Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher (Name of the teacher) as

well as our principal (Name of the principal)who gave me the golden opportunity to do this

wonderful project on the topic (Write the topic name), which also helped me in doing a lot of

Research and i came to know about so many new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing

this project within the limited time frame.

Introduction

The excretory system is a vital biological system that removes excess and waste products

from the body to maintain homeostasis. Most of these products are in fact used and broken

down components of metabolism that leave the

Body in the form of urine, sweat, or feces. While many organs are linked indirectly to the

removal of metabolic waste, the term excretory system refers to those organs that are used

strictly for the elimination and excretion of these broken-down components; this limits the

focus of a discussion of the excretory system to mainly the urinary, or renal, system, which

consists of the kidneys, ureters, a bladder, and a urethra. While there is a specific set of

organs generally referred to as the excretory system, there are several auxiliary organs that

play roles in other major body systems that help in the excretory system’s function.

Excretion

Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one of the

major ways the body maintains homeostasis. Although the kidneys are the main organs of

excretion, several other organs also excrete wastes. They include the large intestine, liver, skin,

and lungs. All of these organs of excretion, along with the kidneys, make up the excretory
system. This lesson focuses on the role of the kidneys in excretion. The roles of the other

excretory organs are summarized below:

 The large intestine eliminates solid wastes that remain after the digestion of food.

 The liver breaks down excess amino acids and toxins in the blood.

 The skin eliminates excess water and salts in sweat.

 The lungs exhale water vapor and carbon dioxide.

Urinary System

The kidneys are part of the urinary system, which is shown in Figure1. PNG. The main function

of the urinary system is to filter waste products and excess water from the blood and excrete

them from the body.

Kidneys and Homeostasis

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs just above the waist. They play many vital roles

in homeostasis. A cross-section of a kidney is shown in Figure 2.PNG. They filter all the blood

in the body many times each day and produce a total of about 1.5 liters of urine. Urine is the

liquid waste product of the body that is excreted by the urinary system. The kidneys control the

amount of water, ions, and other substances in the blood by excreting more or less of them in

urine. The kidneys also secrete hormones that help maintain homeostasis. Erythropoietin, for

example, is a kidney hormone that stimulates bone marrow to produce red blood cells when

more are needed. The kidneys themselves are also regulated by hormones.

The Nephron

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. It is a tube-like structure that spans the renal

cortex and medulla. The average human kidney contains 800,000- 1.5 million nephrons. The

nephron is the site of ion and water reabsorption, and where urine is produced3.PNG
The nephron has five regions.

 Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule

 The inner layer of the capsule is composed of cells called podocytes. They have long,

branching processes that cling and intertwine with each other, forming a porous

membrane around the glomerulus, which is the mass of capillaries within the capsule.

 The blood pressure within the glomerulus is extremely high due to the differences in

diameter between the large afferent arteriole and the narrower efferent arteriole. This

forces fluids and solutes into the glomerular capsule.

 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

 The PCT is a highly coiled region, which is closely associated with the peritubular

capillary bed.

 It is the site of early reabsorption of water, ions, glucose, and amino acids

 Nitrogenous wastes and blood pollutants such as medications are secreted

 By the end of the PCT, 60% of the original water is reabsorbed, and 65% of original ions

 Loop of Henle

 The descending segment is the site of water reabsorption. This is a passive process,

which occurs via osmosis due to the ion gradient created by the ascending segment.

 The ascending segment is the site of ion reabsorption, which occurs via active transport.

 By the end of the Loop of Henle, 80% of the original water is reabsorbed and 90% of the

original ions.

 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

 This is the site of the secretion of any extra wastes.

 Collecting Duct

 The main function is the absorption of more water. It relies on the solute gradient created

by the Loop of Henle.

with microvilli, which increase the surface area.

Associated Vessels

 Afferent arteriole transports blood into the...

 Glomerulus (capillary bed), where it then moves into the...

 Efferent arteriole, which leaves the nephron. It is much narrower than the afferent arteriole,

causing high pressure and encouraging filtration.

 Peritubular capillaries are capillaries that arise from the efferent arteriole. Their main purpose

is resorption of the solutes and water from the tubule cells.

 Vasa recta capillaries are the portions of the peritubular capillaries that surround the Loop of

Henle.

Nephrons may be classified by their location. Most nephrons are located almost completely

within the cortex, and are called cortical nephrons. Nephrons that are found close to the

boundary between the cortex and the medulla, and whose loops of Henle are mainly within the

medulla are known as juxtamedullary nephrons.

Functions

 Excretion- remove waste products from the blood

 Regulation of blood volume and pressure- kidneys control amount of extracellular fluid, can

make dilute or very concentrated urine

 Regulation of the concentration of solutes in the blood- kidneys regulate molecules and ions

like glucose, sodium, hydrogen carbonate

 Regulation of red blood cell synthesis- kidneys secrete erythropoietin, which regulates blood

cell production in bone marrow

 Vitamin D synthesis- kidneys control blood levels of calcium by regulation synthesis of

vitamin D.
Filtering Blood and Forming Urine

4.jpg

As shown in Figure below, each nephron is like a tiny filtering plant. It filters blood and forms

urine in the following steps:

1. Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into capillaries. When

blood passes through capillaries of the glomerulus of a nephron, blood pressure forces

some of the water and dissolved substances in the blood to cross the capillary walls into

Bowman’s capsule.

2. The filtered substances pass to the renal tubule of the nephron. In the renal tubule, some

of the filtered substances are reabsorbed and returned to the bloodstream. Other

substances are secreted into the fluid.

3. The fluid passes to a collecting duct, which reabsorbs some of the water and returns it to

the bloodstream. The fluid that remains in the collecting duct is urine.

Excretion of Urine

From the collecting ducts of the kidneys, urine enters the ureters; two muscular tubes that move

the urine by peristalsis to the bladder (see Figure above). The bladder is a hollow, sac-like

organ that stores urine. When the bladder is about half full, it sends a nerve impulse to a

sphincter to relax and let urine flow out of the bladder and into the urethra. The  urethra is a

muscular tube that carries urine out of the body. Urine leaves the body through another

sphincter in the process of urination. This sphincter and the process of urination are normally

under conscious control.

Urine consists of mostly water and then some other chemicals and compounds. The

approximate composition of urine is listed below from highest proportion to lowest.

 Water - 95%

 Urea - 2%

 Chloride - .6%

 Potassium - .6%

 Sulphate - .18%

 Phosphate - .12%

 Sodium - .1%

 Creatinine - .1%

 Ammonia - .05%

 Uric Acid - .03%

 Calcium - .015%

 Magnesium - .01%

2.jpg

Disorders

A person can live a normal, healthy life with just one kidney. However, at least one kidney must

function properly to maintain life. Diseases that threaten the health and functioning of the

kidneys include kidney stones, infections, and diabetes

Kidney Stones

 General Overview: Kidney stones (renal lithiasis, nephrolithiasis) are hard deposits made of

minerals and salts that form inside your kidneys.

 Cause:

 Symptoms:
 *Pain in the back, belly or side

*Pain or burning during urination

*Urgent need to go

*Blood in the urine

*Cloudy or smelly urine

*Going a small amount at the time

*Nausea and vomiting

*Fever or chills

 Treatment: One treatment option is shock wave lithotripsy. This treatment uses shock waves

to break up the kidney stones into small pieces. After the treatment, the small pieces of the

kidney stone will pass through your urinary tract and out of your body with your urine.

Urinary Tract Infections

 General Overview: Infection in any part of the urinary system

 Cause:bacteria in the urinary tract, most commonly E. coli

 Symptoms:

*persistant urge to urinate

*burning sensation during urination

*cloudy or red urine

*strong smelling urine

 Treatment:

•drink more liquids

•proper hygiene
Glomerulonephritis

 General Overview: inflammation of the glomeruli

 Cause: Can be caused by infections or occur alongside another disease, such as diabetes

 Symptoms: pink, foamy urine

•swelling

• High blood pressure

 Treatment: Acute may pass on its own

•Treating the underlying cause (infection, disease)

Renal failure

 General Overview: Kidney loses its ability to filter substances. Can be acute or chronic,

which has 5 stages. A Glomerular Filtration Rate of under 15 indicates renal failure.

 Cause: diabetes is the most common cause

•can be genetic

•high blood pressure

 Symptoms:

•too much or not enough urine

•back pain and muscle cramps

 Treatment:

•dialysis

•kidney transplant

Incontinence

 General Overview: Loss of bladder control and control of urination.

•can occur due to pressure when coughing or laughing

•can occur due to other diseases, such as diabetes

•bladder overflow

 Symptoms: involuntary urination

 Treatment: medications that relax the bladder muscles, such as Oxybutynin

Prostatitis

 General Overview: swelling of the prostate

 Cause:

•can be caused by bacterial infections

• can be caused by nerve damage in lower urinary tract

 Symptoms:

•painful and difficult urination

• Frequent urination

•dark or cloudy urine

 Treatment: Can pass on its own, or antibiotics can be used

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

 General Overview: prostate gland enlargement that can cause difficulty in urination

 Cause: Age-associated

 Symptoms:

-frequent need to urinate

-inability to empty bladder fully

-urinary tract infection

Glomerulosclerosis

 General Overview: Hardedning of the glomeruli in the kidney.

 Cause: scarring of glomeruli, diabetes, HIV, and other diseases

 Symptoms: Edema, foamy urine, high cholesterol, proteinuria, weight gain

 Treatment: Steroids such as prednisone to control proteinuria, ACE inhibitors, or Angiotensin

receptor blockers