George Santayana

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In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Ruiz de Santayana and the second or maternal
family name is Borrás.

George Santayana

A line drawing of the face and upper torso of George Santayana as a middle-aged man. He is balding,
wearing a suit, and looking away from the viewer to the right.

A 1936 Time drawing of Santayana

Born Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás

December 16, 1863

Madrid, Spain

Died September 26, 1952 (aged 88)

Rome, Italy

Nationality Spanish

Education

Harvard University (AB, PhD)

King's College, Cambridge

Era 20th-century philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School

Pragmatismnaturalism

Doctoral advisor Josiah Royce

Notable students Jacob Loewenberg,[1] T. S. Eliot, Horace Kallen, Walter Lippmann, W. E. B. Du

Bois, Alain Locke, Van Wyck Brooks, Felix Frankfurter, Max Eastman, Wallace Stevens

Main interests
Moral philosophypolitical philosophyepistemologymetaphysicsphilosophy of religion

Notable ideas

Lucretian materialism

Skepticism

Natural aristocracy

Realms of Being

Influences

Influenced

Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana y Borrás, known in English as George Santayana (/ˌsæntiˈænə, -
ˈɑːnə/;[2] December 16, 1863 – September 26, 1952), was a philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist.
Originally from Spain, Santayana was raised and educated in the US from the age of eight and identified
himself as an American, although he always retained a valid Spanish passport.[3] At the age of 48,
Santayana left his position at Harvard and returned to Europe permanently.

Santayana is popularly known for aphorisms, such as "Those who cannot remember the past are
condemned to repeat it",[4] "Only the dead have seen the end of war",[5] and the definition of beauty
as "pleasure objectified".[6] Although an atheist, he treasured the Spanish Catholic values, practices, and
worldview in which he was raised.[7] Santayana was a broad-ranging cultural critic spanning many
disciplines. He was profoundly influenced by Spinoza's life and thought; and, in many respects, was a
devoted Spinozist.[8]

Contents

1 Early life

2 Education

3 Later life

4 Philosophical work and publications

5 Legacy

6 In popular culture
7 Awards

8 Bibliography

8.1 Posthumous edited/selected works

8.2 The Works of George Santayana

9 See also

10 References

11 Further reading

12 External links

Early life

Santayana was born on December 16, 1863, in Madrid and spent his early childhood in Ávila, Spain. His
mother Josefina Borrás was the daughter of a Spanish official in the Philippines and he was the only child
of her second marriage.[9] Josefina Borrás' first husband was George Sturgis, a Bostonian merchant with
the Manila firm Russell & Sturgis, with whom she had five children, two of whom died in infancy. She
lived in Boston for a few years following her husband's death in 1857; in 1861, she moved with her three
surviving children to Madrid. There she encountered Agustín Ruiz de Santayana, an old friend from her
years in the Philippines. They married in 1862. A colonial civil servant, Ruiz de Santayana was a painter
and minor intellectual. The family lived in Madrid and Ávila, and Jorge was born in Spain in 1863.

In 1869, Josefina Borrás de Santayana returned to Boston with her three Sturgis children, because she
had promised her first husband to raise the children in the US. She left the six-year-old Jorge with his
father in Spain. Jorge and his father followed her to Boston in 1872. His father, finding neither Boston nor
his wife's attitude to his liking, soon returned alone to Ávila, and remained there the rest of his life. Jorge
did not see him again until he entered Harvard College and began to take his summer vacations in Spain.
Sometime during this period, Jorge's first name was anglicized as George, the English equivalent.

Education

Hollis Hall: a four-story red brick building with white trim in a courtyard.

Santayana lived in Hollis Hall as a student at Harvard.

Santayana attended Boston Latin School and Harvard College, where he studied under the philosophers
William James and Josiah Royce and was involved in eleven clubs as an alternative to athletics. He was
founder and president of the Philosophical Club, a member of the literary society known as the O.K., an
editor and cartoonist for The Harvard Lampoon, and co-founder of the literary journal The Harvard
Monthly.[10] In December, 1885, he played the role of Lady Elfrida in the Hasty Pudding theatrical Robin
Hood, followed by the production Papillonetta in the spring of his senior year.[11]

After graduating from Harvard[12] in 1886, Santayana studied for two years in Berlin.[13] He then
returned to Harvard to write his dissertation on Hermann Lotze (1889).[14] He was a professor at
Harvard from 1889–1912,[9] becoming part of the Golden Age of the Harvard philosophy department.
Some of his Harvard students became famous in their own right, including Conrad Aiken, W. E. B. Du
Bois, T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Horace Kallen, Walter Lippmann and Gertrude Stein. Wallace Stevens was
not among his students but became a friend.[15] From 1896 to 1897, Santayana studied at King's
College, Cambridge.[16]

Later life

Santayana early in his career

Santayana never married. His romantic life, if any, is not well understood. Some evidence, including a
comment Santayana made late in life comparing himself to A. E. Housman, and his friendships with
people who were openly homosexual and bisexual, has led scholars to speculate that Santayana was
perhaps homosexual or bisexual, but it remains unclear whether he had any actual heterosexual or
homosexual relationships.[17]

In 1912, Santayana resigned his position at Harvard to spend the rest of his life in Europe. He had saved
money and been aided by a legacy from his mother. After some years in Ávila, Paris and Oxford, after
1920, he began to winter in Rome, eventually living there year-round until his death. During his 40 years
in Europe, he wrote 19 books and declined several prestigious academic positions. Many of his visitors
and correspondents were Americans, including his assistant and eventual literary executor, Daniel Cory.
In later life, Santayana was financially comfortable, in part because his 1935 novel, The Last Puritan, had
become an unexpected best-seller. In turn, he financially assisted a number of writers, including Bertrand
Russell, with whom he was in fundamental disagreement, philosophically and politically.

Santayana's one novel, The Last Puritan, is a Bildungsroman, centering on the personal growth of its
protagonist, Oliver Alden. His Persons and Places is an autobiography. These works also contain many of
his sharper opinions and bons mots. He wrote books and essays on a wide range of subjects, including
philosophy of a less technical sort, literary criticism, the history of ideas, politics, human nature, morals,
the influence of religion on culture and social psychology, all with considerable wit and humor.

While his writings on technical philosophy can be difficult, his other writings are more accessible and
pithy. He wrote poems and a few plays, and left ample correspondence, much of it published only since
2000. Like Alexis de Tocqueville, Santayana observed American culture and character from a foreigner's
point of view. Like William James, his friend and mentor, he wrote philosophy in a literary way. Ezra
Pound includes Santayana among his many cultural references in The Cantos, notably in "Canto LXXXI"
and "Canto XCV". Santayana is usually considered an American writer, although he declined to become
an American citizen, resided in Fascist Italy for decades, and said that he was most comfortable,
intellectually and aesthetically, at Oxford University. Although an atheist, Santayana considered himself
an "aesthetic Catholic" and spent the last decade of his life in a Roman residence under the care of
Catholic nuns. In 1941, he entered a retirement home run by Blue Nuns of the Little Company of Mary
on the Celian Hill at 6 Via Santo Stefano Rotondo in Roma, where he was cared for by the Irish sisters
until his death in September 1952.[18] Upon his death, he did not want to be buried in consecrated land,
which made his burial problematic in Italy. Finally, the Spanish consulate in Rome agreed that he be
buried in the Pantheon of the Obra Pía Española, in the Campo Verano cemetery in Rome.

Philosophical work and publications

The first page of Egotism in German Philosophy

Although schooled in German idealism, Santayana was critical of it and made an effort to distance
himself from its epistemology.

Santayana's main philosophical work consists of The Sense of Beauty (1896), his first book-length
monograph and perhaps the first major work on aesthetics written in the United States; The Life of
Reason (5 vols., 1905–06), the high point of his Harvard career; Skepticism and Animal Faith (1923); and
The Realms of Being (4 vols., 1927–40). Although Santayana was not a pragmatist in the mold of William
James, Charles Sanders Peirce, Josiah Royce, or John Dewey, The Life of Reason arguably is the first
extended treatment of pragmatism written.

Like many of the classical pragmatists, and because he was well-versed in evolutionary theory, Santayana
was committed to metaphysical naturalism. He believed that human cognition, cultural practices, and
social institutions have evolved so as to harmonize with the conditions present in their environment.
Their value may then be adjudged by the extent to which they facilitate human happiness. The alternate
title to The Life of Reason, "the Phases of Human Progress," is indicative of this metaphysical stance.
Santayana was an early adherent of epiphenomenalism, but also admired the classical materialism of
Democritus and Lucretius. (Of the three authors on whom he wrote in Three Philosophical Poets,
Santayana speaks most favorably of Lucretius). He held Spinoza's writings in high regard, calling him his
"master and model."[19]

Although an atheist,[20][21] he held a fairly benign view of religion and described himself as an
"aesthetic Catholic". Santayana's views on religion are outlined in his books Reason in Religion, The Idea
of Christ in the Gospels, and Interpretations of Poetry and Religion.

He held racial superiority and eugenic views. He believed superior races should be discouraged from
"intermarriage with inferior stock".[22]

Legacy

A black placard with white text reading: "KTO NIE PAMIẸTA HISTORII SKAZANY / JEST NA JEJ PONOWNE
PRZEŻYCIE" / GEORGE SANTAYANA / "THE ONE WHO DOES NOT REMEMBER / HISTORY IS BOUND TO LIVE
THROUGH IT / AGAIN" / GEORGE SANTAYANA

A green brick wall with a white sign reading "Wer die Vergangenheit nicht kennt, / ist dazu verurteilt, sie
zu wiederholden. / (G. Santayana 1863–1953, Philosoph)

Santayana's famous aphorism "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it" is
inscribed on a plaque at the Auschwitz concentration camp in Polish translation and English back-
translation (above), and on a subway placard in Germany (below).

Santayana is remembered in large part for his aphorisms, many of which have been so frequently used
as to have become clichéd. His philosophy has not fared quite as well. He is regarded by most as an
excellent prose stylist, and John Lachs (who is sympathetic with much of Santayana's philosophy) writes,
in On Santayana, that his eloquence may ironically be the very cause of this neglect.

Santayana influenced those around him, including Bertrand Russell, whom Santayana single-handedly
steered away from the ethics of G. E. Moore.[23] He also influenced many prominent people such as
Harvard students T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Walter Lippmann, W. E. B. Du
Bois, Conrad Aiken, Van Wyck Brooks, Felix Frankfurter, Max Eastman, Wallace Stevens. Stevens was
especially influenced by Santayana's aesthetics and became a friend even though Stevens did not take
courses taught by Santayana.[24][25][26]
Santayana is quoted by the Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman as a central influence in the
thesis of his famous book The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959). Religious historian Jerome A.
Stone credits Santayana with contributing to the early thinking in the development of religious
naturalism.[27] English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead quotes Santayana
extensively in his magnum opus Process and Reality (1929).[28]

Chuck Jones used Santayana's description of fanaticism as "redoubling your effort after you've forgotten
your aim" to describe his cartoons starring Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner.[29]

Along with Wendell Phillips and John F. Kennedy, Santayana is quoted on a military plaque at Veterans
Memorial Park in Rhome, Texas.

In popular culture

Santayana's passing is referenced in the lyrics to singer-songwriter Billy Joel's 1989 music single, "We
Didn't Start the Fire".[30]

The quote "Only the dead have seen the end of war." is frequently attributed or misattributed to Plato;
an early example of this misattribution (if it is indeed misattributed) is found in General Douglas
MacArthur's Farewell Speech given to the Corps of Cadets at West Point in 1962.[31][32]

The aphorism ”Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” is quoted as
”unattributable” in Dan Abbnets Warhammer 40,000 novel Prospero Burns.

Awards

Royal Society of Literature Benson Medal, 1925.[33]

Columbia University Butler Gold Medal, 1945.[34]

Honorary degree from the University of Wisconsin, 1911.[35]

Bibliography
Santayana's Reason in Common Sense was published in five volumes between 1905 and 1906 (this
edition is from 1920).

1894. Sonnets And Other Verses.

1896. The Sense of Beauty: Being the Outline of Aesthetic Theory.

1899. Lucifer: A Theological Tragedy.

1900. Interpretations of Poetry and Religion.

1901. A Hermit of Carmel And Other Poems.

1905–1906. The Life of Reason: or the Phases of Human Progress, 5 vols.

1910. Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe.

1913. Winds of Doctrine: Studies in Contemporary Opinion.

1915. Egotism in German Philosophy.

1920. Character and Opinion in the United States: With Reminiscences of William James and Josiah
Royce and Academic Life in America.

1920. Little Essays, Drawn From the Writings of George Santayana. by Logan Pearsall Smith, With the
Collaboration of the Author.

1922. Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies.

1922. Poems.

1923. Scepticism and Animal Faith: Introduction to a System of Philosophy.

1926. Dialogues in Limbo

1927. Platonism and the Spiritual Life.

1927–40. The Realms of Being, 4 vols.

1931. The Genteel Tradition at Bay.

1933. Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy: Five Essays

1935. The Last Puritan: A Memoir in the Form of a Novel.

1936. Obiter Scripta: Lectures, Essays and Reviews. Justus Buchler and Benjamin Schwartz, eds.

1944. Persons and Places.

1945. The Middle Span.

1946. The Idea of Christ in the Gospels; or, God in Man: A Critical Essay.

1948. Dialogues in Limbo, With Three New Dialogues.

1951. Dominations and Powers: Reflections on Liberty, Society, and Government.

1953. My Host The World

Posthumous edited/selected works

1955. The Letters of George Santayana. Daniel Cory, ed. Charles Scribner's Sons. New York. (296 letters)

1956. Essays in Literary Criticism of George Santayana. Irving Singer, ed.

1957. The Idler and His Works, and Other Essays. Daniel Cory, ed.

1967. The Genteel Tradition: Nine Essays by George Santayana. Douglas L. Wilson, ed.

1967. George Santayana's America: Essays on Literature and Culture. James Ballowe, ed.

1967. Animal Faith and Spiritual Life: Previously Unpublished and Uncollected Writings by George
Santayana With Critical Essays on His Thought. John Lachs, ed.

1968. Santayana on America: Essays, Notes, and Letters on American Life, Literature, and Philosophy.
Richard Colton Lyon, ed.

1968. Selected Critical Writings of George Santayana, 2 vols. Norman Henfrey, ed.

1969. Physical Order and Moral Liberty: Previously Unpublished Essays of George Santayana. John and
Shirley Lachs, eds.

1979. The Complete Poems of George Santayana: A Critical Edition. Edited, with an introduction, by W. G.
Holzberger. Bucknell University Press.

1995. The Birth of Reason and Other Essays. Daniel Cory, ed., with an Introduction by Herman J.
Saatkamp, Jr. Columbia Univ. Press.

2009. The Essential Santayana. Selected Writings Edited by the Santayana Edition, Compiled and with an
introduction by Martin A. Coleman. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

2009. The Genteel Tradition in American Philosophy and Character and Opinion in the United States
(Rethinking the Western Tradition), Edited and with an introduction by James Seaton and contributions
by Wilfred M. McClay, John Lachs, Roger Kimball and James Seaton Yale University Press.

The Works of George Santayana

Unmodernized, critical editions of George Santayana's published and unpublished writing. The Works is
edited by the Santayana Edition and published by The MIT Press.
1986. Persons and Places. Santayana's autobiography, incorporating Persons and Places, 1944; The
Middle Span, 1945; and My Host the World, 1953.

1988 (1896). The Sense of Beauty: Being the Outline of Aesthetic Theory.

1990 (1900). Interpretations of Poetry and Religion.

1994 (1935). The Last Puritan: A Memoir in the Form of a Novel.

The Letters of George Santayana. Containing over 3,000 of his letters, many discovered posthumously, to
more than 350 recipients.

2001. Book One, 1868–1909.

2001. Book Two, 1910–1920.

2002. Book Three, 1921–1927.

2003. Book Four, 1928–1932.

2003. Book Five, 1933–1936.

2004. Book Six, 1937–1940.

2006. Book Seven, 1941–1947.

2008. Book Eight, 1948–1952.

2011. George Santayana's Marginalia: A Critical Selection, Books 1 and 2. Compiled by John O.
McCormick and edited by Kristine W. Frost.

The Life of Reason in five books.

2011 (1905). Reason in Common Sense.

2013 (1905). Reason in Society.

2014 (1905). Reason in Religion.

2019 (1910). Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe, Critical Edition, Edited by Kellie
Dawson and David E. Spiech, with an introduction by James Seaton

See also

Philosophy portal

icon Poetry portal

 Biography portal

American philosophy

List of American philosophers

Scientistic materialism

References

John R. Shook (ed.), The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, Continuum, 2005, p. 1499.

"the definition of Santayana". [Link].

George Santayana, "Apologia Pro Mente Sua", in P. A. Schilpp, The Philosophy of George Santayana
(1940), 603.

George Santayana (1905) Reason in Common Sense, p. 284, volume 1 of The Life of Reason

George Santayana (1922) Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies, number 25

"Beauty as Intrinsic Pleasure by George Santayana".

Lovely, Edward W. (Sep 28, 2012). George Santayana's Philosophy of Religion: His Roman Catholic
Influences and Phenomenology. Lexington Books. pp. 1, 204–206.

See his letters and works (such as Persons and Places; Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies)

"George Santayana" at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved April 25, 2021

Parri, Alice Two Harvard Friends: Charles Loeser and George Santayana[1]

Garrison, Lloyd McKim, An Illustrated History of the Hasty Pudding Club Theatricals, Cambridge, Hasty
Pudding Club, 1897.

[2] and he was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa student fraternity Who Belongs To Phi Beta Kappa
Archived 2012-01-03 at the Wayback Machine, ’Phi Beta Kappa website’’, accessed Oct 4, 2009

"SANTAYANA, George". Who's Who. Vol. 59. 1907. p. 1555.

George Santayana, Lotze's system of philosophy, Ph.D., 1889

Lensing, George S. (1986). Wallace Stevens: A Poet's Growth. LSU Press. 313 pp. ISBN 0807112976. p.12-
13.

"Santayana, George (SNTN896G)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.

Saatkamp, Herman; Coleman, Martin (1 January 2014). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy.

"George Santayana, 88, Dies in Rome" Harvard Crimson death notice of 29 September 1952

The Letters of George Santayana: Book Eight, 1948–1952 By George Santayana p 8:39

"My atheism, like that of Spinoza, is true piety towards the universe, and denies only gods fashioned by
men in their own image, to be servants of their human interests." George Santayana, "On My Friendly
Critics," in Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies, 1922 (from Rawson's Dictionary of American
Quotations via [Link]). Accessed August 1, 2008.

"Santayana playfully called himself 'a Catholic atheist,' but in spite of the fact that he deliberately
immersed himself in the stream of Catholic religious life, he never took the sacraments. He neither
literally regarded himself as a Catholic nor did Catholics regard him as a Catholic." Empiricism,
Theoretical Constructs, and God, by Kai Nielsen, The Journal of Religion, Vol. 54, No. 3 (Jul., 1974), pp.
199–217 (p. 205), published by The University of Chicago Press.

Santayana, George (2015-11-26). "The Life of Reason: Human Understanding".

Michael K. Potter. Bertrand Russell's Ethics. London and New York: Continuum, 2006. Pp. xiii, 185. ISBN
0826488102, p.4

Lensing, George S. (1986). Wallace Stevens: A Poet's Growth. LSU Press. 313 pp. ISBN 0807112976. p.12-
23.

"Stevens, Wallace". Archived from the original on 2013-07-25. Retrieved 2014-01-07.

Saatkamp, Herman, "George Santayana" The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

Religious Naturalism Today, pp. 21–37

Whitehead, A.N. (1929). Process and Reality. An Essay in Cosmology. Gifford Lectures Delivered in the
University of Edinburgh During the Session 1927–1928, Macmillan, New York, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge UK.

See the sixth paragraph, That's Not All, Folks! "Of course you know this means war." Who said it?, by
Terry Teachout, The Wall Street Journal, November 25, 2003, (Archived at WebCite).

We Didn't Start the Fire. [Link]. Retrieved 2016-09-25.

SUZANNE, Bernard F. "Plato FAQ: Did Plato write :"Only the dead have seen the end of war"?". plato-
[Link]. Retrieved 2018-04-29.

"Who Really Said That?". The Chronicle of Higher Education. 2013-09-16. Retrieved 2018-04-29.

"The Benson Medal". Archived from the original on 2013-09-18. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
George Santayana; William G. Holzberger (Editor). (2006). The Letters of George Santayana, Book Seven,
1941–1947. (MIT Press (MA), Hardcover, 9780262195560, 569pp.) (p. 143).

"University Lectures – Secretary of the Faculty". Archived from the original on 2013-09-28.

Further reading

W. Arnett, 1955. Santayana and the Sense of Beauty, Bloomington, Indiana University Press.

H. T. Kirby-Smith, 1997. A Philosophical Novelist: George Santayana and the Last Puritan. Southern
Illinois University Press.

Jeffers, Thomas L., 2005. Apprenticeships: The Bildungsroman from Goethe to Santayana. New York:
Palgrave: 159–84.

Lamont, Corliss (ed., with the assistance of Mary Redmer), 1959. Dialogue on George Santayana. New
York: Horizon Press.

McCormick, John, 1987. George Santayana: A Biography. Alfred A. Knopf. The biography.

Singer, Irving, 2000. George Santayana, Literary Philosopher. Yale University Press.

Miguel Alfonso, Ricardo (ed.), 2010, La estética de George Santayana, Madrid: Verbum.

Patella, Giuseppe, Belleza, arte y vida. La estética mediterranea de George Santayana, Valencia, PUV,
2010, pp. 212. ISBN 978-84-370-7734-5.

Pérez Firmat, Gustavo. Tongue Ties: Logo-Eroticism in Anglo-Hispanic Literature. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2003.

Moreno, Daniel. Santayana the Philosopher: Philosophy as a Form of Life. Lewisburg: Bucknell University
Press, 2015. Translated by Charles Padron.

External links

George Santayana

at Wikipedia's sister projects

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Quotations from Wikiquote

Texts from Wikisource

Data from Wikidata

Critical Edition of the Works of George Santayana

Works by George Santayana at Project Gutenberg

Works by George Santayana at Faded Page (Canada)

Works by or about George Santayana at Internet Archive

Saatkamp, Herman. "George Santayana". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Includes a complete bibliography of the primary literature, and a fair selection of the secondary
literature

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "George Santayana" by Matthew C. Flamm

The Santayana Edition

Works by George Santayana at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Overheard in Seville: Bulletin of the Santayana Society

On George Santayana: Spanish-English Blog about Santayana

"George Santayana: Catholic Atheist" by Richard Butler in Spirituality Today, Vol. 38 (Winter 1986), p. 319

George Santayana at Curlie

George Santayana at Find a Grave

George Santayana, "Many Nations in One Empire" (1934)

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