.78 and 0.21 in the Earth air. In fact, the
molar mass of air as a mixture is:

air = 0.78N2 + 0.21O2 = 29.0g/m ol

Interestingly as well, by molar mass

air
≈Φ
H2O

Carbon equals one second is the radius of a proton:

Equation 16.

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh

The experimental radius of a proton is:

rp = 0.833 ± 0.014f m
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In our integral:

2
1
6(
3π − 6) = 0.21
∫
cos −1(x /2)d x =
3

where did cos −1(x /2) come from? We had Equations 3

π
f (n) = 2cos , n = 4,5,6
n
We write x = 2cosθ and get θ = cos −1(x /2) and
π
cos −1( 2 /2) = 45∘ =
4
π
cos −1( 3 /2) = 30∘ =
6
If we can explain the Earth-Moon-Sun orbital mechanics,
the radius of the solar system, and the radius of the
proton, can we predict the relative abundances of the
primordial elements created at the beginning of the
Universe - hydrogen and helium - from which all of the
elements were made by stars in nucleosynthesis?

We consider a gaussian wave packet at t=0:

x2−
ψ (x,0) = Ae
2d 2
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We say that d which in quantum mechanics would be the

delocalization length when squared is

( C )
2
Si − C 16
=

9
We write the wave packet as a Fourier transform:

x2 dp
2d 2 ∫ 2π ℏ
i px
−
ψ (x,0) = Ae = ϕp e h

We use the identity that gives the integral of a quadratic:

∞
π β2
∫−∞
2 x+βx
e −α dx = e 4α

α
p2 d2 p2

∫
− hi ( px− 2m t)
ψ (x, t) = dp ⋅ e 2ℏ2 ⋅e

Calculate the Gaussian integral of dp:

d2 it ix
α= 2+ and. β =

2ℏ 2mℏ ℏ
Equation 17.

[ d 1 + t 2 /τ 2 ]
2 x2 1
ψ = exp − 2 ⋅

m d2
τ=

ℏ
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2 C2 x2 1
ψ = exp − ⋅

[ m(Si − C)2 ]
(Si − C )2 ℏC 2
2
1+ t2

2 9 2 1
ψ = exp − x ⋅
16 ℏ281
1 + 2 t2
m 256

For Hydrogen (t=6 seconds):

2 9 1
ψ = (1)exp − (1proton)2 ⋅
16 1+
(0.075)81
(6secon ds)2
(1)256
=74%

For Helium (t=3 seconds):

2 9 1
ψ = (2)exp − (2proton)2 ⋅
16 1+
(0.075)81
(3secon ds)2
(4)256
=26%

This is in close agreement with what we observe. The

Universe is 74% hydrogen and 24% helium, The
remaining 2% is comprised by the rest of the elements.
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We need an interpretation of equation 6, which was

1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton ⋅ secon ds = carbon(C )
α 2 mp Gc

Matter is that which has inertia. This means it resists

change in position with a force applied to it. The more of
it, the more it resists a force. We understand this from Fig. 8
experience, but what is matter that it has inertia?

In this analogy we are suggesting a proton is a three

dimensional bubble embedded in a two dimensional
plane. As such there has to be a normal vector holding the
higher dimensional sphere in a lower dimensional space.
Thus if we apply a force to to the cross-section of the
sphere in the plane there should be a force countering it
proportional to the normal holding it in a lower
dimensional universe. This counter force would be
experienced as inertia. (Fig. 8)

Since plank’s constant h is a measure of energy over time

where space and time are concerned it must play a role. Of
course the radius of a proton plays a role since squared and
multiplied by 4π it is the surface area of our proton embedded
in space. The gravitational constant is force produced per
kilogram over a distance, thus it is a measure of how the
surrounding space has an effect on the proton giving it inertia.
The speed of light c has to play a role because it is the
velocity at which events are separated through time. The mass
of a proton has to play a role because it is a measurement of
inertia itself. And alas the fine structure constant describes the
degree to which these factors have an effect. We see the
inertia then in equation 6 is six protons over 1 second, by
dimensional analysis.

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The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the

potential energy of an electron in the first circular orbit to
the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr
model times the speed of light squared:
Ue
α2 =
mec 2
We need offer an interpretation of time, as well. (Fig. 9)
Fig. 9
In The Time Machine, a science fiction story by HG Wells,
the time traveller describes time as physical distance, the
direction through which the universe is falling at the
speed of light, c. Thus, not only when we move through
space do we travel through a distance at a velocity v, but
we travel through a distance t at a velocity c. If we draw
the picture and account for that distance and velocity as
well, we arrive at time dilation as given by relativity
theory. He writes:

I think that at the time none of us quite believed in the

Time Machine. The fact is, the Time Traveller was one of
those men who are too clever to be believed: you never
felt that you saw all around him; you always suspected
some subtle reserve, some ingenuity in ambush, behind
his lucid frankness.
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x2 + t2 = d 2

x = vt02

v 2t02 c 2t02
+ =1
c 2t 2 c 2t 2

(c )
v2
t02 2
+ 1 = t2

t
t0 =
v2
1+
c2

Since we don’t experience our motion through time as we

fall through it with the universe, we change the sign in
v 2 /c 2. And have the relativistic equation for time dilation:
t
t0 =
v2
1−
c2
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We can actually formulate this differently than we have. We

had

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 6proton s

t1 α 2 mp Gc

1 1 h 4π rp2
= 1proton

t6 α 2 mp Gc

But if t1 is not necessarily 1 second, and t6 is not necessarily

six seconds, but rather t1 and t2 are lower and upper limits in
an integral, then we have:

1 h 4π rp2 1 t2

Gc ∫t1 t 2
Equation 18. dt = ℕ

α 2 mp

This Equation is the generalized equation we can use for

solving problems.

Essentially we can rigorously formulate the notion of proton-

seconds by considering

∫t ∬S
Equation 19. qdt = t 2 ρ(x, y, z)d x d y

Is protons-seconds squared where current density is

J ⃗ = ρ v ⃗ and ρ = Q /m 3 (ρ can also be Q /m 2). We say

∫V
Equation 20. Q= ρdV

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Keeping in mind q is not charge (coulombs) but a number of

charges times seconds, here a number of protons. It is

1 h 4π rp2
Equation 21. ℕ= 2

α mp Gc

Dividing Equation 19 through by by t:

Equation 22.

1 h 4π rp2dt
Gc ∫t t ∬S
=t ρ(x, y, z)d x d y

α 2 mp

Which is proton-seconds. Dividing through by t again:

1 h 4π rp2dt
Gc ∫t t 2
Equation 23. = proton s

α 2 mp

We see that if J ⃗ = ρ v ⃗ where ρ = Q /m 3 and v = m /s then

J is I/m2 (current per square meter) is analogous to amperes
per per square meter which are coulombs per second through
a surface. Thus we are looking at a number of protons per
second through a surface. Thus we write:

1 h 4π rp2 tC
dt 1.0

Gc ∫tMg ∫
=6 t −2 dt = − 6(1 − 2) = 6

α 2 mp t 2
0.5

Is carbon where 0.5 seconds is magnesium (Mg) from the

values of time corresponding to protons in the output from our 

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program3 and 1.0 seconds is carbon (C). We see we have the

following theorem (Fig. 10):
Fig. 10

h 4π rp2
J ⃗ ⋅ d S
⃗
1 dt
Gc ∫t t 3 ∬S
Equation 24. =
α 2 mp

So as an example,…

( 0.25 )
h 4π rp2 1.0
J ⃗⋅ d S ⃗ = − 3 1 −
1 dt 1 proton s
Gc ∫0.5 ∬S
= =9

α mp
2 t 3 secon d

Is fluorine (F). Divide by xy with x=y=1 and we have current

density. And multiply by 1 second which is carbon and we
have protons per square meter.

⃗ y, z) = (0,0,J ) = − J k
⃗
J (x,

d S ⃗ = d x d y k
⃗

J ⃗ ⋅ d S ⃗ = (0,0,J ) ⋅ (0,0,d x d y) = − Jd x d y

3 See Appendix 2 for the program that produces our values.

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We now formulate what I call Giordano’s Relationship: Warren

Giordano writes in his paper The Fine Structure Constant And
The Gravitational Constant: Keys To The Substance Of The
Fabric Of Space, March 21, 2019:

In 1980, the author had compiled a series of notes analyzing

Einstein’s geometric to kinematic equations, along with an
observation that multiplying Planck’s constant ‘h’ by ‘1 + α’,
where ‘α’ is the Fine Structure Constant, and multiplying by
10 23 yielded Newton’s gravitational constant numerically, but
neglecting any units.

Let’s do that

(6.62607E-34Js)(1+1/137)(1E23)=6.6744E-11 Js

And it works, G is:

G=6.67408E-11 N(m2/kg2)

Let us reformulate this as:

(1 + α) kg 2 ⋅ s
Equation 1.1 h NA H = 6.0003

G m
Where NA = Avoga dro′s − num ber = 6.02E 23 atoms/
gram and H=1 gram/atom

Because for hydrogen 1 proton is molar mass 1 gram, for

carbon 6 protons is 6 grams and so on for 6E23 atoms per
gram. Thus,…

atom s 1gra m
NA H = 6.02E 23 ⋅ = 6.02E 23

gra m atom
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Since grams and atom cancel we can work in grams even

though our equations are in kilograms. Let us not write H,
since formally it is grams per mole of hydrogen but write

gra m
ℍ=1

atom
We have:

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NAℍ = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
Or,…

Equation 1.2 h(1 + α)NAℍ = 6Gx

Where

s
Equation 1.3 x = 1.00kg 2

m
Let us say we were to consider Any Element 𝔼 say carbon ℂ.
Then in general

(1 + α) s
Equation 1.4 h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
We have

6gra m s 6(6E 23proton s)

ℂ= and NA =

6proton s 6gra m s
Because there are six grams of protons in carbon which has 6
protons and 6 neutrons and a molar mass of 12. We have 

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12-6=6 grams of protons in the 12 grams of protons and

neutrons. Thus

NAℂ = 6E 23

And it follows that

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NAℂ = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
We see in general since the atomic number Z is the number of
protons in an atom that in general this holds for all elements 𝔼
because

Z ⋅ 6E 23proton s
NA =

Z ⋅ gra m s
And,

Z ⋅ gra m s
𝔼=

Z ⋅ proton s
Therefore we always have:

Equation 1.5 NA ⋅ 𝔼 = 6E 23

This works nicely because we formulated molar mass nicely;

we said element one (hydrogen) which is one proton and one
electron has one gram for a mole of atoms. Historically this
was done because we chose carbon (element six) to have 12
grams per mole, and determined what the mole was such that
it would hold. The reason this works is that hydrogen is one
proton and has no neutrons, but carbon has twelve neutrons
but since hydrogen doesn’t have any neutrons, and the
neutron has the same mass as the proton, and our theory 

 27 of 47

makes use only of protons (in this instance of its formulation)

equation 1.3

s
x = 1.00kg 2

m
Comes out to have x equal to 1.00 (nearly) even. It is at this
moment that we point out, because it is important, that in
equation 1.5

NA ⋅ 𝔼 = 6E 23

𝔼 is not molar mass, and that NA is a variable determined by

𝔼; it is the number of a mole of atoms multiplied by the
number of protons in 𝔼. The reason we point this out, though
it may already be clear, is we wish to find the physical theory
behind it. That is we need to find the physical explanation for
equation 1.4

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅

G m
It is the integer 6 to 3 ten thousandths. Which classifies it as
interesting because since it is in kilograms, seconds, and
meters, it may mean these units of measurement have some
kind of a meaning. We can in fact write it:

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 6.000kg 2 ⋅

G m
We know that

Ue
α2 =

mec 2
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The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential

energy of an electron in the first circular orbit to the energy
given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the
speed of light squared. To begin our search for the meaning of
s
equation 1.4 we convert x, the factor of 1.00 kg 2 ⋅ to
m
astronomical units, years, and solar masses, as these are
connected to the orbit of earth as it relates to the sun. We
have:

kg 2 s (1.98847E 30)2 M⊙2 1.4959787E11m year

⋅ ⋅ ⋅

1 m kg 2 AU 3.154E 7s

M⊙2 ⋅ year
=1.8754341E64

AU
We can now write

(1 + α) AU
Eq 1.6. h ⋅ NA𝔼 = 8.2172E 32M⊙

G year

This unit of AU/year is very interesting. It is not 2π AU/year,

which would be the Earth’s orbital velocity, but is a velocity
given by the earth orbital radius to its orbital period, which is
quantum mechanical in nature. It relates to earth as as a state,
as we have with atoms, a number. We multiply both sides by
4π 2 and we have earth velocity on the left and the units stay
the same on the right. But what we will do is return to the form
in kg-m-s and leave it as an equation but put in the Earth
mean orbital velocity which is 29.79m/s (Zombeck, Martin V.
1982). We get:

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(1 + α)
Eq. 1.7 h ⋅ NA𝔼 ⋅ ve = 422.787kg

G
This brings up an interesting question: while we have masses
characteristic of the microcosmos like protons, and masses
characteristic of the macrocosmos, like the minimum mass for
a star to become a neutron star as opposed to a white dwarf
after she novas (The Chandrasekhar limit) which is 1.44 solar
masses, we do not have a characteristic mass of the
intermediary world where we exist, a truck weighs several tons
and tennis ball maybe around a hundred grams. To find that
mass let us take the geometric mean between the mass of a
proton and the mass of 1.44 solar masses. We could take the
average, or the harmonic mean, but the geometric mean is the
squaring of the proportions, it is the side of a square with the
area equal to the area of the rectangle with these proportions
as its sides. We have:

M⊙ = 1.98847E 30kg

We multiply this by 1.44 to get 2.8634E30kg. The mass of a

proton is mp = 1.67262E − 27kg. We have the intermediary
mass is:

Eq. 1.8
mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

All we really need to do now is divide 1.7 by 1.8 and we get an

even number that is the six of our six-fold symmetry.

1 (1 + α)
Eq. 1.9 h ⋅ NA𝔼 ⋅ ve = 6.1092 ≈ 6

mi G
The six of our six-fold symmetry.

 30 of 47

We have something very interesting here. We have

1 s
6kg 2 =6 The second comes from the Ancient Greeks
69.205kg m dividing a minute into 60 seconds and an hour
into 60 minutes because they used sexagesimal
This is: counting (base 60). Probably because 60 is
evenly divisible by:

Equation 2.0. k ve = 6
1,2,3,4,5,6,…12,15,20.30,60,…

Where k is a constant, given Mercury= 60

Mars= 30

1 s Saturn= 12
Equation 2.1. k=
800 m
We can take the velocity of earth as being 30,000 m/s by
rounding it. We have

30,000 1
= 37
800 2

37.5 = 6.123734357

1 1 h 4π rp2
⋅ 2 = 1.004996352secon ds
6 α mp Gc

Using k ve = 6, we write

1 h 4π rp2
= 1proton ⋅ secon d 1 (1 + α)
α 2 mp Gck ve Eq. 2.2 k = h ⋅ NA𝔼
mi2 G
 31 of 47

It was the Indian physicist Chandrasekhar who found the limit

in mass for which a white dwarf will not have its gravity
overcome the degeneracy pressure and collapse. The non-
relativistic4 equation is:

c 3 ℏ3
Equation 2.14 M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

Let us approximate 0.77 with 3/4. Since we have our constant

1 1+α
k = h ⋅ NA𝔼
mi2 G

And mi = Mmp

Then
1/2
3 3 3
c ℏ
Equation 2.15 mi =
2 G 3mp2

Since ℏ = h /2π our constant k in terms the Chandrasekhar

limit is

4 8π 3G
Equation 2.16 k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA𝔼
3 c 3h

4 Appendix 3 is stellar structure and white dwarf stars.

 32 of 47

(K . E . Moon)(Ear th Da y) determine the fact that the moon perfectly eclipses the sun
≈ 1secon d (The orbital period is a function of distance from body orbited)
(K . E . Ear th)
and we have found one second in the kinetic energies of these
bodies, then since kinetic energy is a function of mass, then the
1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Ear th) masses of the moon and and earth should have some
= 1proton significant connection to their radii in connection with this
α 2 mp Gck ve (K . E . Moon)(Ear th Day) possible signature. And indeed we should compare these ratios
to their respective orbital velocities. We do that here:

For the moon:

1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Ear th) M𝑚/R𝑚=(7.34767E22kg)/(1,738,100m)=4.2274E16 kg/m
= 6protons
α 2 mp Gc (K . E . Moon)(Ear th Day) (M𝑚/R𝑚)(orbital velocity)=(4.2274E16 kg)(1,022m/s)=
4.32E19kg/s
Eq. 2.3.
For the earth:
Me/Re=(5.97E24kg)/(6,371,000m)=9.37E17 kg/m
1 h 4π rp2 (K . E . Ear th) (9.37E17 kg/m)(29,790m/s)=2.79E22 kg/s
=ℍ
α 2 mp Gck ve (K . E . Moon)(Ear th Day) My Abstract Cosmology was founded upon proton-seconds.
This is a related concept (kilograms per second) This is the
ℍ = hydrogen action of mass per time of the the respective motions of the
earth and the moon, I think this is exactly what we want to be
looking at.
Hydrogen and carbon are the core elements of life.
Hydrogen is the primary element from which all others When we say a possible signature, what do we mean? We
came into existence. cannot say, but we can suggest it is of a more advanced
sentience spiritually or intellectually.
It suggests as well that the moon might somehow be integral to
life, which is an extraordinary thing to suggest because we have This result makes sense; divide that of the earth by that of
always thought it is nothing more than a rock that happened to the sun…
form in orbit, having really no role in making life possible.
Thus for it to be otherwise, perhaps since it affects the tides Me ve Rm
and life began in the ocean, it played a role in life coming out of Equation 3.1 ⋅ ⋅ = 645.8333333
the sea to walk upon land. Re vm Mm
Clearly what we need to do here is…If we have considered the
orbital periods and sizes of the earth and moon and these
 33 of 47

This says that of the earth 645.833 times greater than that
of the moon. Divide that by the six or our six-fold 1 h 4π rp2 K . E . Ear th 1
symmetry… 3. ⋅ ⋅ =ℍ
α 2 mp Gck ve K . E . Moon Ear th − Day
645.833/6=107.6389
1 (1 + α)
4. k = h ⋅ NA𝔼
Now look at how many solar diameters are in the Earth- mi2 G
Sun separation:

1 1.496E11m
⋅ = 107.4187897
2 696.34E6m
The two are very, very near the same:

107.4187897
100 = 99.7955%
107.6389
It is now obvious that we can write:

Equation 3.2

1 Me ve Rm Ear th − Or ibtal − Ra dius

⋅ ⋅ ⋅ =
6 Re vm Mm Diamter − of − Sun

Four Basic Equations Of Creation From everything

we have said we can write four basic equation of creation:

1 Me ve Rm Ear th − Or ibtal − Ra dius

1. ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ =
6 Re vm Mm Diamter − of − Sun
K . E . Moon
2. ⋅ (Ear th − Day) = 1 − Secon d
K . E . Ear th
 34 of 47

There are 13.369 moons per year with respect to the stars and The Jupiter year is 12 Earth years and we have:
12.369 with respect to the Sun where 0.36 approximating
0.369 is 9/25. Four years is 1461 days is the number of years 1
between leap years (bringing the earth orbital period to an 12 = ⋅ vSaturn
800
integer number of days). That is 53.48 sidereal moons and
49.4475 synodic moons. That is a difference of 4 moons is Saturn moves through 4 degrees by the time Earth has moves
109.28 days where 0.28 is 7/25. Four moons is four months, or through our 120 degrees and we have:
1/3 of a year which is 120 degrees of the Earth’s 360 degree
orbit. Since Mars year is 687 days, that makes it about twice as 13,000(Jupiter)
long as the Earth year. Thus when the Earth has moved 4=
through 120 degrees, Mars has moved through 60 degrees. 800
Since the Jupiter year is 12 Earth years Jupiter has moved
through 10 degrees. The Venus year is 225 days meaning it is
about phi=0.618 times shorter than that of the Earth and after
the Earth has moved through 120 degrees it has moved
through 195 degrees. The Saturn year is 29 years, so it has
moved through 4 degrees.

What does all of this say with respect to the constant k when
multiplied with the orbital velocity of a planet, which is a
quantity that has no units, but is number, like in numbers of
state in quantum mechanics for the atoms, but here for the
planets? That is, what does all of this have to do with the table
and graph on page 30? The constant k is 1/800 seconds/meter.
We see this has interesting properties with respect to the
orbital velocities of the planets:

4 moons is the earth moving through 120 degrees. The Mars

year is nearly twice that of the Earth. Thus the 120 degrees the
Earth moves through in 4 moons, the number of moons we
said arises in the difference between synodic and sidereal
months over the four years that round the sothic cycle to a
whole number of days, is, divided by the Mars year 60 degrees.
We have

1
k vmercur y = ⋅ 4800 = 60
800
 35 of 47

What does abstract cosmology say about potentially hazardous h 4π rp2

objects?
1 K Eof Moon
≈6⋅ ⋅ Ear th Da y = (6)1.2secon d s
α 2 mp Gc K Eof Ear th
Essentially we have formed a Planck constant, h, for the moon
by multiplying its kinetic energy over the time for the period of To get
its orbit:
h ⋅ mi m
h =(3.67E28J)(2.36E6s)=8.6612E34J⋅s = 3,147.472kg ⋅
k ⋅ M⊙ ⋅ 1.2s s
And we developed a constant k:
p2
Which is momentum, p. We take to get kinetic energy:
1 (1 + α) 2m
k = h ⋅ NA𝔼
mi2 G
p2
= 2.9614E 33J
Where mi was our intermediary mass given by: 2m

mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

And then use E = m c 2 to get a mass:
We form h/k

h 8.6612E 34kg ⋅ J ⋅ s m = 3.295E16kg

= = 1.08265E 32kg ⋅ m
k 800s /m Where c=299,792,458m/s
We divide by the mass of the Sun, M⊙: The mass of the moon is 7.34767E22kg, so this means the
moon 1s 2.23E6 such units (2.23 million units). This is an
h 1.08265E 32kg ⋅ m asteroid about 25 kilometers across. The Average density of a
= = 54.432m eters
k ⋅ M⊙ 1.989E 30kg meteor is 4200 kg/m3. We write:

We multiply this by our intermediary mass that is on the macro 4

(4200kg /m 3) π r 3 = 3.295E16
scale: 3
h ⋅ mi This gives
= 3776.96656kg ⋅ mi
k ⋅ M⊙
r = 12,326m eters = 12.326k m
And finally divide this by our 1.2 seconds, which is:
 36 of 47

That is 3.295E16kg is a meteor 25 kilometers across which is mp c ve(1 + α) E M v R r

1
15.5 miles across. The consensus is that the meteor (Chicxulub α2 ⋅ NA𝔼 ⋅ m Te e e m = e
impactor) that brought about the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 rp mi 4π Ee Re vm Mm Dsun
million years ago was about 6.2 miles in diameter. If a near
earth object (NEO) crosses the Earth’s orbit and is at least 140 Te is the earth day:
meters across then it is a potentially hazardous object (PHO).
Most of these objects are asteroids, but can be comets.
Te = (24)(60)(60) = 86400s
We have Four Basic Equations Of Creation
Let us parse our equation according to dimensionless
quantities…
1 Me ve Rm Ear th − Or ibtal − Ra dius
1. ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ =
6 Re vm Mm Diamter − of − Sun c ve(1 + α)
NA𝔼 =
(299,792,458m /s)(29,790m /s)
6.02E 23
atom s 1gr a m
4π 4π gr a m atom
K . E . Moon
2. ⋅ (Ear th − Day) = 1 − Secon d =6.56E17m/s is a velocity.
K . E . Ear th
We have
1 h 4π rp2K . E . Ear th 1
3. ⋅ ⋅ =ℍ c ve(1 + α)
α 2 mp Gck ve K . E . Moon Ear th − Day Te
NA𝔼 = 6.8E 37
4π rp
1 (1 + α)
4. k = h ⋅ NA𝔼 Is dimensionless. We next have
mi2 G
Em Me ve Rm
Since in equation 3 carbon (ℂ = 6ℍ) is six, we can substitute it =
into equation one to bring together the kinetic energies of earth Ee Re vm Mm
and moon and one earth day (one second) with the mass of the
earth, radius of earth, earth and lunar velocities, radius of 3.67E 28J 5.97E 24kg 29,790m /s 1.76E6
moon and mass of moon, and earth orbital radius (we will call
=
2.649E 33J 6,371,000m 1,022m /s 7.34767E 22
re) and the diameter of the sun we will call Dsun. We will write
kinetic energies as E with the appropriate subscripts. We write 9E-3
out k in the equation from equation 4, which results in
eliminating G and h. We have: Is dimensionless. This leaves:
mp 1 1.67262E − 27kg
α2 = ⋅ = 1.2877E − 33
mi 137 2 69.205kg
 37 of 47

Is dimensionless. The final result is:

(1.29E-33)(6.8E37)(9E-3)=788/6=131.333
We take the earth orbit to the solar diameter and have:

re 1.496E11m
= = 107.5
Dsun 1.3914E 9m
Equation 5:

mp 1 c ve(1 + α) E M v R r
α2 ⋅ NA𝔼 ⋅ m Te e e m = 6 e
rp mi 4π Ee Re vm Mm Dsun

Equation 6:

k ve ℍ = ℂ
 38 of 47

Asteroids And finally divide this by our 1.2 seconds, which is:

What does abstract cosmology say about potentially hazardous h 4π rp2

objects?
1 K Eof Moon
≈6⋅ ⋅ Ear th Da y = (6)1.2secon d s
α 2 mp Gc K Eof Ear th
Essentially we have formed a Planck constant, h, for the moon
by multiplying its kinetic energy over the time for the period of To get
its orbit:
h ⋅ mi m
h =(3.67E28J)(2.36E6s)=8.6612E34J⋅s = 3,147 . 472kg ⋅
k ⋅ M⊙ ⋅ 1.2s s
And we developed a constant k:
p2
Which is momentum, p. We take to get kinetic energy:
1 (1 + α) 2m
k = h ⋅ NA𝔼
mi2 G
p2
= 2.9614E 33J
Where mi was our intermediary mass given by: 2m

mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg And then use E = m c 2 to get a mass:

We form h/k m = 3.295E16kg

h 8.6612E 34kg ⋅ J ⋅ s Where c=299,792,458m/s

= = 1.08265E 32kg ⋅ m
k 800s /m The mass of the moon is 7.34767E22kg, so this means the
moon 1s 2.23E6 such units (2.23 million units). This is an
We divide by the mass of the Sun, M⊙: asteroid about 25 kilometers across. The Average density of a
meteor is 4200 kg/m3. We write:

h 1.08265E 32kg ⋅ m
= = 54.432m eters 4
k ⋅ M⊙ 1.989E 30kg (4200kg /m 3) π r 3 = 3.295E16
3
We multiply this by our intermediary mass that is on the macro
scale: This gives

h ⋅ mi r = 12,326m eters = 12.326k m

= 3776.96656kg ⋅ mi
k ⋅ M⊙
 39 of 47

That is 3.295E16kg is a meteor 25 kilometers across which is

15.5 miles across. The consensus is that the meteor (Chicxulub
impactor) that brought about the extinction of the dinosaurs 65
million years ago was about 6.2 miles in diameter. If a near
earth object (NEO) crosses the Earth’s orbit and is at least 140
meters across then it is a potentially hazardous object (PHO).
Most of these objects are asteroids, but can be comets.
 40 of 47

Appendix 1

To find the translational kinetic energy of the

moon:
Distance from earth: 3.85E8m
2π(3.85E8m) = 2.419E9m
Orbital period:
T=27.32 days=2.36E6seconds
v=1.025E3m/s~1000m/s
Mass: 7.34767E22kg

1 2
Use E = mv
2
E=3.67E28 Joules

To find the translational kinetic energy of the

earth:

Distance from Sun: 1AU=1.496E11m

2π(1.496E11m) = 9.399E11m
Orbital period: 1 year=3.1558E7 seconds
v=2.9785E4m/s
E=2.649E33 Joules

Earth day=(24)(60)(60)=86,400 seconds.

 41 of 47

produces one proton (hydrogen). Beyond six seconds you

have fractional protons, and the rest of the elements heavier
Appendix 2 than carbon are formed by fractional seconds. These are the
hydrocarbons the backbones of biological chemistry. Here is
the code for the program:

1 h 4π rp2

#include <stdio.h>

α 2 mp Gc
#include <math.h>

int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {

Is proton-seconds. Divide by time we have a number of

protons because it is a mass divided by the mass of a proton.

But these masses can be considered to cancel and leave pure int n;

number. We make a program that looks for close to whole float value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27,
number solutions so we can create a table of values for h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,
problem solving.
c=299792459,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

By what value would you like to increment?: 0.25

do

How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation {

1 (no more than 100?): 100

printf("By what value would you like to increment?: ");

24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart

scanf("%f", &increment);

12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart

printf("How many values would you like to calculate for t in
8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart
equation 1 (no more than 100?): ");

6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart

scanf("%i", &n);

4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart

}

3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart

while (n>=101);

2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart

{

2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart

1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart

{

1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart

protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/
1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart
(G*c));

1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart

0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart

int intpart=(int)protons[i];

0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart

float decpart=protons[i]-intpart;

0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

t=t+increment;

if (decpart<0.25)

A very interesting thing here is looking at the values generated { printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n",
by the program, the smallest integer value 1 second produces protons[i], t-increment, decpart);

6 protons (carbon) and the largest integer value 6 seconds }}}}


 42 of 47

Appendix 3 Where kB is the Boltzmann constant (1.380649E − 23J ⋅ K −1).

Since we must have Pgravit y = Pthermal if the star is not to
The pressure Pgravit y of the outer shell of star balances with the implode or explode
outward pressure in the core of the star (thermal pressure).
F 1 GMshell mp
Pressure is force per unit surface area P = thus… kBTcore =
A 3 rcore
F = m a = PA And we have the estimate for the temperature of the core of a
ma star.
P=
A Fusion would not occur at the low temperature of a star like the
Mshell Mcore Sun in that there would not be enough energy for collisions,
ma = G unless the potential Coulomb barrier can be overcome by
rcore
2 quantum mechanical tunneling. The collisions are given by the
kinetic energy of the particles
Mcore is the mass of the core pulling in the mass of the shell
Mshell and rcore is the radius of the core. The surface area of the 1 2
mp v. We have
2
star is that of a sphere, A = 4π rcore . We have 2
M M e2 1
Pgravit y = G shell 4 core = mp v 2
4π rcore 4π ϵ0rmin 2

The thermal pressure countering the gravity is given by the The velocity v yields the minimum distance between protons as
ideal gas law PV=nRT (pressure times volume of a gas such as the De Broglie wavelength
hydrogen , which is all protons mp, is proportional to
h
Mcore λ=
temperature. The number of protons in the core Np is . mp2 v
mp
We have Since the velocity is the root mean square velocity of the
protons…
Mcore 1
Pthermal = ⋅ kBTcore
mp 3
4πrcore 3kBT
3 vrms =
mp
We have the temperature of the star is
 43 of 47

dr ( ρ(r) dr )
mp d r 2 dP(r)
( 4π ϵ0 ) 3π 2 h 2 kB
e2 = − 4π Gr 2 ρr
Tmin =

This is another estimate. Since the mass of a star is its volume If the star is an ideal gas the density of the star varies as
times its density PV γ = con sta nt where γ = 5/3 for a monatomic gas and
then
4 2
m= πr ρ 1γ
3 P∝ ∝ ρ 5/3
V
But for a star density varies with radius
In stellar dynamics we write
r

∫0
4π r 2 ρ(r)dr N ρ
=
V μmp
If we take the derivative of both sides of the equation we have
one of the equations of stellar structure: So that

dm(r) ρ
1. = 4π r 2 ρ(r) Pgas = kBT
dr μmp

The so-called conservation of mass equation. The force on the The abundance of hydrogen and helium in the universe are
shell of the star is given by the mass of the shell approximately 75% and 24%, respectively. Thus for every
4He2+ there are 12H+ and 2+12 free electrons. We have
m(r)4π r 2 ρ(r)
Fg = − G dr 4 + 12
r2 = 0.59
1 + 12 + 14
Again for their to be balance gravitation pressure equals
thermal pressure: Ionized hydrogen and helium have μ = 0.59 and for the Sun
μ = 0.62 because of high metal content. Finally stars can be
dρ(r) m(r)ρ(r) approximated as blackbody radiators (purely radiate) and as
2. =−G
dr r2 such pressure is given in terms of temperature (Temperature is
proportional to radiation energy):
Another equation of the equations of stellar structure. The so-
called equation of hydrostatic equilibrium. This can be written
 44 of 47

4 σ 4 Since ℏ = h /2π our constant k in terms the Chandrasekhar

Prad = ⋅ T
3 c limit is

There are three kinds of pressures that can be generated by a

4 8π 3G
star: gas pressure, radiation pressure, or degeneracy pressure. 5. k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA𝔼
3 c 3h
A type of star that is stable, that is prevented from collapse by
degeneracy pressure, is a so-called white dwarf star. They are There are more stellar structure equations we need to derive
the remnant of giant stars that have depleted the their fusion the Chandrasekhar limit. Those of energy production and
fuel and thereby collapsed under gravity but are kept from energy transport. For hydrogen burning stars the ratio of
collapsing into black holes by thermal pressure due to motion Prad
of the particles alone. Interestingly, they still shine almost as radiation pressure to gas pressure is independent of
bright as a star on the main sequence even though they are not Pgas
doing fusion. It was the Indian physicist Chandrasekhar who radius, r. It is proportional, then to the total pressure
found the limit in mass for which a white dwarf will not have Ptotal = Prad + Pgas.
its gravity overcome the degeneracy pressure and collapse. The
non-relativistic equation is: Prad = βPtotal

c 3h 3 Pgas = (1 − β )Ptotal
3. M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4
Prad β
=
Let us approximate 0.77 with 3/4. Since we have our constant Pgas 1−β
1 1+α Since we have
k = h ⋅ NA𝔼
mi2 G ρ
Pgas = kBT
μmp
And mi = Mmp
4 σ 4
Then Prad = ⋅ T
3 c
1/2
We have
3 c 3ℏ3
4. mi = 4σ 4 β
2 G 3mp2 T = k T
3c 1−β B
 45 of 47

ζ 2 dζ ( dζ )
3ckB β 1 d 2 dθ
T = ⋅ ρ 1/3 6. ζ = − θn
4μmp σ 1 − β
1/3 The degeneracy pressure of a white dwarf star is:
Pgas
1 − β μmp ( 4μmp σ 1 − β )
1 k 3ckB 1
P= = ⋅ B ⋅ ρ 4/3
4/3
1−β
12π 2 ( 2mP )
cℏ 3π 2
Pdegeneracy = ρ 4/3
1/3
3ckB4 β
( 4μ 4 mp4 σ (1 − β )4 )
= ρ 4/3
Using this in the Lane-Emden equation is to set the degeneracy
pressure equal to to the gravitational pressure, and setting the
boundary conditions we get the Chandrasekhar limit:
The so-called Eddington solar model which is and excellent
approximation to most main sequence stars.
c 3h 3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
In our white dwarf star P ≈ ρ 4/3 and the equation of state in GN3 mp4
many cases is simple
1 One of the most massive white dwarf stars is Sirius B, the
P = K ρ 1+ n companion of the main sequence star Sirius A, which is the
brightest star in the sky, called the “dog star”. It is 1.02 solar
For some values of K and n. These are called polytropic models. mass, just within the Chandrasekhar limit.
If ρc is the density at r=0, we can make P and r dimensionless
by writing In October of 1900 captain Demetrios Condos was on a diving
expedition along the African coast when he ran into a bad
n r (n + 1)K storm so he pulled into a port on the Northern tip Antikythera
ρ(r) = Pc θ (ζ ) , ζ= , r0 = Island. Since he knew his crew would take at this point to
r0 1
4π GPc1− n gambling, drinking and fighting he sent them diving for
sponges, which he didn’t need. The result was they found a
When we plug these into sunken Roman Galley and in it was an amazing treasure, the
Antikythera Mechanism a bunch of gears that when finally

dr ( ρ(r) dr )
d r 2 dP(r) analyzed turned out to be a computing machine that computed
= − 4π Gr 2 ρr astronomical positions that dated back to about 87 BC. The
largest gear was 15 centimeters in diameter (5.1 inches). The
gear ratios were such that they produced the positions of the
We get the Lane-Emden equation planets and the lunar eclipses by utilizing some very clever
mathematics worked out by Ancient Greek astronomers.
 46 of 47

While other ancient civilizations measured time by the

recurring position of the sun in the sky annually, the Ancient
Egyptian astronomers knew the Sun moved among the stars by
one degree every 72 years and as such used the recurring
position of the star Sirius to define the duration of a year
instead. This is the sothic year used as the basis of the
Antikythera mechanism. It makes the whole thing work
because the primary gear that turns all the other gears must
recur periodically in the same position after a round, whole
number of days, which it does every four years in the sothic
cycle. If we were to use the tropical year, which is 365.2422
days the gear would only align with the starting point every
5,000 solar years, the gear designed as such would make it
necessary to construct some of the other gears miles in
diameter. This makes possible to bring everything together
with this conceptual gear of 19 years.

That Sirius aids in a workable calendar, and that calendar

defines a second through the Ancient Sumerian, Babylonian,
and Greek system of sexagesimal base 60 counting system is
interesting.
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