Welding Inspection

CSWIP 3.0

2009

1. Typical Duties and Welding Inspectors

2. Terms and Definitions
3. Materials Inspection
4. Codes and Standards
5. Welding Processes
6. Welding Consumables
7. Arc Welding Safety
8. Parasitical Visual Inspection
9. Application and Control of Preheat
 1. Typical Duties of Welding Inspection
1-1. General 1-3. Welding Inspection Personnel

Welding inspectors are employed to assist with Before starting work on a particular contract, BS
the quality control (QC) activities that are 970 states that welding inspectors should:
necessary to ensure that welded items will meet
specified requirements and be fit for their  be familiar with relevant standards*,
application. rules and specifications for the
fabrication work that is to be
For employers to have confidence in their work, undertaken
welding inspectors need to have the ability to (*Standards may be National or Client)
understand/interpret the various QC procedures  be informed about the welding
and also have sound knowledge of welding procedure(s) to be used
technology.  have good vision – in accordance with
EN 473 & should be checked every 12
Visual inspection is one of the Non-Destructive months
Examination disciplines and for some
applications may be the only form of NDE. BS EN 970 does not give make any
recommendation about a formal qualification for
For more demanding service conditions, visual visual inspection of welds. However, it has
inspection is usually followed by one or more of become industry practice for inspectors to have
the other NDT techniques – surface crack practical experience of welding inspection
detection and volumetric inspection of butt together with a recognized qualification in
welds. Welding Inspection – such as a CSWIP
qualification.
Application Standards/Codes usually specify (or
refer to other standards) the acceptance criteria
for weld inspection and may be very specific 1.4 Conditions for Visual Inspection
about the particular techniques to be used for
surface crack detection and volumetric Illumination
inspection, they do not usually give any BS EN 970 states that the minimum illumination
guidance about basic requirements for visual shall be 350 lux*.
inspection.
(* normal shop or office lighting)
Guidance and basic requirements for visual
inspection are given by: BS EN 970 (Non- Access
destructive Examination of Fusion Welds- Access to the surface, for direct inspection,
Visual Examination) should enable the eye:

 to be within 600 mm of the surface

being inspected
1-2. Basic Requirements for Visual
 to be in a position to give a viewing
Inspection (to BS EN 970)
angle of not less than 30°
BS EN 970 provides the following:

 requirements for welding inspection

personnel
 recommendations about conditions
suitable for visual examination
 the use of gauges/inspection aids that
may be needed/helpful for inspection
 guidance about when inspection may be
required during the stages of
fabrication
 guidance about information that may
1.5 Aids to Visual Inspection
need to be included in the inspection
records
Where access is restricted for direct visual
inspection, the use of a mirrored boroscope, or
A summary of each of these topics is given in
a fiber optic viewing system, are options that
the following sub-sections.
may be used – usually by agreement between
the contracting parties.

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 fabrication sequence in order to make
It may also be necessary to provides auxiliary judgments about particular details.
lighting to give suitable contrast and relief effect
between surface imperfections and the Typical documents that may need to be referred
background. to are:

Other items of equipment that may be  the Application Standard (or Code)
appropriate, to facilitate visual examination, (for visual acceptance criteria – see
are: note below*)
 quality plans or inspection check lists
 welding gauges (for checking bevel (for the type & extent of inspection)
angles and weld profile, fillet sizing,  drawings (for assembly fit-up details
measuring undercut depth) and dimensional requirements)
 dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear  QC procedures (company QC/QA
misalignment (high-low) gauges procedures such as those for –
 straight edges and measuring tapes document control, material handling,
 magnifying lens (if magnification lens electrode storage and issue, WPSs etc)
used to aid visual examination it should
be X2 to X5) Note: Although most of the requirements for
the fabricated item should be specified by
BS 970 has schematics of a range of welding National Standards, Client Standards or various
gauges together with details of what they can QC Procedures, some features are not easy to
be used for and the precision of the define precisely and the requirement may be
measurements that can be made. given as ‘to good workmanship standard’.

Examples of requirements that are difficult to

1.6 Stages when Inspection may be define precisely are some shape tolerances,
distortion, surface damage or the amount of
required
weld spatter.
BS EN 970 states that examination is normally
‘Good workmanship’ is the standard that a
performed on welds ion the as-welded condition.
competent worker should be able to achieve
This means that visual inspection of the finished
without difficulty when using the correct tools in
weld is a minimum requirement.
a particular working environment.
However, BS EN 970 goes on to say that the
In practice the application of the fabricated item
extent of examination, and the stages when
will be the main factor that influences what is
some inspection activity is required, should be
judged to be good workmanship as well as the
specified by the Application Standard or by
standard that a particular fabricator has become
agreement between Client and fabricator.
used to satisfy particular Clients.
For fabricated items that must have high
‘Reference’ samples are sometimes needs to
‘integrity’, such as pressure vessels and piping
give guidance about the acceptance standard
or large structures inspection activity will
for details such as weld surface finish & toe
usually be required throughout the fabrication
blend, weld root profile and finish required for
process, namely:
welds that need to be dressed – by grinding or
finishing.
 before welding
 during welding
A welding Inspector should also ensure that any
 after welding
inspection aids that will be needed are:
inspection ‘activities’ at each of these stages of
 in good condition
fabrication can be considered to be the ‘duties
 calibrated – as appropriates/ as
of the welding inspector’ and typical inspection
specified by QC Procedures
checks that may be required are described in
the following section.
Safety “Consciousness’ is a duty of all
employees and a Welding Inspector should:
1.7 Typical Duties of a Welding  be aware of all safety regulations for
Inspector the workplace
 ensure that safety equipment that will
The relevant standards, rules and specifications be needed is available and in suitable
that a Welding Inspector should be familiar with condition.
at the start of a new contract are all the
documents he will need to refer to during the

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Duties Before Welding sentence in accordance with
Check Action Code.
Material is in accordance with Dimensional check dimensions are in
drawing/WPS. Survey accordance with Drawing/Code.
is identified and can be traced Drawings ensure any modifications are
to a test certificate. include on ‘as-built’ drawings.
is in suitable condition (free NDT ensure all NDT is complete and
from damage and reports are available for
contamination). records.
WPS have been approved and are Repairs monitor in accordance with the
available to welder (and Procedure.
inspectors). PWHT, if required monitor for compliance with
Welding Equipment is in suitable condition and Procedure (check chart record).
calibrated as appropriate. Pressure/Load ensure test equipment is
Weld Preparations are in accordance with WPS Test, if required calibrated.
(and/or drawings). monitor test to ensure
Welder identification of welders compliance with
Qualifications qualified for each WPS to be Procedure/Code.
used all welder qualification ensure reports/records are
certificates are valid (‘in-date’). available.
Welding those to be used are as Documentation ensure all reports/records are
Consumables specified by the WPS are being Records completed and collated as
stored/controlled as specified required.
by the QC procedure.
Joint Fit-ups are in accordance with
WPS/Drawing.
tack welds are to good
workmanship standard and to 1.8 Examination Records
Code/WPS.
Weld Faces are free from defects, The requirement for examination record/
contamination and damage.
inspection reports will vary according to
Preheat, if required Minimum temperature is in
accordance with WPS. contract and type of fabrication and there is
frequently no requirement for a formal record.
Duties During Welding
Check Action
Site/field Welding ensure weather conditions are When an inspection record is required it may be
suitable/comply with Code
(conditions will not affect necessary to show that items have been
welding).
checked at the specified stages and that they
Welding Process is in accordance with WPS.
Preheat, if required minimum temperature is being have satisfied the acceptance criteria.
maintained in accordance with
WPS.
Interpass maximum temperature is in The form of this record will vary – possibly a
Temperature accordance with WPS.
signature against an activity on an Inspection
Welding are in accordance with WPS
Consumables and being controlled as Checklist or on a Quality Plan, or it may be an
Procedure.
Welding current, voltage, travel speed, individual inspection report for each item.
Parameters are in accordance with WPS.
Root Run is visually acceptable to Code
(before filling the joint) for For individual inspection reports, BS EN 970
single sided welds. lists typical details for inclusion such as:
Gouging/Grinding is by an approved method and
to good workmanship standard.
Inter-run Cleaning is to good workmanship  name of manufacturer/fabricator
standard.
Welder is on the approval  identification of item examined
register/qualified for the WPS
 material type and thickness
being used.
 type of joint
Duties After Welding  welding process
Check Action
Weld Identification each weld is marked with the  acceptance standard/acceptance
welder’s identification. criteria
each weld is identified in
accordance with drawing/weld  locations and types of all imperfections
map.
not acceptable (when specified, it may
Weld Appearance ensure welds are suitable for all
NDT (profile, cleanness etc).
visually inspect welds and

5
 be necessary to include an accurate QU2. List desirable characteristic that all
sketch or photo) welding inspectors should possess?
 name of examiner/inspector and date of
examination

QU3. List 5 areas of knowledge with which a

Questions
proficient welding inspector should be familiar
with?
Responsibilities and duties of a welding
inspector

QU1. List 4 areas that would generally be

QU4. Give six main duties of a welding inspector
covered by a non-destructive examination
before welding, during welding and after
(NDE) inspection standard for welds?
welding.

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 2. Terms and Definitions
2.0 Terms and Definitions Autogenous weld:
A fusion weld made without filler metal, can be
Note: achieved only by TIG or Oxyfuel gas welding.
The following definitions are taken from BS
499-1:1991 “Welding terms and symbols – Slot weld:
Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal A joint between two overlapping components
cutting.” made by depositing a weld round the periphery
of a hole in one component so as to join it to
Welding: the surface of the other component exposed
An operation in which two or more parts are through the hole.
united by means of heat or pressure or both, in
such a way that there is continuity in the nature
of the metal between theses parts.

Brazing:
A process of joining generally applied to metals
in which, during or after heating, molten filler
metal is drawn into or retained in the space
between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts Plug weld:
to be joined by capillary attraction. In general, A weld made by filling a hole in one component
the melting point of the filler metal is above of a workpiece with filler metal so as to
450 but always below the melting temperature join it to the surface of an overlapping
or the parent material. component exposed through the hole
(the hole can be circular or oval).
Brazing welding:
The joining of metals using a technique similar
to fusion welding and a filler metal with a lower
melting point than the parent metal, but neither
using capillary action as in brazing nor
intentionally melting the parent metal.

Weld:
A union of pieces of metal made by welding.
2.1.2 From The Penetration Point of View
Joint:
A connection where the individual components, Full penetration weld:
suitably prepared and assembled, are joined by A welded joint where the weld metal fully
welding or brazing. penetrates the joint with complete root fusion.
In US the preferred term is complete joint
penetration weld or CJP for short (see AWS
2.1 Types of Welds D1.1)

2.1.1 From Configuration Point of View

Partial penetration weld:

A welded joint without full penetration. In US
the partial joint penetration weld or PJP for
short.

2.2 Types of Joints (See EN ISO 15607)

Homogeneous joint:
Welded joint in which the weld metal and
parent material have no significant differences

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in mechanical properties and/or chemical
composition. For example two carbon steel
plates welded with a matching carbon steel
electrode.

Heterogeneous joint:
Welded joint in which the weld metal and
parent material have significant differences in
mechanical properties and/or chemical
composition. For example a repair weld of a Cruciform joint:
cast iron item performed with a nickel base A connection in which two flat plates or two
electrode. bars are welded to another flat plate at right
angles and on the same axis.
Dissimilar joint:
Welded joint in which the parent material have
significant differences in mechanical properties
and/or chemical composition. For example a
carbon steel lifting lug welded onto an
austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel.

Butt joint:
A connection between the ends or edges of two
parts making an angle to another of 135° to Lap joint:
A connection between two overlapping parts
180° inclusive in the region of the joint.
making an angle to one another of 0° to 5°
inclusive in the region of the weld or welds

T-joint:
A connection between the ends or edges of one
part and the face of the other part, the parts
making an angle to one another of more than 2.3 Features of the Completed Weld
5° up to and including 90° in the region of the
joint. Parent metal:
Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding,
brazing welding or brazing.

Filler metal:
Metal added during welding, brazing welding,
brazing or surfacing.

Weld metal:
Corner joint: All metal melted during the making of a weld
A connection between the ends or edges of two and retained in the weld.
parts making an angle to one another of more
than 30° but less than 135° in the region of the Heat-affected zone (HAZ):
joint. The part of the parent metal that is
metallurgically affected by the heat of welding
or thermal cutting, but not melted.

Fusion line:
The boundary between the weld metal and the
HAZ in a fusion weld. This is a non-standard
term for weld junction.

Weld zone:
Edge joint: The zone containing the weld metal and the
A connection between the edges of two parts HAZ.
making an angle to one another or 0° to 30°
inclusive in the region of the joint. Weld face:
The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the
side from which the weld has been made.

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Root: a single J preparation for a MMA weld on carbon
The zone on the side of the first run farthest steel plates, this angle is between 10-20°.
from the welder.
Included angle:
Toe:
The angle between the planes of the fusion
The boundary between a weld face and parent
faces of parts to be welded. In case of single V,
metal or between runs. This is a very important
single U, double V and double U this angle is
feature of a weld since toes are points of high
twice the bevel angle. In case of single bevel,
stress concentration and often they are
single J, double bevel and double J, the
initiation points for different types of cracks
included angle is equal to the bevel angle.
(e.g. fatigue cracks, cold cracks). In order to
reduce the stress concentration, toe must blend
Root face:
smoothly into the parent metal surface.
The portion of a fusion face at the root that is
not beveled or grooved. It’s value depends on
Excess weld metal:
the welding process used, parent material to be
Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the
welded and application, for a full penetration
toes. Other non-standard terms for this feature:
weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value
reinforcement, overfill.
between 1 – 2 mm.

Gap:
The minimum distance at any cross section
between edges, ends, or surfaces to be joined.
Its value depends on the welding process used
and application; for a full penetration weld on
carbon steel plates, it has a value between 1 –
4 mm.

Root radius:
The radius of the curved portion of the fusion
face in a component prepared for a single J,
single U, double J or double U weld. In case of
MMA, MIG/MAG and oxyfuel gas welding on
carbon steel plates, the root radius has a value
of 6 mm in case of single and double U
preparations and 8 mm in case of single and
double J preparations.

Land:
The straight portion of a fusion face between
the root face and the curved part of a J or U
preparation. Can be 0. Usually present in case
of weld preparations for MIG welding of
aluminum alloy.

2.4 Weld Preparation 2.4.2 Types of Preparation

A preparation for making a connection where Open square butt preparation:

the individual components, suitably prepared This preparation is used for welding thin
and assembled, are joined by welding or components, either from one side or both sides.
brazing. If the root gas is zero (i.e. if components are in
contact), this preparation becomes a closed
2.4.1 Feature of the Weld Preparation square butt preparation (un-recommended due
to the lack of penetration problems).
Angle of bevel:
The angle at which the edge of a component is
prepared for making a weld. In case of a V
preparation for a MMA weld on carbon steel
plates, this angle is 30°. In case of a U
Single V preparation:
preparation for a MMA weld on carbon steel
The V preparation is one of the most common
plates, this angle is between 8-12°. In case of a preparations used in welding; it can be
single bevel preparation for a MMA weld on produced using flame or plasma cutting (cheap
carbon steel plates, this angle is 50°. In case of and fast). For thicker plates a double V
preparation is preferred since it requires less

9
filler material to complete the joint and the Single V preparation with backing strip:
residual stresses can be balanced on both sides The backing strip is made out of the same type
of the joint resulting in lower angular distortion. of material as the parent material. The
thickness of this backing strip is minimum 6
mm. It allows the production of full penetration
welds with increased current and hence
increased deposition rates/productivity without
the danger of burn-through. Usually the
backing strip is tack welded on the backside of
one component using a fillet weld. The main
problems related with this type of weld are poor
fatigue resistance and the probability of crevice
corrosion between the parent metal and the
backing strip. It is also difficult to examine by
Double V preparation: NDT due to the built-in crevice at the root of
The depth of preparation can be the same on the joint. Note that in this case there is no root
both sides (symmetric double V preparation) or face.
the depth of preparation can be deeper on one
side compared with the opposite side
(asymmetric double V preparation). Usually in
this situation the depth of preparation is
distributed as 1/3 of the thickness of the plate
on one side vs. the remaining 2/3 on the
All these preparations (single/double bevel and
backside. This asymmetric preparation allows
single/double J) can be used on T joints as well.
for a balanced welding sequence with root back
Double preparations are recommended in case
gouging, giving lower angular distortions.
of thick sections. The main advantage of these
Whilst single V preparation allows welding from
preparations is that only one component is
one side, double V preparation requires both
prepared (cheap, can allow for small
sides access (the same applies for all double
misalignments).
side preparations).
For further details regarding weld preparations,
please refer to BS EN ISO 9692 standard.

Single U preparation:
U preparation can be produced only by
machining (slow and expensive). However,
tighter tolerances obtained in this case provide
for a better fit-up than in the case of V
preparations. Usually it is applied for thicker
plates compared with single V preparation
(requires less filler material to complete the
joint and this lead to lower residual stresses
and distortions). Similar with the V preparation,
in case of very thick sections a double U
preparation can be used.

Double U preparation:
Usually this type of preparation does not
require a land (exception: aluminum alloys).

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2.5 Size of Butt Welds Types of butt weld (from accessibility point of
view)
Full penetration butt weld

Partial penetration butt weld

2.6 Fillet Weld

A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion

spot weld, which is approximately triangular in
transverse cross section.

As a general rule: 2.6.1 Size of fillet welds

Actual throat thickness=
Design throat thickness + Excess weld metal Unlike butt welds, fillet welds can be defined
using several dimensions.
Full penetration butt weld ground flush:
Actual throat thickness:
The perpendicular distance between two lines,
each parallel to a line joining the outer toes,
one being a tangent at the weld face and the
other being through the furthermost point of
fusion penetration.
Butt weld between two plates of different
thickness
Design throat thickness:
The minimum dimension of throat thickness
used for purposes of design. Also known as
effective throat thickness. Symbolized on the
drawing with “a”.

Leg length:
Actual throat Design throat
The distance form the actual from the actual or
thickness= thickness=
Maximum thickness Thickness of the projected intersection of the fusion faces and
through the joint thinner plate the toe of a fillet weld, measured across the
fusion face. Symbolized on the drawing with “z”.
Run (pass):
The metal melted or deposited during one
passage of an electrode, torch or blowpipe.

Layer: 2.6.2 Shape of fillet welds

A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or
more runs. Mitre fillet weld:
A flat face fillet weld in which the leg lengths
are equal within the agreed tolerance. The cross
section area of this type of weld is considered
to be a right angle isosceles triangle with a
design throat thickness “a” and a leg length “z”.
The relation between design throat thickness
and leg length is:

a = 0.070 x z or z = 1.41 x a

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 Deep penetration fillet weld:
A fillet weld with a deeper than normal
penetration. It is produced using high heat
input welding processes (i.e. SAW or MAG with
spray transfer). This type of weld uses the
benefits of greater arc penetration to obtain the
required throat thickness whilst reducing the
Convex fillet weld: amount of deposited metal needed, thus
A fillet weld in which the weld face is convex. leading to a reduction in residual stress level. In
The above relation between the leg length and order to produce a consistent and constant
the design throat thickness written in case of penetration, the travel speed must be kept
mitre fillet welds is also valid for this type of constant, at a high value. As a consequence,
weld. Since there is an excess weld metal this type of weld is usually produced using
present in this case, the actual throat thickness mechanized or automatic welding processes.
is bigger than the design throat thickness. Also the high depth-width ratio increases the
probability of solidification centerline cracking.
In order to differentiate this type of welds from
the previous types, the throat thickness is
symbolized with “s” instead of “a”.

Concave fillet weld:

A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave.
The above relation between the leg length and
the design throat thickness written in case of
2.6.3 Compound of butt and fillet welds
mitre fillet welds is not anymore valid for this
type of weld. Also the design throat thickness is
A combination of butt and fillet welds used in
equal to the actual throat thickness. Due to the
case of T joints with full or partial penetration
smooth blending between the weld face and the
or butt joints between two plates with different
surrounding parent material, the stress
thickness. Fillet welds added on top of the
concentration effect at the toes of the weld is
groove welds improve the blending of weld face
reduced compared with the previous type. This
towards parent metal surface and reduce the
is why this type of weld is highly desired in case
stress concentration at the toes of the weld.
of applications subjected to cyclic loads where
fatigue phenomena might be a major cause for
failure.

Asymmetrical fillet weld: 2.7 Welding Position, Weld Slope and

A fillet weld in which the vertical leg length is Weld Rotation
not equal with the horizontal leg length. The
relation between the leg length and the design Weld position:
throat thickness written in case of mitre fillet The orientation of a weld expressed in terms of
welds is not anymore valid for this type of weld working position, weld slope and weld rotation
because the cross section is not anymore an (for further details, please see ISO 6947).
isosceles triangle.
Weld slope:
The angle between root line and the positive X-
axis of the horizontal reference plane,
measured in mathematically positive direction
(i.e. counter-clockwise).

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Weld rotation: Horizontal overhead (PD):
The angle between the centerline of the weld A welding position in which the welding is
and the positive Z-axis or a line parallel to the horizontal and overhead (applicable in case of
Y-axis, measured in the mathematically positive fillet welds). Symbol according ISO 6947-PD
direction (i.e. counter-clockwise) in the plane of
the transverse cross section of the weld in
question.

Overhead position (PE):

Flat position (PA): A welding position in which the welding is
A welding position in which the welding is horizontal and overhead, with the centerline of
horizontal, with the centerline of the weld the weld vertical. Symbol according ISO 6947-
vertical. Symbol according ISO 6947-PA. PE

Vertical up position (PF):

A welding position in which the welding is
upwards. Symbol according ISO 6947-PF.

Horizontal-vertical position (PB):

A welding position in which the welding is
horizontal (applicable in case of fillet welds).
Symbol according ISO 6947-PB.

Horizontal position (PC):

A welding position in which the welding is
horizontal, with the centerline of the weld Vertical down position (PG):
horizontal. Symbol according ISO 6947-PC. A welding position in which the welding is
downwards. Symbol according ISO 6947-PG.

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 Z-oscillation Half-moon oscillation

Stringer bead:
A run of weld metal made with little or no
weaving motion.

Questions

Terminology
QU1.
Sketch a single U butt joint and indicate the
following:
a) root face
b) root gap
c) included angle
d) root radius

QU2.
Sketch a tee joint, fillet welded with deep
penetration and indicate the following:
a) leg length
b) design throat thickness
c) root
d) weld toes

QU3.
Complete the necessary features of the sketch:

Tolerances for welding positions

2.8 Weaving

Transverse oscillation of an electrode or of a

blowpipe nozzle during the deposition of weld
QU4.
metal. This technique is generally used I case of
Sketch three joint types in addition to a butt
vertical up welds.
weld:

14
 3. Materials Inspection
3.1 General commonly used materials and most alloys of
these materials can be fusion welded using
One of the duties of the Visual/Welding various welding processes, in a wide range of
Inspector is to carry out materials inspection. thickness, and, where applicable, diameters.
There are a number of situations where the
inspector will be required to carry out materials Reference to other standards such as ISO
inspection: 15608 Welding-Guidelines for a metallic
 at the plate or pipe mill material grouping system, steel producer’s and
 of material during fabrication or welding consumable data books can also
construction provide the inspector with guidance on the
 of material after installation, usually suitability of a material and consumable type
during a planned maintenance program, for a given application.
outage or shutdown.

A wide range of materials are available, that 3.3 Material Traceability

can be used in fabrication and welding. These
include, but are not limited to: Traceability is defined as “the ability to trace
 steels the history, application or location of that which
 stainless steels is under consideration.” In case of a welded
 aluminum and its alloys product, traceability may require the inspector
 nickel and its alloys to consider:
 copper and its alloys
 titanium and its alloys  the origin of the materials-both parent
 cast iron and filler material
 the processing history-for example
These materials are all widely used in before or after PWHT
fabrication, welding and construction to meet  the location of the product-this would
the requirements of a diverse range of usually refer to a specific part of sub-
applications and industry sectors. assembly

These are three essential aspects to materials In order to trace the history of the material,
inspection that the inspector should consider: reference to the inspection documents must be
1. material type and weldability made. BS EN 10204 metallic Products-Types of
2. material traceability inspection documents is the standard, which
3. material condition and dimensions provides guidance on these types of document.
Under BS EN 10204 inspection documents fall
into two types:
3.2 Material Types and Weldability
Non-Specific Inspection (a)
A welding inspector must be able to understand Inspection carried out by the manufacturer in
and interpret the material designation in order accordance with his own procedures to assess
to check compliance with relevant normative whether products defined by the same product
documents. For example materials standards specification and made by the same
such as BS EN, API, ASTM, the welding manufacturing process, are in compliance with
procedure specification (WPS), the purchase the requirements of the order or not.
order, fabrication drawings, the quality plan/the
contract specification and client requirements. Type 2.1 is documents in which the
manufacturer declares that the products
A commonly used material standard for steel supplied are in compliance with the
designation is BS EN 10025 – Hot rolled requirements of the order without inclusion of
products of non-alloy structural steels. test results.

A typical steel designation to this standard, Type 2.2 is documents in which the
S355J2G3, would be classified as follows: manufacturer declared that the products
supplied are in accordance with the
S Structural Steel requirements of the order and in which test
355 Minimum Yield Strength: N/mm2 at t≤16 results based on non-specific inspection are
mm supplied.
J2 Longitudinal Charpy, 27 Joules 6 - 20℃
Specific Inspection (b)
G3 Normalized or normalized rolled Inspection carried out, before delivery,
according to the product specification, on the
In terms of material type and weldability,

15
products to be supplied or on test units of Application or location of a particular material
which the products supplied are part, in order can be carried out through a review of the
to verify that these products are in compliance welding procedure specification (WPS), the
with the requirements of the order. fabrication drawings, the quality plan or by
physical inspection of the material at the point
Type 3.1 is documents in which the of use.
manufacturer declares that the products
supplied are in compliance with the In certain circumstances the inspector may
requirements of the order and in which test have to witness the transfer of cast numbers
results are supplied. from the original plate to a piece to be used in
production, for example run on run off plates
Type 3.2 is documents prepared by both the that are to be used for Procedure Qualification
manufacturer’s authorized inspection Tests.
representative independent of the
manufacturing department, and either the On pipeline work it is a requirement that the
purchaser’s authorized representative or the inspector records all the relevant information
inspector designated by the official regulations, for each piece of line pipe. On large diameter
and in which they declare that the products pipes this information in usually stenciled on
supplied are in compliance with the the inside of the pipe. On smaller diameter
requirements of the order and in which test pipes the information may be stenciled along
results are supplied. the outside of the pipe.

BS EN 10204: Metallic Materials

Types of Inspection Documents Summary

a) Non-specific inspection may be replaced by specific inspection if specified in the material standard or
the order.

b) Quality management system of the material manufacturer certified by a competent body established
within the community and having undergone a specific assessment for materials

16
3.4 Material Condition and Dimensions

The condition of the material could have an

adverse effect on the service life of the
component; it is therefore an important
inspection point. The points for inspection must
include:

General Inspection, visible imperfections,

dimensions and surface condition.

General Inspections
This type of inspection takes account of storage
conditions, methods of handling, the number of
plates or pipes and distortion tolerances.

Visible imperfections
Typical visible imperfections are usually Rust Grade A: Steel surface largely covered
attributable to the manufacturing process and with adherent mill scale with little or no rust.
would include code laps, which break the
surface or laminations if they appear at the Rust Grade B: Steel surface, which has begun
edge of the plate. For laminations, which may to rust, and from which mill scale has begun to
be present in the body of the material, flake.
ultrasonic testing using a compression probe
may be required. Rust Grade C: Steel surface on which the mill
scale has rusted away or from which it can be
scrapped. Slight pitting visible under normal
vision.

Rust Grade D: Steel surface on which mill

scale has rusted away. General pitting visible
under normal vision.

Cold lap 3.5 Summary

Material inspection is an important part of the

inspector’s duties and an understanding of the
documentation involved is the key to success.

Material inspection must be approached in a

logical and precise manner if material
verification and traceability is to be achieved.
This can be difficult if the material is not readily
accessible, access may have to be provided,
safety precautions observed and authorization
Plate lamination
obtained before material inspection can be
carried out. Reference to the quality plan
Dimensions
should identify the level of inspection required
For plates this would include length, width and
and the point at which inspection takes place.
thickness. For pipes, this would not only include
Reference to a fabrication drawing should
length and wall thickness, but would also cover
provide information on the type and location of
inspection of diameter and ovality. At this stage
the material.
of the inspection the material cast or heat
number may also be recorded for validation
If material type cannot be determined form the
against the material certificate.
inspection documents available, or if the
inspection document is missing, other methods
Surface condition
of identifying the material may need to be used.
The surface condition of the material is
important, it must not show excessive mill
These methods may include but are not limited
scale and rust, must not be badly pitted, or
to: spark test, spectoroscopic analysis,
have unacceptable mechanical damage.
chemical analysis, scleroscope hardness test
etc. these types of tests are normally
There are four grades of rusting which the
conducted by an approved test house, and the
inspector may have to consider:
inspector may be required to witness these
tests in order to verify compliance with the

17
purchase order or appropriate standard(s). QU2.
What is the best NDT method to be used for
* EN ISO 9000 Quality management systems – the detection of lamination in materials?
Fundamentals and vocabulary

Questions QU3.
What are the point of inspection when
Materials inspection inspecting the material condition and
QU1. dimensions?
What are three essential aspects to materials
inspection that inspector should consider.

18
 4. Codes and Standards
4.1 General has specific tasks and composition) that has
legal powers and rights.*
It is not necessary for the inspector to carry a
wide range of codes and standards in the Regulatory authority:
performance of his/her duties. Normally the Authority that is responsible for preparing or
specification or more precisely the contract adopting regulations.*
specification is the only document required.
However the contract specification may Enforcement authodity:
reference supporting codes and standards and Authority that is responsible for enforcing
the inspector should know where to access regualations.*
these normative documents.
Specification:
The following is a list of definitions relating to Document statiing requirements. Meaning full
codes and standards which the inspector may data and its supporting medium stating needs
come across while carrying inspection duties. or expectations that is stated, generally implied
or obligatory.**

4.2 Definitions Procedure:

Speicifed way to carry out an activity or a
Normative document: process*. Usually it is a written
A document that provides rules, guidelines ro Description of all essential parameters and
charactreristics for activities or their results. precautions to be observed when applying a
technique to a specific application following an
The term normative document is a generic term, estabilishe standard, code or specification.
which covers documents such as standards,
technical specifications, codes of practice and Instruction:
regulations*. A written description of the precise steps to be
followed, based on an estabilish procedure,
Standard: standard, code or specification.
A document that is estabilished by consensus
and approved by a recognised body. Quality plan:
A document specifiying which procedures and
A standard provides, for common ans repeated associated resources shall be applied by whom
use, guidelines, rules, characteristics for and when to a specific project, product, process
activities or their results, aimed at the or contrac.*
achievement of the optimum degree of order in
a given context*. ISO IEC Guide 2 – Standardisation and related
activities – General vocabulary
Harmonised Standards: EN ISO 9000-2000 – Quality management
Standards on the same subject approved by systems – Fundamentals and vocabulary
different standardising bodies, that establish
interchangealility of products, processes and
services, or mutual understanding of test 4.3 Summary
results or information provided according to
these standards*. Application standards and codes of practice
ensure that a sturcture or component will have
Code of practice: an acceptable level of quality and be fit for the
A document that recommends practices or intended purpose. Applying the requirements of
procedures for the design, manufacture, a standard, code of practice or specification can
installation, maintenance, utilisation of be a problem for the inexperienced inspector.
equipment, sutrctures or products. Confidence in applying the requirements of one
or all of these documents to a specific
A code or practice may be a standard, a part of application only comes with use over a period
a standard or independent of a standard*. of time.

Regulation: If in doubt the inspector must always refer to a

A document providing binding legislative rules higher authority in order to avoid confusion and
that is adopted by an authority*. potential problems.

Authority:
A body (reponsible for standards and
regulations legal or administrative entity that

19
Questions “should” normally used. What do you
understand by that term?
Codes and Standards
QU1.
What is the difference between a codes and
standards? QU3. As a welding inspector, what document
can be obtained from applicable code or
standards?

QU2.
In code and standards the term “shall” or

20
 5. Introduction to Welding Processes
5-1. General For manual and semi-aiutomatic welding the
following are general principles:
Common characteristics of the four main arc-  vertical-up progression tends to give
welding processes, MMA, TIG, MIG/MAG and the highest heat input because there is
SAW are: need to ‘weave’ to get suitable profile
 An arc is created when an electrical and the forward travel speed is
discharge occurs across the gap relatively slow
between an electrode and parent metal  vertical-down welding tends to give the
 The discharge causes a spark to form lowest heat input because of the fast
and the spark causes the surrounding travel spped that can be used
gas to ionize  horizontal-vertical welding is a
 The ionized gas enables a current to relatively low heat input welding
flow across the gap between electrode position because the welder cannot
and base metal thereby creating an arc ‘weave’ in this position
 The arc generates heat for fusion of  overhead welding tends to give low
the base metal heat input because of the need to use
 With the exception of TIG welding, the low current and relatively fast travel
heat generated by the arc also causes speed
the electrode surface to melt and  welding in the flat position (downhand)
molten droplets can transfer to the can be a low or high heat input position
weld pool to form a weld bead or weld because the welder has more flexibility
run about the travel speed that can be
 Heat input to the fusion zone depends used
on the arc voltage, arc current and  of the arc welding processes, SAW has
welding/travel speed potential to give the highest heat input
and the highest deposition rates and
TIG and MIG/MAG can produce very
5-2. Productivity low heat input
 typical heat input values for controlled
If the items to be welded can be manipulated, heat input welding will tend to be in
so that welding can be done in the flat position, the range about 1.0 to about 3.5
higher rates of metal deposition can be used kJ/mm
which will increase productivity.

For consumable electrode welding processes, 5-4. Productivity

the rate of transfer of molten metal to the weld
pool is directly related to the welding current Arc Voltage
density (the ratio of the current to the diameter Arc voltage is related to the arc length.
of the electrode).
For processes where the arc voltage is
For TIG welding, the higher the current, the controlled by the power source (SAW, MIG/MAG
more energy there is for fusion and thus the and FCAW) and can be varied independently
higher the rate at which the filler wire can be from the current, the voltage setting will affect
added to the weld pool. the profile of the weld.

As welding current is rasied, the voltage also

5-3. Heat Input needs to be raised to ‘spread’ the weld metal
and produce a wider and flatter deposit.
Heat input (HI) for arc welding is calculated
from the following formula: For MIG/MAG, arc voltage has a major
influence on droplet transfer across the arc.

Welding Current
Unit for formula: Welding current has a major influence on the
Travel speed in mm/second depth of penetration.
Heat input is given in kJ/mm
Penetration depth affects dilution of the weld
Heat input is mainly influenced by the travel deposit by the parent metal and it is
speed. particularly important to control this when
dissimilar metals are joined.
Welding position and the welding process have
a major influnece on the travel speed that can Polarity
be used.

21
Polarity determines whether most of the arc The location of ‘the heat’ with respect to
energy (‘the heat’) is concentrated at the polarity is not the same for all processes and
electrode surface or at the surface of the the affects/options/benefits for each of the
parent material. main arc welding processes are summarised
below:

Process Polarity
DC + VE DC -VE AC
MMA Best penetration Less penetration but Only suitable for some
higher deposition reate electrodes and when arc
(used for root passes blow is a problem
and weld overlaying)
TIG Rarely used due to Used for all metals – Required for Al/Al alloys
tungsten overheating except Al/Al alloys (and to ‘break-up’ the
Mg/Mg alloys) refractory oxide film
GMAW solid wires Used for all metals and Not used not used
(MIG/MAG) virtually all situations
FCAW/MCAW gas- Most common Some positional basic Not used
shielded and self- fluxed wires are
shielded cored wires designed to run on –
VE; some metal cored
wires may also be used
on – VE particularly for
positional welding
SAW Best penetration Less penetration but Used to avoid arc blow
higher deposition rate – particularly for multi-
(used for root passes electrode systems
and overlaying)

5-5. Power Source Characteristics electrode may ‘stub’ into the weld pool and the
arc will be extinguished.
In order to strike an arc; a relativley high
voltage is required to generate a spark between The welder tries to hold a fairly constant arc
the electrode and base metal. This is known as length (B in figure 1) for the current (Y) that
the open circuit voltage (OCV) and it is typically has been set. However, he cannot keep the arc
in the range from about 50 to about 90 volts. legnth constant and it will vary over a small
working range (A to Ci in figure 1) due to
Once an arc has been struck and stabilised, normal hand moveement during welding.
there is a relationship between the arc voltage
and the current flowing thorugh the welding The power source is designed to ensure that
circuit that depends on the electrical these small changes in arc voltage during
characteristics of the power source. normal welding will give only small changes in
current (X to Z). thus, the current can be
considered to be essentially constant and this
Constant current power source ensures that the welder is able to maintain
This is the preferred type of power source for control of fusion.
manual welding (MMA and Maunal TIG).
The ‘drooping’ shape of the volt-amp curve
The volt-amp relationship for a constant current have led to constnat current power sources
power source is shown in figure 1. this shows sometimes being referred to as having a
the ‘no current’ position (the OCV) and from ‘drooping’ characteristic.
this point there are arc voltage/current curves
that depend for the various current settings on
the power source. Constant voltage power source
This is the perferred type of power source for
For maunal welding (MMA and manual TIG) the welding processes that have a wire feeder
welder sets the required current on the power (MIG/MAG, FCAW and SAW).
source, but arc voltage is controlled by the arc
length that the welder uses. Wire feed speed and current are directly related
so that as the current is increased the feed
A welder has to work within a fairly narrow speed is increased and there is a corresponding
range of arc length for a particular current increase in the burn-off rate to maintain the arc
settiing – if it is too long and the arc will length/arc voltage.
extinguish and if it is too short and the

22
The operating principle of this type of power Similarly, if the arc length increase the current
source is illustrated byu reference to figure 2. quickly falls to X and the burn-off rate is
reduced so that the arc length is brought back
A welder sets the voltage B and the current Y to the pre-set level B.
on the power source.
Thus, although the arc voltage does vary a little
If the arc length is decreased to C (due to a during welding the changes in current that
variation in weld profile or as the welder’s hand restore the voltage can be considered to remain
moves up and down during semi-automatic constant.
welding) there will be a momentary increase in
welding current to Z. the higher current Z, The straight-line relationship between voltage
gives a higher burn-off rate and this brings the and current and their relatively small gradient
arc length (and arc voltage) back to the pre-set is the reason why this type of power source is
value. often referred to as having a ‘flat characteristic’.

Questions QU3.
Name five energy sources for fusion welding.
Introduction to welding process
QU1.
What are the four essential factors for fusion
welding? QU4.
Briefly discuss the differeces between a fusion
weld and a friction weld.

QU2.
Name the static characteristic for power QU5.
sources and give example for the welding What do you understand by the term OCV and
process that suitable for those characteristics. duty cycle?

23
 6. Welding Consumables
6-1. Introduction hours, Note! You should always follow the
manufacturers recommendations.
Welding consumables are defined as all those
things that are used up in the production of a 2. For individual batch certification this will
weld. require the manufacture of a test pad for chemical
analysis and may require manufacture of a test
This list could include many things including weld from which a tensile test and charpy V-notch
electrical energy, however we normally refer to test pieces are tested.
welding consumables as those things used up by
a particular welding process. Electrode Covering
Core wires used for most C-Mn electrodes, and
some low alloy steel electrodes, is very low C
MMA Electrodes steel* and it is the formulation of the covering
MMA electrodes can be categorised according to that determines the composition of the deposited
the type of covering they have had consequently weld metal and the operating charcteristics of the
the characteristics that it confers. electrode.
(* Typicall about 0.006 % C, about 0.4 % Mn)
For C-Mn and low alloy steels there are 3 generic
types of electrodes, namely: The flux covering on an electrode is formulated to
 celluosic electrodes aid the manufacturing process and to provide a
 rutile electrodes number of functions during welding.
 basic electrodes
The major welding functions are:
these generic names indicaate the type of 1. To facilitate arc ignition/re-ignition and give arc
mineral/compound that is dominant in the stabilisation
covering. 2. To generate gas for shielding the arc and
molten metal from contamination by air
Covered Electrode Manufacture 3. To interact with the molten weld metal to give
Electrode manufacturers produce electrodes by: de-oxidation and flux impurites into the slag to
 straightening and cutting core wire to cleanse/fefine the molten weld metal
standard lengths (typically 300, 350, and 4. To form a slag for protection of the hot weld
450 mm depending on electrode metal from air contamination
classification and diameter) 5. To provide elements to give the weld metal the
 making a ‘dry’ mix of powered required mechanical properties.
compounds/minerals (precise levels of 6. To enable positional welding by means of slag
additions depend on individual formers that freeze a temperatures above the
manufactureres formulations) solidification temperature range of the weld metal
 making a ‘wet’ mix by adding the dry
powders to a liquid binder
 extruding the covering (concentrically) on Inspection Points for MMA Consumables
to the core wire
 hardening the covering by drying the
electordes
 carrying out batch tests – as required for
electrode certificaton
 packing the electrodes into suitable
containers

1. For low hydrogen electrodes this is a high

temperature bake: ≥ about 450℃
 vacuum packed electrodes are packed in
small quantities into packaging that is
immediately vacuum sealed – to ensure
no moisture pick-up
 electrodes that need to be rebaked are
packed into standard packets and as this Checks should also be made to ensure that basic
may be some time after baking, and the electrodes have been through the correct pre-use
packing may not be sealed, they do not procedure. Having been bakced to the correct
reach the end-user in a guaranteed low temperature (typically 300-350℃) for 1 hour and
hydrogen condition, they therefore then held in a holding oven at 150℃ before being
requrie re-baking at a typical
issued to the welders in heated quivers. Most
temperature of 350℃ for approximately 2

24
electrode flux coatings will deteriorate rapidly 4515 & API 1104 applications). No other type of
when damp and care should be taken to inspect electrode has the ability to allow root pass
storage facilities to ensure that they are welding at high speed and still give good root
adeduately dry, and that all electrodes are stored penetration when the root gap is less than ideal.
in conditions of controlled temperature and
humidity. Because of their penetration ability these
electrodes have also found application on oil
storage tanks – for vertical and circumferential
6-2. Cellulosic Electrodes seam welding of the upper/thinner courses for
which preparations with large root faces or square
Cellulose is the principal substance in this type of edge preparations are used.
electrode and comprising typicall about 40% of
the flux constituents.
6-3. Rutile Electrodes
Cellulose is an organic materials (naturally
occuring) such as cotton and wood, but it is wood Rutile is a mineral that consists of about 90%
pulp that is the pricipal source of cellulose used in titanium dioxide (TiO2) and is present in C and C-
the manufacture of electrode coverings. Mn steel rutile electrodes at typically about 50 %.

The main characteristics of Cellulosic electordes Characterstics of rutiel electrodes are:

are:  they have a very smooth and stable arc
 cellulose breaks down during welding and and produce a relatively thin slag
produces carbon monoxide and dioxide covering that is easy to remove
and hydrogen  they give a smooth weld profile
 hydrogen provides part of the gas  thery are regarded as the most ‘user-
shielding function and gives a relatively friendly’ of the various electrode types
high arc voltage.  they have relatively high ‘combined
 The high arc voltage gives the electorde a moisture’ content and beacsue they
‘hard’ and forceful arc with good contain thpycally up to about 10 %
penetraiton/fusion ability. cellulose they cannot be baked and
 The volume of slag formed is relatively consequently they do not give a low
small hydrogen weld deposit
 Cellulosic electrodes cannot be baked  because of the risk of cracking they are
during manufacture or before welding not designated for welding of high
because this would destroy the cellulose: strength or thick section steel (although
the manufacturing procedure is to elecrodes are manufactured in classes
‘harden’ the coating by drying by drying E60XX, E70XX, E80XX the E60XX grade is
(typically at 70 to 100℃) by far the most commonly used)
 Because of the high hydrogen levels there  they do not give high toughness at low
is always some risk of hydrogen cracking temperatures (thypically only down to
which requires control measuers such as about -20℃)
‘hot-pass’ welding to facilitate the rapid
escape of hydrogen. the above listed characteristics mean that
 Because of the risk of hydrogen cracking this type of electrode is used for general-
there are limits on the strength/ purpose fabrication of unalloyed, low strength
composition and thickness of steels on steels in relatively thin sections (typically ≤
which they can be used. (electrode are about 13 mm)
manufactured in classes E60XX, E70XX,
E80XX and E90XX but both lower Rutile Elctorde Variants
stregnth grades tend to be the most By adding iron powder to the covering a range of
commontly used) thick-coated electrodes have been produced in
 High toughness at low temperatures order to enhance productivity.
cannot beconsistently achived from this
type of electrode (typicall only down to Such electrodes give weld deposit that weigh
about -20℃) between about 135 and 190% of their core wire
weight and so referred to as ‘high recovery’
Applicatios of Cellulosic Electrodes electrodes, or more specifically for example ‘q
Cellulosic electrodes have characteristics that 170% recovery electrode’.
enable them to be used for vertical-down welding
at fast travel speed but with low risk of lack-of- The weld deposit from such electrodes can be
fusion because of their forceful arc. relativley large and fluid and this restricts welding
to the flat position and for standing fillets for
The ‘niche’application for this type of electrode is electrodes with the highest recovery rates.
girth seam welding of large diameter steel pipes
for overland pipelines (Transco (BGAS) P2, BS In all other respects these electrodes have the

25
characteristics listed for standard rutile electrodes. electrodes without marked deterioration of the
arcing characteristics but the arc tends to be less
froceful which redueces bead penetration.
6-4. Basic Electrodes

Basic electrodes are so named because the Applications fo Basic Electrodes

covering is made with a high proportion of basic
minerals/compounds )alkaline compounds), such Basic electrodes have to be used for al
as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium applications that requrie good fracture toughness
carbonate (MgCO3) and calcium fluoride (CaFe2). at temperatures below about -20℃.

A fully basic electrode covering will be made up To avoid the risk of hydrogen cracking basic
with about 60% of these basic electordes have to be used for welding hardenable
minerals/compounds. steels (most C-Mn and all low alloy steels) and for
most steels when the joint thickness is greater
Characteristics of basic eletrodes are: than about 15 mm.
 the basic slag that forms when the
covering melts reacts with impurities,
such as sulphur and phosphorus, and aslo
6-5. Classification of Electrodes
reduces the oxygen content of the weld
metal by de-oxidation
National standards for electrodes that are used for
 the relatively clean weld metal that is
welding are:
deposited gives a very significant
 EN 499: Covered electrodes for manual
improvement in weld metal toughness (C-
metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine
Mn electrodes with Ni additions can give
grain steels
good toughness down to about -90℃)  AWS A5.1: Specification for carbon steel
 they can be baked at relatively high electrodes for shielded metal arc welding
temperatures without any of the  AWS A5.5: Specification for low-alloy
compounds present in the covering being steel electordes for shielded metal arc
destroyed, thereby giving low moisture welding
content in the covering and low hydrogen
levels in weld metal. Electrode classification is based on tests specified
 In order to maintain the electrodes in a by the standard on weld deposits made with each
low hydrogen condition they need to be type of covered electrode. The standards require
protected from moisture pick-up chemical analysis and mechanical tests and
 by means of baking beofre use (typically electrode manufacturers tend to dual certify
at about 350℃), transferring to a holding electrodes, wherever possible, th both the
European and American standards.
oven (typically at about 120℃) and
issued in small quantities and /or using EN 499
heated quivers (portable ovens) at the
work station (typically about 70) EN 499-Covered electrodes for manual metal arc
 by use of vacuum packed electrodes that welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels (See
do not need to be re-baked before use figure 1)
 Basic slag is relatively viscouse and thick
which means that electrode manipulation This is the designation that manufacturers print
requries more skill and should be used on to each electrode so that it can be easily
with a short arc to minimise the risk of idnetified. The classification is split into two
porosity section, namely:
 The surface profile of weld deposits from
basic electrodes tends to be convex and Compulsory Section-this includes the symbols for:
slag removal requires more effort Type of product
Strength
Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of Impact properties
metal powder to the flux coating to increase the Chemical composition
maximum permissible welding current level. Thus, Type of electrode covering
for a given electrode size, the metal deposition
rate and efficiency (percentage of the metal Optional Section-this includes the symbols for:
deposited) are increased compared with an Weld metal recovery
electrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The type of current
The slag is normally easily removed. Iron powder The welding positions
electordes are mainly used in the flat and H/V The hydrogen content
positions to take advantage of the higher
deposition rates. Efficiencies as high as 130 to The designation, Compulsory (Strength,
140% can be achieved for rutile and basic Toughness and Coating including any light alloying

26
elements) must be identified on the electrode, etc are not mandatory and may not be shown on
however the Optaional (position, hydrogen levels all electrodes.

AWS A5.1/5.1M: 2003 include mechanical properties of weld metal; weld

metal soundness; and usablility of electrodes.
AWS A5.1/5.1M: 2003 – Specification for carbon Requirements for chemical composition of the
steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding weld metal, moisture content of low hydrogen
(See Figure 3) electrodes, standard sizes and lengths, marking,
manufacturing and packaging are also included. A
The specification establishes the requirements for guide to the use of the standard is given in an
classification of covered electordes with carbon appendix. Optional supplementary requirements
steel cores for MMA welding. Requirements include improved toughness and ductility, lower

27
mositure contents and diffusible hydrogen limits. The last two digits of the mandatory part of the
classification are used to designate the type of
The AWS classification system has mandatory and electrode coating/covering and examples of some
optional designators and requires that both the of the more widely used electrodes are shown
mandatory classification designators and any below.
optional designators be printed on each electrode.

6-6. TIG Filler Wires

for making precision root runs for pipe butt welds
Filler wires manufactured for TIG welding have (particularly for automated TIG welding)
compositions very similar to base material consumable inserts can be used that are made
compositions. However, they may contain very from material the same as the base materials, or
small additions of element that will combine with are compatible with it.
oxygen and nitrogen as a means of scavenging
any contaminants from the surface of the base For small diameter pipe, the insert may be a ring
material or from the atmosphere. but for larger diameter pipe an insert of the
apporpriate diameter is made from shaped
For manual TIG, the wires are manufactured to strip/wire, examples of which are shown below.
the BS EN 440 and are provided in 1 m lengths
(typically 1.2, 1.6, and 2.4 mm dia.) and for
identification have flattened ends on which is
stamped the wire designation (in accordance with
a particular standard) and, for some grades, a
batch number.

TIG Shiedling Gases

Pure argon is the shieding gas that is used for

most applications and is the preferred gas for TIG

28
welding of steel and gas flow rates are typically during the contraction of the weld bead. However,
about 8 to 12 liters/minute for shielding. when multipass welding, the slag level may build
up to an unacceptable level causing weld defects
The shielding as not only protects the arc and and unreliable arc starting.
weld pool but also is the medium required to
establish a stable arc by being easy to ionise. A Steel wires usually have a flash coating of copper
stable arc cannot be esatblished in air and hence to improve current pick-up and to extend the shelf
the welder would not be able to weld if the life of the wire. However, the copper coating can
shielding gas were not switched on. sometimes flake off and be drawn into the liner
Argon with a helium addition – typically about and wire feed mechanism, particularly if there is
30% may be used when a ‘hotter’ arc is needed misalgnment in the wire feed system. This may
such as when welding metals with high thermal cause clogging and erratic wire feed. Uncoated
conductivity, such as copper/copper allys or wires are available as an alternative, although
thicker section aluminum/aluminum alloys. electrical contact may not be as good as with
copper-caoted wires, and contact tip operating
There are some circumstances when special temperatures may be higher.
shielding gases are beneficial, for example:
Some typical standards for specification of steel
Ar +3 to 5% H for austenitic stainless steels and wire consumables are:
Cu-Ni alloys
Ar + about N for duplex stainless steels EN 440: Welding consumables – Wire electrodes
and deposits for gas shielded metal arc welding of
non-alloy and fine grain steels – Classification.
TIG back-purging
EN 12534: Welding consumables – Wire
For most materials, the underside of a weld root electrodes, wires, rods and deposits for gas
bead needs to be protected by an inert gas (a shielded metal arc welding of high strength steels
back-purge) – typically about 6 to 8 liters/minute – Classification.
during welding.
Wire sizes are typically in the range 0.6 to 2.4
For C steels and low alloy steels with total alloying mm diameter but the most commonly used sizes
additions ≤2.5% it may not always be necessary are 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.6 mm and provided on
to use a back-purge but for higher alloyed steels layer wound spools for consistent feeding.
and most other materials there may be excessive
oxidation – and risk of lack of fusion if a back- Spools should be labelled to show the
purge is not used. classification of the wire and its’ diameter.

Flux-cored and metal-cored wires are also used

6-7. MIG/MAG Filler Wires extensively althogh the process is then referred to
as FCAW (flux cored arc welding) and MCAW
Solid filler wires manufactured for MIG/MAG (metal cored arc welding).
generally have chemical compositions that have
been formulated for particular bse materials and MIG/MAG gas Shielding
the wires have compositions similar to these base
materials. Solid wires for welding steels with For non-ferrous metals and their alloys (such as
active shielding gases are deoxidised with Al, Ni and Cu) an inert shielding gas must be used.
manganese and silicon to avoide porosity. This is usually either pure argon or an argon rich
There may also be titanium and aluminum gas with a helium addition.
additions. Mild steel filler wires are available with
different levels of deoxidants, known as double or The use of a fully inert gas is the reason why the
triple de-oxidised wires. More highly deoxidised process is also called MIG welding (Metal Inert
wires are more expensive but are more tolerant of Gas) and for precise use of terminology this name
the plate surface condition. E.g. mill scale. should only be used when referring to the welding
Surface rust. Oil. Paint and dust. There may. of non-ferrous metals.
Therefore, be a reduction in the amount of
cleaning of the steel before welding. The addition of some helium to argon gives a
more uniform heat concentration within the arc
These deoxidiser additions yied a small amount of plasma and this affects the shape of the weld
‘glassy’ slag on the surface of the weld deposit. bead profile.
Commonly referred to as silica deposits. These
small pockets of slag are easily removed with light Argon-helium mxtures effectively give a ‘hotter’
brushing; but when galvanising or paintng after arc and so they are beneficial for welding thicker
welding, it is necessary to use shot blasting. base materials those with higher thermal
During welding, it is common practice to weld condutivity e.g. copper or aluminum.
over these small islands since they do not
represent a thick slag, and they usually spall off For welding of steels – all grades, including

29
stainless steels – there needs to be a controlled indicates below:
addition of oxygen or carbon dioxide in order to  100% CO2: for low carbon steel to give
generate a stable arc and give good droplet deeper penetration (figure 4) and faster
wetting. Because these additions react with the welding . this gas promotes globular
molten metal they are referred to as active gases droplet transfer and gives high levels of
and hence the name MAG welding (Metal Active spatter and welding fume
gase) is the technical term that is use when  Argon+15 to 25% CO2: widely used for
referring to the welding of steels. carbon and some low alloy steels (and
FCAW of stainless steels)
The percentage of carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen  Argon+1 to 5% O2: widely used for
depends on the type of steel being welded and stainless and some low alloy steels
the mode of metal transfer being used –as 

Blue is a cooler gas mixture, red is a hotter argon-helium-CO2 mixtures for all modes of
mixture. transfer. The oxidising potential of the mixtures
are kept to a minimum (2-2.5% maximum CO2
Gas mixtues-helium in place of argon gives a content) in order to satbilise the arc, but with the
hotter arc, more fluid weld pool and better weld minimum effect on corrosion performance.
profile. Theses quanternary mixtures permit Because austenitic steels have a high thermal
higher welding speeds, but may not be suitable conductivity, the addition of helium helps to avoid
for thin sections. lack of fusion defects and overcome the high heat
dissipation into the material. Helium additions are
Stainless Steels up to 85%, compared with about 25% for
mixtures used for carbon and low alloy steels. CO2
Austenitic stainless steels are typically welded – containing mixtures are sometimes avoided to
with argon-CO2/O2 mixtures for spray transfer, or eliminates potential cabon pick-up.

30
Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter argon building up to dangerous levels and
mixture. asphyxiating the welder.

For martensitic and duplex stainless steels, Argon-helium mixtures:

specialist advice should be sought. Some Ar-He Argon is most commonly used for MIG welding of
mixtures containing up to 2.5% N2 are available light alloys, but some advantage can be gained by
for welding duplex stainless steels. the use of helium and argon/helium mixtures.
Helium possesses a higher thermal condutivity
Light Alloys, E.G. Aluminum and Magnesium, than argon. The hotter weld pool produces
and Copper and Nickel and Their Alloys improved penetration and/or an increase in
welding speed. High helium contensts give a deep
Inert gases are used for light alloys and alloys broad penetration profile, but produce high
that are sensitive to oxidation. Welding grase spatter levels. With less than 80% argon, a ture
inert gases should be purchased rather than spray transfer is not possible. With globular-type
commercial purity to ensure good weld quality. transfer, the welder should use a ‘buried’ arc to
minimise spatter. Arc stability can be problematic
Argon: in helium and argon-helium mixtures, since
Argon can be used for aluminum because there is helium raises the arc voltage, and therefore there
sufficient surface oxide available to satbilise the is a larger change in arc voltage with respect to
arc. For materials that are sensitive to oxygen, are length. Helium mixtures require higher flow
such as titanium and nickel alloys, arc stability rates than argon shielding in order to provide the
may be difficult to achieve with inert gases in same gas protection.
some applications.
There is a reduced risk of lack of fusion defects
The density of argon is approximately 1.4 times when using argon-helium mixtures, particularly
that of air. Therefore, in the sownhand position, on thick section aluminium. Ar-He gas mixtures
the relatively heavy argon is very effective at will offset the high heat dissipation in material
displacing air. A disadvantage is that when over about 3mm thickness.
working in confined spaces, there is a risk of

Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter used for different base materials is given in Table
mixture. 2.
A summary table of shielding gases and mixtures

31
6-8. SAW Filler Wires Fused Flux

Filler wires for SAW are made to AWS and EN This type are manufactured by mixing certain
standards and the most commonly used sizes are suitable minerals/compounds, fusing them
2.4, 3.2, 4.0 and 5.0mm diameter and are together, crushing the solid mass and then sieving
available for welding a wide range of steels and the crushed mass to recover granules within a
some non-ferrous applications, they have particular size range.
compositons silmilar to the base material but for
certification standards require flux/wire weld Fused fluxes have the follwing characteristics /
metal deposits to be made for analysis and properties:
testing as required.  they contain a high proportion of silica
(up to about 60%) and so the flux
SAW Flux Types granules have similar in appearance to
curshed glass – irregular shaped and hard
Fluxed can be categorised into two types, namely – and have a smooth, and slightly shiny,
fused and agglomerated (agglomerated fluxes are surface
sometimes called ‘bonded’ fluxes- particularly in  during re-circulation they have good
the USA) resistance to breakiing down into fine
particles-referred to as ‘fines’

32
  they have very low moisture content as the holding oven for basic electrodes.
manufactured and do not absorb Warm flux is transferred to the flux hopper on the
moisture during exposure and so they machine (usually unheated) and at the end of a
should always give low hydrogen weld shif or when there is to be an interuption in
metal welding, the hopper flux should be transferred to
 they give welds beads with good surface the silo.
finish and profile and de-slag easily
The particular advantage of agglomerated fluxes
The main disadvantage of fused fluxes is that the is there ability to give weld metals with low
compounds that give de-oxidation cannot be oxygen content and this enables steel weld metal
added so that welds have high oxygen content to be produced with good-sub-zero toughness.
and so steel weld metal does not have good
tougness at sub-zero temperatures.

Agglomerated Flux Questions

This type is manufactured by mixing fine Welding consumables
powdered minerals/compounds, adding a wet
binder and further mixing to form flux granules of QU1.
the required size. These are dried/baked to List 4 inspection points of welding consumables
remove moisture, sieved and packaged in sealed and comment on each point in relation to MMA
containers to ensure they are in ‘low hydrogen electrodes?
condition’ when supplied to the user.

Some of the minerals/compounds used in these

fluxes cannot be subjected to the high QU2.
temperatures required to make fused fluxes What standard is the following electrode
because they would break down and lose the classification taken from and briefly discuss each
properties that are needed during welding. separate part of the electrode coding: E8018-G

Agglomerated fluxes have the following

characteristics:
 the granules tend to be more spherical QU3.
and have a dull/matt finish Why is cellulose electrodes commonly used for
 the granules are consist of fine powders, welding of pressure pipelines?
weekly held together, and so are quite
soft and easily be broken down into fine
powders during handling/recirculation
 some of the compounds, and the binder QU4.
itself, will tend to absorb moisture from What type of gas are sitable to be used when
the atmosphere if left exposed and a welding carbon steel and aluminum with
controlled handling procedure* is MIG/MAG process and give description why?
essential
 the slag is less fluid than those generated
by fuse fluxes and the weld bead profile
tends to be more convex and more effort QU5.
is required to remove the slag Explain the following parts of an electrode coding
* Agglomerated fluxes are similar to fluxes used and what standards is the following electrode
for basic covered electrodes and susceptible to taken from.
moisture pick-up when they are cold and left E42 4B 32 H5
exposed.
A typical controlled handling practice is to transfer
fluz from the manufacturer’s drum/bag to a
heated silo (about 120 to 150℃). This acts like

33
 7. Arc Welding Safety
7-1. General shock.

Working in a safe manner, whether in the Secondary voltage shock occurs when touching a
workshop or on site, is an improtant consideration part of the electrode circuit-perhaps a damaged
in any welding operation. The responsibility for area on the electrode cable – and another part of
safety is on the individuals, not only for their own the body touches both sides of the welding circuit
safety, but also for other people’s safety. The (electrode and work, or welding earth) at the
visual/welding inspector has an important same time.
function in ensuring that safe working legislation
is in place and safe working practices are Most welding equipment is unlikely to exceed
implemented. The inspector may be required to open circuit voltages of 100V. electric shock, even
carry out safety audits of welding equipment prior at this level can be serious, so the welding circuit
to welding, implement risk assessment/permit to should be fitted with low voltage safety devices,
work requirements or moniotr the safe working to minimise the potential of secondary electric
operations for a particular task, during welding. shock.

There are a number of documents that the A correctly wired welding circuit shoiuld contain
inspector may refer to for guidance: three leads:
 Government Legisalation – The Health  A welding lead, from one terminal of the
and Safety at Work Act power source to the electrode holder or
 Health and Safety Executive – COSHH welding touch
Regulations, Statutory instruments  A weldiing return lead to complete the
 Work or site instruction – Permits to wrok, circuit, from the work to the other
risk assessement documents etc terminal of the power source.
 Local Authority Requirements  An earth lead, from the work to an earth
point. The power source should also be
There are four aspects of arc welding safety that earthed.
the visual/welding inspector needs to consider
 Electric Shock All three leads should be capable of carrying the
 Heat and Light highest welding current required.
 Fumes and Gases
 Noise In order to estabilish whether the capacity of any
piece of current carrying equipment is adequate
for the job, the visual/welding inspector can refer
7-2. Electric Shock to the Duty Cycle of the equipment.

The hazard of electric shock is one of the most All current carrying welding equipment is rated in
serious and immediate risks facing personnel terms of:
involved in the welding operation.
Duty Cycle.
Contact with metal parts, which are “electrically All current carrying conductors heat up when
hot”, can cause injury or death because of the welding current is passed through them. Duty
effect of the shock upon the body or because of a Cycle is essentially a measure of the capability of
fall as a result of the reaction to electric shock. the welding equipment in terms of the ratio of
welding time to total time, which can be
The electric shock hazard associated with arc expressed as:
welding may be dividied into two categories:
 primary voltage shock – 230 or 460 volts
 secondary voltage shock – 60 to 100
volts
By observing this ratio the current carrying
primary voltage shock is very hazardous because
conductors will not be heated above their rated
it is much greater than the secondary voltage of temperature. Duty cycles are based on a total
the welding equipment. Electric shock from the
time of 10 minutes.
primary (input) voltage can occure by touching a
lead inside the welding equipment with the power
Example
to the welder switched on while the body or hand
A power source has a rated output of 350 Amps
touches the welding equipement case or other
at 60% Duty Cycle.
earthed metal. Residual Circuit Devices (RCDs)
This means that this particular power source will
connected to circuit breakers of sufficient capacity deliver 350 amps (its rated output) for siz
will help to protect the welder and other
minutes out of every ten minutes without
personnel from the danger of primary electric
overheating.

34
 prolonged and frequently repeated exposures,
Failure to carefully observe the Duty Cycle of a permanent damage can occur.
piece of equipment can over stress the part, and Treatment of arc eye is simple: rest in a dark
in the case of welding equipment cause room. A qulified person or hospital Casualty
overheating leading to instability and the potential Departments can administer various soothing
for electric shock. anaesthetic eye drops. These can provide almost
instantaneous relief. Prevention is better than
cure and wearing safety glasses with side shields
7-3. Heat and Light will considerably reduce the risk of this condition.

Heat Ultraviolet effects upon the skin

In arc welding, electrical energy is converted into The UV from arc processes does not produce the
heat energy and light energy, both of which can brwoning effect of sunburn; but does result in
have serious health consequences. redding and irritation caused by changes in the
minute surface blood vessels. In extreme cases,
The welding arc creates sparks, which have the the skin may be severely burned and blisters may
potential to cause flammable materials near the form. The reddened skin may die and flake off in
welding area to ignite and cause fires. The a day or so. Where there has been intense
welding area should be clear of all combustible prolonged or frequent exposure, skin cancers can
materials and it is good practice for the inspector develop.
to know where the nearest fire extinguishers are
situated and know the correct type of fire Visible Light
extiguisher to use if a fire does break out. Intensive visible light particularly approaching UV
or ‘blue light’ wavelengths passes through the
Welding sparks can cause serious burns, so cornea and lens and can dazzle and, in extreme
protective clothing, such as welding gloves, flame cases, damage the network of optically sensitive
retardant coveralls and leathers must be worn nerves on the retian. Wavelengths of visible light
around any welding operation in order to protect approaching the infrared have slightly different
against heat and sparks. effects but can produce similar symptoms. Effects
depend on the duration and intensity of exposure
Light and to some extent, upon the individual’s natural
Light radiation is emitted by the welding arc in reflex action to close the eye and exclude the
three principal ranges: incident light. Normally this dazzling does not
produce a long-term effect.

Infrared Radiation
Infrared radiaton is of longer wavelength than the
visible light frequencies, and is perceptible as
heat. The main hazard to the eyes is that
prolonged exposure (over a matter of years)
causes a gradual but irreversible opacity of the
lens. Fortunately, the infrared radiation emitted by
Ultraviolet radiation (UV) normal welding arcs causes damage only within a
All arc processes generate UV. Excess exposure to comparatively short distance from the arc. There
UV causes skin inflammation, and possibly even is an immediate burning sensation in the skin
skin cancer or permanent eye damage. However surrounding the eyes should they be exposed to
the main risk amongest welders and inspectors is arc heat. The natural human reaction is to move
for inflammation of the cornea and conjunctive, or cover up to prevent the skin heating, which
commonly known as ‘arc eye’ or ‘flash’. also reduces eye exposure.

Arc eye is caused by UV radiation. This damages BS En 169 specifies a range of permanent filter
the outmost protective layer of cells in the cornea. shades of gradually increasing optical density
Gradually the damaged cells die and fall off the which limit exposure to radiation emitted by
cornea exposing highly sensitive nerves in the different processes at different currents. It must
udnerlying cornea to the comparatively rough be stressed that shade numbers indicated in the
inner part of the eyelid. This causes intense pain, standard and the corresponding current ranges
usually described as ‘sand in the eye’. The pain are for guidance only.
becomes even more acute of the eye is then
exposed to bright light.
7-4. Fumes and gases
Arc eye develops some hours after exposure,
which may not even have been notices. The ‘sand
Fumes
in the eye’ symptom and pain usually lasts for 12
Because of the variables involved in fume
– 24 hours, but can be longer in more severe
generation from arc welding and allied processes
cases. Fortunately, arc eye is almost always a
(such as the welding process and electrode, the
temporary condition. In the unlikely event of base metal, coatings on the base metal and other

35
possible contaminants in the air), the dangers of see what fumes can be reasonably expected from
welding fume can be considered in a general way. use of the product.
Although health considerations vary according to
the type of fume composition and individual Refer to the Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) as
reactions, the following holds true for most defined in the COSHH regulatios which gives
welding fume. maximum concentrations to which a healty aduit
can be exposed to any one substance.
The fume plume contains solid particles from the
cosumables, base metal and base metal coating. Second. Know the base metal and determine if a
Depending on the length of exposure to these paint or coating would casue toxic fumes or gases.
fumes, most acute effects are temporary and
include symptoms of burning eyes and skin, Particular attention should also be made to the
dizziness, nausea and fever. dangers or asphyxiation when welding in confined
spaces. Risk assessment, permits to work and gas
For example, zinc fumes can cause metal fume testing are some of the necessary actions
fever, a temporary illness that is similar to the flu. required to ensure the safety of all personnel.
Chronic, long-term exposure to welding fumes
can lead to siderosis (iron deposits in the lungs)
and may affect pulmonary function. 7-5. Noise

Cadmium, however, is a different story. This toxic Exposure to loud noise can permanently damage
metal can be found on steel as a coating or in hearing. Noise can also cause stress and increase
silver solder. Cadmium fumes can be fatal even blood pressure. Working in a noisy environment
under brief exposure, with symptoms much like for long periods can contribute to tiredness,
those two should not be confused. Twenty nervousness and irritability. If the noise exposure
minutes of welding in the presence of cadmium is greater than 85 decibels averaged over an 8-
can be enough to cause fatalities, with symptoms hour period then hearing protection must be worn,
appearing within an hour and death five days later. and annual hearing tests should be carried out.

Gases Normal welding operations are not associated with

The gases that result from an arc welding process noise level problems with two exceptions: plasma
also present a potential hazard. Most of the arc welding and air carbon arc cutting. If eoither
shielding gases (argon, helium and carbon or these two operations is to be performed then
dioxide) are non-toxic. When released, however, hearing protects must be worn. The noise
these gases displace oxygen in the breathing air, associated with welding is usually due to ancillary
causing dizziness, unconsciouse and death the operations such as chipping, grinding and
longer the brain is denied oxygen. hammering. Hearing protection must be worn
when carrying out, or when working in the vicinity
Some degreasing compounds such as of these operations.
trichlorethylene and perchlorethylene can
decompose from the heat and ultraviolet radiation
to produce toxic gases. Ozone and nitrogen oxides 7-6. Summary
are produced when UV radiation hits the air.
These gases cause headaches, chest pains, The best way to manage the risks assoicated with
irritation of the eyes and itchiness in the nose and welding is by implementing risk management
throat. programs. Risk management is a method that
requires the identification of hazards, assessment
To reduce the risk of hazard fumes and gases, of the risks and implementation of suitable
keep the head out of the fume plume, as obvious controls to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.
as this sounds, it is a common cause of fume and
gas overexposure because the concentration of It is essential to evaluate and review a risk
fumes and gases is greatest in the plume. In management program. Evaluation involves
addition, use mechanical ventilation or local ensuring that control measures have eliminated or
exhaust at the arc to direct the fume plume away reduced the risks, and review aims to check that
from the face. If this is not sufficient, use fixed or the process is working effectively to identify
moveable exhaust hoods to draw the fume from hazards and manage risks.
the general area. Finally, it may be necessary to
wear an approved respiratory device if sufficient It is quite likely that the visual/welding inspector
ventilation cannot be provided. would be involved in managing the risks
associated with welding as part of their duties.
As a rule of thumb, if the air is visibly clear and
the welder is comfortable, the ventilation is
probably adequate.

To identify hazardous substances, first read the

material safety data sheet for the consumable to

36
Questions a)

Welding consumables b)

QU1. c)
How can the welder protect himself against UVA
light:
QU4.
Arc welding temperatures produce fumes and dust
praticles, state the precautions a welder must
take to protect against fumes and dust particles:
QU2.
Occasional accidental exposure to the eye can
produce an extremely painful condition known as:

QU5.
When welding on items, which have been
degreased particular precautions, must be made,
QU3. why?
To reduce the possiblity of electric shock, a
correctly wired welding circuit should contain
three leads these leads are

37
 8. Practical Visual Inspection
The practical visual inspection part of the CSWIP angles
examination consists of the following categories: d) Multi functional weld gauges, for measuring
many different weld measurements
CSWIP 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector
Exam: Time allowed
Practical butt-welded plate 1 hour 45 min.
(code provided)
Practical fillet welded T joint 1 hour 15 min.
(code provided)

CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector

Exam: Time allowed
Practical butt-welded plate 1 hour 15 min.
(code provided)
Practical butt-welded pipe 1 hour 45 min.
(candidates supplied code)
*Practical assessment of 2 45 min.
macros (code provided)
*Macro examination will be
covered in another section

To successfully attempt the practical inspection

elements of these examinations the inspector will
require a number of important tools:
1) Good eyesight
2) Specialist gauges
3) Hand tools i.e. magnifying glass, torch,
mirror, graduated scale etc.
4) Pencil/pen, report forms, acceptance
criteria, and a watch.

Good Eyesight
To effectively carry out your scope of work as a
CSWIP qualified welding inspector it is important
that you have a current eyesight certificate for
close vision and color blindness test is also
required. This must be provided before your
CSWIP welding inspection examination. As per the
CSWIP–WIS-6-92 document.

All candidates for CSWIP examinations must be

tested by a qualified optician. Alternatively tests Adjustable Fillet Gauge
may be conducted; by qualified personnel Measures fillet welds from 3-25 mm (1/8-1”) with
available at most TWI examination centers. ±0.8 mm (1/32”) accuracy. It uses an offset arm,
which slides, at a 45° angle to make fillet weld
Holders of CSWIP welding inspection certificates length measurements. This gauge also measures
should thus make every effort to have their vision weld throat thickness to 1.5mm (1/16”).
professionally tested twice yearly.

It is important to maintain this level of eyesight,

NOTE! Your close vision ability may decay over
time.

Specialist Gauges
A number of specialist gauges are available to
measure the various elements that need to be
measured in a welded fabrication including:
a) Hi-Lo gauges, for measuring mismatch and
root gap
b) Fillet weld profile gauges, for measuring fillet
weld face profile and sizes Fillet Weld Gauge
c) Angle gauges, for measuring weld preparation Measures weld sizes from 3mm (1/8”) up to
25mm (1”)

38
 Digital Multipurpose Welding Gauge
This digital gauge will measure the important
dimensions of weld preparations and of completed
butt and fillet welds. It is intended for general
fabrication work and rapidly measures angle of
Multipurpose Welding Gauge preparation, excess weld metal, fillet weld leg
length and throat size in both metric and imperial
This rugged gauge, fabricated in stainless ranges.
steel, will measure the important dimensions
of weld preparations and of completed butt
and fillet welds. It is intended for general
fabrication work and rapidly measures angle
of preparation, excess weld metal, fillet weld
leg length and throat size, and misalignment
in both metric and imperial ranges.

39
40
 9. Application and Control of Preheat
9-1. General welding and between passes in a multirun
weld and adjacent parent metal
Preheat is the application of heat to a joint immediately prior to the application of
immediately prior to welding, and is usually the next run
applied by either a gas torch or induction system,  normally expressed as a maximum, but
although other methods can be used. should not drop below the minimum
preheat temperature
The use of preheat when welding steels is done
for a number of reasons, and it helps to Preheat maintenance temperature
understand why preheat is often specified in the  is the minimum temperature in the weld
first places. One of the main reasons why preheat zone which shall be maintained if welding
is used is to assist in removing hydrogen from the is interrupted
weld.  shall be monitored during interruption

Preheat temperatures for steel structures and

pipe work are calculated by taking into account 9-3. Application of Preheat
the carbon equivalent (Ceq %) of the material,
the thickness of the material and the arc energy Gas/Electric Ovens
or heat input (kJ/mm) of the welding process. Generally used for PWHT but can be used for
large sections of material to give a controlled and
Reference may be made to standards such as BS uniform preheat.
EN 1011-Recommendations for welding of metallic
materials for guidance on selection of preheat Resistive Heating Elements
temperature ranges based on Ceq% values, A method of heating using electric current flowing
material thickness and arc energy/heat input, and through resistance coils.
the lowest level of diffusible hydrogen required.
High Frequency Heating Elements
The visual/welding inspector would normally find A process in which the heating effect is produced
preheat temperature to be used for a particular electrostatically, providing uniform heating
application from the relevant WPS. through a mass of material. Heat is generated by
the agitation of the molecules in the material
In general, thicker materials will require higher when subjected to a high frequency field.
preheat temperatures, but for a given Ceq% and
arc energy/heat input, preheat temperatures are Flame Applied Preheat
likely to remain similar for wall thickness up to Probably the most common method of applying
approximately 20mm. preheat which can be applied by either torches or
burners. Oxygen is an essential part of the
preheating flame, as it supports combustion, but
9-2. Definitions the fuel gases can be acetylene, propane and
methane (natural gas).
Preheat temperature
 is the temperature of the work piece in With flame applied preheating sufficient time
the weld zone immediately before any must be allowed for the temperature to equalize
welding operation (including tack throughout the thickness of the components to be
welding) welded. Otherwise only the surface temperature
 normally expressed as a minimum, but will be measured. The time lapse will vary
can also be specified as a range depending on the specification requirements.

Interpass temperature
 is the temperature of the weld during

41
9-4. Control of Preheat and Interpass Temperature

When?
Immediately before passage of the arc

Where?

Interpass temperature shall be measured on the weld metal or the immediately adjacent parent metal

Why? for cracking.

 Removes moisture from the region of the
Applying preheat has the following advantages: weld preparation
 It slows down the cooling rate of the weld  Improves overall fusion characteristics
and HAZ; reducing the risk of hardened during welding
microstructures forming; allowing  Ensures more uniform expansion and
absorbed hydrogen more opportunity of contraction; lowering stresses between
diffusing out, thus reducing the potential weld and parent material

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 Contact Thermometer
 can use either a bimetallic strip or a
thermistor (i.e. a temperature-sensitive
resistor whose resistance varies inversely
with temperature)
 accurate, gives the actual temperature
 need calibration
 used for moderate temperatures (up to
350℃)

Two Dimensional Heat Flow

Three Dimensional Heat Flow

Thermocouple
 based on measuring the thermoelectric
potential difference between a hot
junction (placed on the weld) and a cold
junction (reference junction)
 measures over a wide range of
temperatures
 accurate, gives the actual temperature
 can be used also for continuous
monitoring
 need calibration

9-5. Temperature Indicating/Measuring

Equipment

Temperature Sensitive Materials

 Made out of a special wax that melts at a
specific temperature (TempilstikTM) or
irreversible change its color
(ThermochromeTM)
 Cheap, easy to use
 Doesn’t measure the actual temperature

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Optical or Electrical Devices for Contactless 9-6. Summary
Measurement
 can be infrared or optical pyrometers The visual/welding inspector should refer to the
 measure the radiant energy emitted by WPS for both preheat and interpass temperature
the hot body requirements. If in any doubt as to where the
 contactless method mean it can be used temperature measurements are to be taken, the
for remote measurements senior welding inspector or welding engineer
 very complex and expensive equipment should be consulted for guidance.
 normally used for measuring high
temperatures Both preheat and interpass temperatures are
applied to slow down the cooling rate during
welding, avoiding the formation of brittle
microstructures (i.e. Martensite) and thus
preventing cold cracking.

Preheat temperatures can be calculated using

different methods as described in various
standards (e.g. BS EN 1011-2, AWS D1.1, etc)
and are validated during the qualification of the
welding procedure.

According to BS EN ISO 15614 and ASME IX both

preheat and interpass temperatures are
considered to be essential variables, hence any
change outside the range of qualification requires
a new procedure qualification.

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