Introduction to Intelligence

22/07/2022 [Link] Kumari

Definition:
In general, Intelligence can be understood as acquiring knowledge and skills that
mean an individual is creative, analytical, practical, logical, a good decision-maker,
fast problem solver which are requirements in society. Many psychologists have
tried to define in their understanding what Intelligence means which we will look
into below:

 Intelligence is the mental abilities necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and
selection of, any environmental context.
-Robert Sternberg
 “Intelligence means to apply one’s knowledge to a noble situation or adjustment to
noble situations.”
-Alfred Binet

 “Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual to adjust his thinking to new

requirements and it is general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions
of life.”
-Stern
 “Intelligence is considered as a mental trait. It is the capacity to make impulses focal
at their unfinished stage of formation.
-L.L. Thurston
 “Intelligence is a flexibility of the mind to meet the new situations.” —Munn “It is a
capacity for setting along within all sorts of situations.”
-Pintner
 “An individual possesses intelligence so far as he has learned or can learn to adjust
himself to the environments.”
-Calvin
 “Intelligence is all-round innate mental ability. It is the power of readjustment in
novel situation by organization of new psycho-physical combination.”
-Cyril Burt
 “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully,
to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.”
-Weschler

pg. 1
 Introduction to Intelligence
22/07/2022 [Link] Kumari

 “It is a capacity for successful adjustment by means of traits which we ordinarily

call intellectual.”
-Freeman
 “Intelligence is the innate capacity to solve the problem in the light of past
experience and knowledge.”
-Hoodworth

Theories of Intelligence:
Spearman’s General Intelligence (g)
General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to a general mental ability that,
according to Spearman, underlies multiple specific skills, including verbal, spatial, numerical
and [Link] Spearman, an English psychologist, established the two-factor
theory of intelligence back in 1904 (Spearman, 1904). To arrive at this theory, Spearman
used a technique known as factor [Link] analysis is a procedure through which the
correlation of related variables are evaluated to find an underlying factor that explains this
[Link] the case of intelligence, Spearman noticed that those who did well in one area
of intelligence tests (for example, mathematics), also did well in other areas (such as
distinguishing pitch; Kalat, 2014).
In other words, there was a strong correlation between performing well in math and music,
and Spearman then attributed this relationship to a central factor, that of general
intelligence (g).
Spearman concluded that there is a single g-factor which represents an individual’s general
intelligence across multiple abilities, and that a second factor, s, refers to an individual’s
specific ability in one particular area (Spearman, as cited in Thomson, 1947).

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities:

Thurstone (1938) challenged the concept of a g-factor. After analyzing data from 56
different tests of mental abilities, he identified a number of primary mental abilities that
comprise intelligence, as opposed to one general factor.
The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model are verbal comprehension, verbal
fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, memory, and inductive
reasoning (Thurstone, as cited in Sternberg, 2003).
Although Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of general intelligence altogether, he
instead theorized that intelligence consists of both general ability and a number of specific
abilities, paving the way for future research that examined the different forms of
intelligence.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences:

pg. 2
 Introduction to Intelligence
22/07/2022 [Link] Kumari

Following the work of Thurstone, American psychologist Howard Gardner built off the idea
that there are multiple forms of intelligence.
He proposed that there is no single intelligence, but rather distinct, independent multiple
intelligences exist, each representing unique skills and talents relevant to a certain category.
Gardner (1983, 1987) initially proposed seven multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, and he
has since added naturalist intelligence.
Gardner holds that most activities (such as dancing) will involve a combination of these
multiple intelligences (such as spatial and bodily-kinesthetic intelligences). He also suggests
that these multiple intelligences can help us understand concepts beyond intelligence, such
as creativity and leadership.
And although this theory has widely captured the attention of the psychology community
and greater public, it does have its faults.
There have been few empirical studies that actually test this theory, and this theory does
not account for other types of intelligence beyond the ones Gardner lists (Sternberg, 2003).

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

Just two years later, in 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of
intelligence, integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is
based on the definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve success based on your
personal standards and your sociocultural context.
According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and
practical (Sternberg, 1985).
Analytical intelligence, also referred to as componential intelligence, refers to intelligence
that is applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at solutions. This is what a
traditional IQ test measure.
Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and interesting
ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation and problem-solving.
Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily life,
when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment.
Adapting to the demands environment involves either utilizing knowledge gained from
experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment (adaptation), changing
the environment to suit oneself (shaping), or finding a new environment in which to work
(selection).

Types of Intelligence Tests: Group test Vs individual test, nonverbal Vs verbal

Vs performance tests:

pg. 3
 Introduction to Intelligence
22/07/2022 [Link] Kumari

Intelligence tests may be classified under three categories:

1. Individual Tests:
These tests are administered to one individual at a time. These cover age group from 2 years
to 18 years.
These are:
(a) The Binet- Simon Tests,
(b) Revised Tests by Terman,
(c) Mental Scholastic Tests of Burt, and
(d) Wechsler Test.
2. Group Tests:
Group tests are administered to a group of people Group tests had their birth in America –
when the intelligence of the recruits who joined the army in the First World War was to be
calculated.
These are:
(a) The Army Alpha and Beta Test,
(b) Terman’s Group Tests, and
(c) Otis Self- Administrative Tests.
Among the group tests there are two types:
(i) Verbal, and
(ii) Non-Verbal.
Verbal tests are those which require the use of language to answer the test items.
3. Performance:
These tests are administered to the illiterate persons. These tests generally involve the
construction of certain patterns or solving problems in terms of concrete material.
Some of the famous tests are:
(a) Koh’s Block Design Test,
(b) The Cube Construction Tests, and
(c) The Pass along Tests.
Non-verbal tests include such items as:

pg. 4
 Introduction to Intelligence
22/07/2022 [Link] Kumari

(i) Relationship of figures, which may be either (a) functional or (b) spatial.
(ii) Drawing figures, especially human figures,
(iii) Completing pictures and patterns.
(iv) Analysing space relationship from diagrams (two dimensional),
(v) Analysing cube relationship.
(vi) Drawing lines through figures to break them up into given section, as in Minnesota
paper form board test.
(vii) Mechanical relationship, tracing relationship of interlocking gears-pulleys, shown in
pictorial form.
(viii) Memory for design.
Some performance tests do not need actual handling of the material.
The following tests are examples where actual handling is needed:
(i) Assembly of objects from their disconnected pans (called Maniken and Profile),
(ii) Kolhi’s Block Design,
(iii) Picture completion,
(iv) Cube construction,
(v) Form board paper pencil,
(vi) Pass along test,
(vii) Picture arrangement,
(viii) Mazes, and
(ix) Cube imitation (tapping).
Progressive Matrices prepared by G.C. Raven at Dumfries are one of the widely used paper-
pencil group performance tests.

pg. 5
 Introduction to Intelligence
22/07/2022 [Link] Kumari

References:
1) Definition of intelligence. Education summary. Retrieved July 22,2022,
from [Link]
in-psychology-by-different-psychologists/
2) Types of intelligence. psychology discussion. Retrieved July 22,2022,
from [Link]
psychology/intelligence-test-types-and-uses-individual/2583
3) Theories of intelligence. simply psychology. Retrieved July 22,2022, from
[Link]

pg. 6