Contents

Articles
Desert ecology Deserts and xeric shrublands List of deserts List of deserts by area Desert climate Afromontane Arabian Desert Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert Atacama Desert Atlantic coastal desert Baja California Desert Caatinga Carnarvon Xeric Shrublands Central Asian northern desert Central Mexican matorral Central Ranges xeric scrub Chihuahuan Desert Cuban cactus scrub Deccan thorn scrub forests Dzungaria East Saharan montane xeric woodlands Eritrean coastal desert Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands Geography of Somalia Gobi Desert Gran Desierto de Altar Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub Gulf of California xeric scrub Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert Haloxylon recurvum Hamada Indus Valley Desert Kaokoveld Kazakh semi-desert 1 1 6 8 11 13 15 19 21 26 26 27 31 32 34 35 36 39 40 42 46 47 48 49 56 65 69 71 71 73 74 75 76 76

List of flora of the LCRV (birdwatching) List of North American Deserts Madagascar spiny thickets Matorral Mojave Desert Monte Desert Muggins Mountains Wilderness flora North Saharan steppe and woodlands Northwestern thorn scrub forest Nullarbor Plain Sahara Sahara Desert (ecoregion) Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago San Lucan xeric scrub Sechura Desert Shrubland Sonoran Desert South Saharan steppe and woodlands Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands Succulent Karoo Taklamakan Desert Tamaulipan matorral Tamaulipan mezquital Tehuacn Valley matorral Thar Desert Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands West Saharan montane xeric woodlands Western Australian Mulga shrublands Xerophyte Yucca brevifolia

78 79 81 83 84 93 94 96 97 98 103 115 117 122 123 124 127 130 131 132 133 138 139 140 141 158 160 162 163 167

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 171 176

Article Licenses
License 182

Desert ecology

Desert ecology
In ecology, desert ecology is the sum of the interactions between both biotic and abiotic x include the interactions of plant, animal, and bacterial populations in a desert habitat, ecosystem, and community. Some of the abiotic factors also include latitude and longitude, soil, and climate. Each of these factors have caused adaptations to the particular environment of the region. Deserts are most notable for their dry climates resulting from rain-blocking mountain ranges and remoteness from oceanic moisture. Deserts occupy one-fifth of the Earth's land surface and occur in two belts: between 15 and 35 latitude in both the southern and northern hemispheres.[1] Deserts support diverse communities of plant and animals that have evolved resistance to and methods of circumventing the extreme temperatures and arid conditions. Desert ecology is characterized by dry, alkaline soils, low net production and opportunistic feeding patterns by herbivores and carnivores. Lichens and blue-green algae are significant primary producers in the desert. The detrital food chain is less important in desert ecology than in the ecology of other regions.

References
[1] "World Deserts" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ moja/ mojadewd. htm). Mojave National Preserve: Desert Ecology. National Park Service. . Retrieved 2008-02-22.

Deserts and xeric shrublands

Deserts and xeric shrublands is a biome characterized by, relating to, or requiring only a small amount of moisture.[1]

Definition and occurrence

Deserts and xeric shrublands receive an annual average rainfall of ten inches or less, and have an arid or hyperarid climate, characterized by a strong moisture deficit, where annual potential loss of moisture from evapotranspiration well exceeds the moisture received as rainfall. Deserts and xeric shrublands occur in tropical, subtropical, and temperate climate regions. Desert soils tend to be sandy or rocky, and low in organic materials. Saline or alkaline soils are common. Plants and animals in deserts and xeric shrublands are adapted to low moisture conditions. Hyperarid regions are mostly devoid of vegetation and animal life, and include rocky deserts and sand dunes. Vegetation in arid climate regions can include sparse grasslands, shrublands, and woodlands. Plants adapted to arid climates are called xerophytes, and include succulent plants, geophytes, sclerophyll, and annual plants. Animals, including insects, reptiles, arachnids, birds and mammals, are frequently nocturnal to avoid moisture loss.

Deserts and xeric shrublands

Desertification
The conversion of productive drylands to desert conditions is known as desertification, and can occur from a variety of causes. One factor is human intervention in imposing intensive agricultural tillage or overgrazing[2] in areas which cannot support such exploitation. Climatic shifts such as global warming or the Milankovitch cycle (which drives glacials and interglacials) also affect the pattern of deserts on Earth.
In isolation, Hawai'i's Silverswords have adapted to xeric microclimates within volcanic craters, trapping and channeling dew and protecting leaves with reflective hairs.

Desert and xeric shrublands ecoregions

Afrotropic Deserts and xeric shrublands Aldabra Island xeric scrub Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert East Saharan montane xeric woodlands Eritrean coastal desert Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert Hobyo grasslands and shrublands Seychelles Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen Chad, Sudan Djibouti, Eritrea Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan Oman, United Arab Emirates Somalia

Ile Europa and Bassas da India xeric scrub Bassas da India, Europa Kalahari xeric savanna Kaokoveld desert Madagascar spiny thickets Madagascar succulent woodlands Masai xeric grasslands and shrublands Nama Karoo Namib desert Namibian savanna woodlands Red Sea coastal desert Socotra Island xeric shrublands Somali montane xeric woodlands Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna Botswana, Namibia, South Africa Angola, Namibia Madagascar Madagascar Ethiopia, Kenya Namibia, South Africa Namibia Namibia Egypt, Sudan Yemen Somalia Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen

Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands Saudi Arabia, Yemen Succulent Karoo South Africa

Deserts and xeric shrublands

Australasia Deserts and xeric shrublands Carnarvon xeric shrublands Central Ranges xeric scrub Gibson Desert Great Sandy-Tanami Desert Great Victoria Desert Nullarbor Plain xeric shrublands Pilbara shrublands Simpson Desert Tirari-Sturt's Stony Desert Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia

Western Australian mulga shrublands Australia

Indomalaya Deserts and xeric shrublands Deccan thorn scrub forests Indus Valley desert India, Sri Lanka India, Pakistan

Northwestern thorn scrub forests India, Pakistan Thar desert India, Pakistan

Nearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Baja California desert Central Mexican matorral Chihuahuan desert Colorado Plateau shrublands Great Basin shrub steppe Gulf of California xeric scrub Meseta Central matorral Mojave desert Mexico Mexico Mexico, United States United States United States Mexico Mexico United States

Okanagan (South) shrub steppe Canada Snake-Columbia shrub steppe Sonoran desert Tamaulipan matorral Tamaulipan mezquital Wyoming Basin shrub steppe United States Mexico, United States Mexico Mexico United States

Deserts and xeric shrublands

Neotropic Deserts and xeric shrublands Araya and Paria xeric scrub Aruba-Curaao-Bonaire cactus scrub Atacama desert Caatinga Cayman Islands xeric scrub Cuban cactus scrub Galpagos Islands xeric scrub Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub La Costa xeric shrublands Leeward Islands xeric scrub Venezuela Aruba, Bonaire, Curaao

Chile, Peru Brazil Cayman Islands Cuba Ecuador Colombia, Venezuela Venezuela Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, British Virgin Islands, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin, Saint Barthlemy, Saba, US Virgin Islands Colombia Guatemala Venezuela Mexico Peru Mexico Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Martinique, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Brazil

Malpelo Island xeric scrub Motagua Valley thornscrub Paraguana xeric scrub San Lucan xeric scrub Sechura desert Tehuacn Valley matorral Windward Islands xeric scrub Saint Peter and Saint Paul rocks

this is because it gets only ten inches of precipitation a year

Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Afghan Mountains semi-desert Alashan Plateau semi-desert Afghanistan China, Mongolia

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Egypt, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Atlantic coastal desert Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe Badkhiz-Karabil semi-desert Baluchistan xeric woodlands Caspian lowland desert Central Afghan Mountains xeric woodlands Central Asian northern desert Central Asian riparian woodlands Central Asian southern desert Central Persian desert basins Eastern Gobi desert steppe Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe Mauritania, Western Sahara Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran Afghanistan, Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Pakistan Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan Afghanistan Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Iran China, Mongolia Mongolia

Deserts and xeric shrublands

5
Mongolia, Russia China, Mongolia Kazakhstan Iran, Turkmenistan Iraq, Jordan, Syria Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara Afghanistan Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates China Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan Iran, Iraq, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan China Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger

Great Lakes Basin desert steppe Junggar Basin semi-desert Kazakh semi-desert Kopet Dag semi-desert Mesopotamian shrub desert North Saharan steppe and woodlands Paropamisus xeric woodlands Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert Qaidam Basin semi-desert Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert Rigestan-North Pakistan sandy desert Sahara desert South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert South Saharan steppe and woodlands Taklimakan desert Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands West Saharan montane xeric woodlands

References
[1] Merriam-Webster.com (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ xeric) Merriam-Webster Dictionary definition of xeric [2] C.Michael Hogan. 2009. Overgrazing (http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Overgrazing). Encyclopedia of Earth. Sidney Draggan, topic ed.; Cutler J. Cleveland, ed., National council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC

External links
Deserts and xeric shrublands (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.panda.org/news_facts/education/university/ habitats/index.cfm?habitatID=13) Map of the ecozones (http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/maps/index.cfm) Index to Deserts & Xeric Shrublands at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ ecoframe-list.htm) Xeric World (http://www.xericworld.com/forums/) Online Community focused on the study of Xeric Plant Species.

List of deserts

List of deserts
This is a list of deserts sorted by the region of the world in which the desert is located.

Regions
Africa
Algerian Desert part of the Sahara localk Algeria Arabian Desert a desert stretching from Eastern Egypt to Iraq Blue Desert a desert in Egypt Kalahari Desert covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia and South Africa Karoo a semi-desert region in South Africa Libyan Desert part of the Sahara located in Libya Namib Desert a desert in present day Namibia Nubian Desert a desert in present day Sudan Owami Desert a desert in Nigeria

Sahara Desert the world's largest hot desert Sinai Desert a desert located on the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt White Desert a desert in Egypt

Antarctica
Antarctica Desert - largest tundra/desert in the world.

Arctic Basin
Arctic Desert - large tundra in the artic North American Arctic - large tundra on the North America* Russian Arctic - the large tundra in Russia

Asia
Akshi Desert - a desert in India Badain Jaran - a desert located in China Betpak-Dala - a desert located in Kazakhstan Cholistan - a desert in India and Pakistan Dasht-e Kavir - a desert in center Dasht-e Lut - a large salt desert in southeastern Iran Gobi - a desert in Mongolia and China Indus Valley Desert - a desert located in Pakistan Kara Kum - a large Central Asian desert Kharan desert - a desert located in Pakistan Kyzyl Kum - a desert in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan La Paz Sand Dunes - a desert in northern Philippines Lop Desert - a desert in China Ordos - a desert in northern China Rub' al Khali - a desert located in Saudi Arabia

Taklamakan - a desert located in China Thal Desert - a desert in Punjab of Pakistan

List of deserts Thar Desert - a desert in Pakistan and India

Australia & New Zealand

Central Desert - a central Australian desert Gibson Desert a central Australian desert Great Sandy Desert a northwestern Australian desert Great Victoria Desert Little Sandy Desert a western Australian desert Rangipo Desert a barren desert-like plateau (with 1.5-2.5 m/yr rainfall) on the North Island Volcanic Plateau in New Zealand Simpson Desert a central Australian desert Strzelecki Desert a south-central Australian desert Tanami Desert a northern Australian desert

Europe
Accona Desert - a semi-Desert in Southern Italy Bardenas Reales - a semi-desert in Navarra, Spain (455km) Bdowska Desert a desert located in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland (32km) Deliblatska Peara - a desert located in Vojvodina, Serbia (300km) Highlands of Iceland the interior plateau of Iceland; not a desert by climate, but effectively one because precipitation penetrates the volcanic soil so quickly that it is unavailable to plants Monegros Desert - a semi-desert in Aragn, Spain Oleshky Sands - a desert located in Ukraine near Askania-Nova biosphere reserve (15km in diameter) Oltenian Sahara a desert spanning approximately 80.000 hectares or 800km in the Romanian historical province of Oltenia Piscinas - a desert located in South-West Sardinia, Italy (5km) Stranja Sahara - a desert in southeastern Bulgaria near the city of Burgas. It is about 80,000 hectares, sometimes estimated to about 850 km sqaured. It is near the borders of Turkey and northwestern Greece. Tabernas Desert a desert in Almera, Spain (280km)

Middle East
Arabian Desert a vast desert complex on the Arabian Peninsula comprising the Al-Dahna Desert, Empty Quarter, Nefud Desert and other deserts Dasht-e Kavir a desert in central Iran Dasht-e Lut a large salt desert in southeastern Iran Judean Desert a desert in eastern Israel and in the West Bank Maranjab Desert a desert in central Iran Negev a desert located in southern Israel Ramlat al-Sab`atayn- a sand desert in central & northeastern Yemen, part of the Empty Quarter Wahiba Sands a desert in Oman

List of deserts

North America
Central Valley of California (which is divided into the Sacramento Valley in the north, and the San Joaquin Valley in the south). This area has largely been transformed, due to irrigation canals, to an agricultural area. It is technically a semi-arid climate. Chihuahuan Desert Colorado Desert Mojave Desert Sonoran Desert

South America
Atacama a desert in Chile and Peru, the driest place on Earth La Guajira Desert a desert in northern Colombia Monte Desert in Argentina, a smaller desert above the Patagonian Patagonian Desert the largest desert by area in the Americas, located in Argentina and Chile Sechura Desert

List of deserts by area

This is a list of deserts in the world ordered by area. It includes all deserts with an area greater than 50000square kilometres (19300sqmi).

Some of the Earth's biggest deserts

Deserts over 50 000 km

List of deserts by area

Rank

Deserts Name

Type of desert Polar

Image

Area (km) 13,829,430

Area (sq mi) [1] 5,339,573 Antarctica

Location

Antarctic Desert

Sahara

Subtropical

9 [2] 100,000+ 2,600,000+ [3]

3,320,000+ Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara Alaska (United States), Canada, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland and Russia 900,000 Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman and Yemen Mongolia and China

Arctic

Polar

Arabian Desert

Subtropical

2,330,000

[4]

Gobi Desert

Cold Winter

1,300,000

[2]

500,000

Kalahari Desert

Subtropical

900,000

360,000

Angola, Botswana, Namibia and South Africa

Patagonian Desert

Cold Winter

670,000

[2]

260,000

Argentina and Chile

Great Victoria Desert Syrian Desert

Subtropical

647,000

[3]

250,000

Australia

Subtropical

520,000

[3]

200,000

Syria, Jordan and Iraq

10

Great Basin Desert

Cold Winter

492,000

[3]

190,000

United States

11

Chihuahuan Desert Great Sandy Desert Karakum Desert

Subtropical

450,000

[3]

175,000

Mexico and United States

12

Subtropical

400,000

[3]

150,000

Australia

13

Cold Winter

350,000

[3]

135,000

Turkmenistan

14

Colorado Plateau

Cold Winter

337,000

[3]

130,000

United States

15

Sonoran Desert

Subtropical

310,000

[3]

120,000

Mexico and United States

16 17

Kyzyl Kum Taklamakan Desert

Cold Winter Cold Winter

300,000 270,000

[3] [2]

115,000 105,000

Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan China

List of deserts by area

[5]

10
Subtropical 77,000 India and Pakistan

18

Thar Desert

200,000

19

Gibson Desert

Subtropical

155,000

60,000

Australia

20

Simpson Desert

Subtropical

145,000

[3]

56,000

Australia

21

Atacama Desert

Cool Coastal

140,000

[3]

54,000

Chile and Peru

22

Namib Desert

Cool Coastal

81,000

[3]

31,000

Angola and Namibia

23

Dasht-e Kavir

Cold Winter

77,000 65,000

[6]

30,000

Iran

24

Mojave Desert

Subtropical

25,000

United States

25

Dasht-e Lut

Cold Winter

52,000

[6]

20,000

Iran

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Ward, Paul (2001). Antarctica Fact File (http:/ / www. coolantarctica. com/ Antarctica fact file/ antarctica fact file index. htm)/ "Planet Earth - Basic Facts and Extremes" (http:/ / www. 1world2travel. com/ print. php?articleID=2830). . Retrieved 2007-10-06. "Largest Desert in the World" (http:/ / geology. com/ records/ largest-desert. shtml). . Retrieved 2009-01-01. "Arabian Desert" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9110527/ Arabian-Desert). . Retrieved 2007-12-28. Thar Desert - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9071941/ Thar-Desert) Wright, John W. (ed.); Lalala and reporters of The New York Times (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. p.456. ISBN0-14-303820-6.

Desert climate

11

Desert climate
Under the Koppen climate classification, a desert climate (BWh, BWk, BWn), also known as an arid climate, is a climate that does not meet the criteria to be classified as a polar climate, and in which precipitation is too low to sustain any vegetation at all, or at most a very scanty scrub. An area that features this climate usually (but not always) experiences less than 250mm (10inches) per year of precipitation and in some years may experience no precipitation at all. In Locations of arid climates. BWhBWk some instances an area may experience more than 250mm of precipitation annually, but is still considered a desert climate because the region loses more water via evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation (Tucson, Arizona and Alice Springs, Northern Territory are examples of this). There are usually two or three variations of a desert climate: a hot desert climate (BWh), a cold desert climate (BWk) and, sometimes, a mild desert climate (BWn). Furthermore, to delineate "hot desert climates" from "cold desert climates", there are three widely used isotherms: either a mean annual temperature of 18C, or a mean temperature of 0C or -3C in the coldest month, so that a location with a "BS" type climate with the appropriate temperature above whichever isotherm is being used is classified as "hot semi-arid" (BWh), and a location with the appropriate temperature below the given isotherm is classified as "cold semi-arid" (BWk). To determine if a location has an arid climate, the precipitation threshold must first be determined. Finding the precipitation threshold (in millimeters) involves first multiplying the average annual temperature in C by 20, then adding 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or 140 if 30%70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received. If the area's annual precipitation is less than half the threshold, it is classified as a BW (desert climate).[1]

Hot desert climates

Hot desert climates are typically found under the subtropical ridge where there is largely unbroken sunshine for the whole year due to the stable descending air and high pressure. Such areas include the Sahara, the Arabian, Syrian and Kalahari Deserts, large parts of Iran, southern and central Pakistan, northwest India, the southwestern United States, Northern Mexico, and much of Australia.

Regions with hot desert climates

Desert climate Hot desert climates feature hot, typically exceptionally hot, periods of the year. In many locations featuring a hot desert climate, maximum temperatures of 40C to 45C are not uncommon in summer. During colder periods of the year, night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the exceptional radiation loss under the clear skies. However, very rarely do temperatures drop far below freezing.

12

Cold desert climates

This variant of the desert climate is somewhat rare outside of Asia. A cold desert climate is typically found in temperate zones, almost always in the rain shadow of high mountains which restrict precipitation from the westerly winds, or in the case of Central Asia, from the monsoon. The Gobi desert in Mongolia is a classic example of a region with a cold desert climate. Though hot in summer, it shares the very cold winters of the rest of Central Asia. The Kyzyl Kum and Taklamakan deserts of Central Asia and the drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of the western United States are other major examples of BWk climates. Cold desert climates can feature hot (sometimes exceptionally hot) and dry summers, though summers typically are not quite as hot as summers in hot desert climates. Unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates usually feature cold, sometimes brutally cold, dry winters with temperatures far below the freezing point. Cold deserts are typically found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates, and are usually drier than hot desert climates.

Regions with cold desert climates

Arctic and Antarctic regions also receive very little precipitation during the year, owing to the exceptionally cold dry air, but they are generally classified as having polar climates.

Cold deserts do get the occasional blanket of snow, like Snake Valley, Utah and Nevada

Mild desert climates

This variant of a desert climate is extremely rare. Mild desert climates are usually found along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations, or at high altitudes in areas that would otherwise feature hot desert climates. In North America, this type of climate can be found along the Pacific coast of the Baja California peninsula. Mild desert climates are characterized by more moderate temperatures than encountered elsewhere at comparable latitudes (usually due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents) and, in the case of coastal mild deserts, frequent fog and low clouds, despite the fact that these places can rank among the driest on Earth in terms of actual precipitation received. Temperatures are mild throughout the year, usually not subject to any of the temperature extremes typically found in desert climates. Some publications do not have a "mild desert" category; in these documents mild desert climates are sorted into either the hot desert or cold desert classifications.

Desert climate

13

Regions of varying classification

As stated previously, there are three isotherms used to delineate between hot and cold desert climates. As a result of this, some areas can have climates that are classified as hot or cold depending on the isotherm used.

References
[1] (http:/ / www. hydrol-earth-syst-sci. net/ 11/ 1633/ 2007/ hess-11-1633-2007. pdf)

External links
Desert climate summary (http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate/Older/Desert_Climate.html) Desert report/essay (http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/desert.htm)

Afromontane
Afromontane is a term used to describe the plant and animal species common to the mountains of Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula. The afromontane regions of Africa are discontinuous, separated from each other by lowlands, and are sometimes referred to as the Afromontane archipelago, as their distribution is analogous to a series of islands. Afromontane communities occur above 1500-2000 meters elevation near the equator, and as low as 300 meters elevation in the Knysna-Amatole montane forests of South Africa. Afromontane forests are generally cooler and more humid than the surrounding lowlands. The Afromontane archipelago mostly follows the Great Rift Valley from the Red Sea to Zimbabwe, with the largest areas in the Ethiopian Highlands, the Albertine Rift of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Tanzania, and the Eastern Arc highlands of Kenya and Tanzania. Other Afromontane regions include the Drakensberg range of southern Africa, the Cameroon Highlands, and the Cameroon Line volcanoes, including Mount Cameroon, Bioko, and So Tom. Although some Afromontane enclaves are widely separated, they share a similar mix of plant species which are often distinct from the surrounding lowland regions. Podocarps, of genera Podocarpus and Afrocarpus, are a characteristic tree, along with Prunus africana, Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera, and Olea spp.. In the higher mountains, the Afromontane forest or woodland zone transitions to a higher Afroalpine zone of grasslands, shrublands, or moorlands. The plant families Curtisiaceae and Oliniaceae are Afromontane endemics and family Barbeyaceae is a near-endemic. The tree genera Afrocrania, Balthasaria, Curtisia, Ficalhoa, Hagenia, Kiggelaria, Leucosidea, Platypterocarpus, Trichocladus, Widdringtonia, and Xymalos are Afromontane endemics or near-endemics, as are the plant genera Ardisiandra, Cincinnobotrys, and Stapfiella. In South Africa, Afromontane forests cover only 0.5% of the country's land area. The Afromontane forests occur along the mountainous arc of the Drakensberg Range, from Limpopo Province in the northeast to the Western Cape Province in the southwest. The Afromontane forests generally occur in well-watered areas, including ravines and south-facing slopes. The Afromontane forests are intolerant of fire, and the frequent fires of the surrounding fynbos, savanna, and grassland limit the expansion of the forests. Despite their small area, the Afromontane forests of South Africa produce valuable timber, particularly the Real Yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), Outeniqua Yellowwood (Afrocarpus falcatus), and Stinkwood (Ocotea bullata).

Afromontane

14

Afromontane ecoregions
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Albertine Rift montane forests (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda) Cameroonian Highlands forests (Cameroon, Nigeria) East African montane forests (Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania) Eastern Arc forests (Tanzania, Kenya) Ethiopian montane forests (Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan) Guinean montane forests (Guinea, Cte d'Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone) Knysna-Amatole montane forests (South Africa) Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests (Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea)

Montane grasslands, shrublands, and woodlands Angolan montane forest-grassland mosaic (Angola) Angolan scarp savanna and woodlands (Angola) Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands (Lesotho, South Africa) Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests (Lesotho, South Africa, Swaziland) East African montane moorlands (Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda) Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest-grassland mosaic (Mozambique, Zimbabwe) Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands (Eritrea, Ethiopia) Ethiopian montane moorlands (Ethiopia) Highveld grasslands (Lesotho, South Africa) Jos Plateau forest-grassland mosaic (Nigeria) Maputaland-Pondoland bushland and thickets (Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland) Southern Afrotemperate Forest (Western Cape Province of South Africa) Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Uganda) South Malawi montane forest-grassland mosaic (Malawi, Mozambique) Southern Rift montane forest-grassland mosaic (Malawi, Tanzania)

Deserts and xeric shrublands Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands (Saudi Arabia, Yemen)

References
White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa by F. White. UNESCO, Paris. Galley, C. & Linder, H. P. (2006) Geographical affinities of the Cape flora, South Africa. Journal of Biogeography 33 (2), 236-250.

External links
Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot (Conservation International) [1] Eastern Afromontane, from Hotspots Revisited (Conservation International) [2]

Afromontane

15

References
[1] http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ Hotspots/ afromontane/ [2] http:/ / www. biodiversityscience. org/ publications/ hotspots/ Afromontanefinal. html

Arabian Desert
Arabian Desert
Desert

A satellite image of the Arabian Desert by NASA World Wind Countries , , Landmarks
Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates, Yemen

Al-Nafd, Al-Sabatayn Dunes, l Wahbah Dunes, Rub al-Khali

Highest point Mount Al-Nab Shuayb 12336ft (3760m) -coordinates Length Width Area Biome 18162N 42225E 2100 km (1305 mi), E/W 1100 km (684 mi), N/S 2330000 km (899618 sq mi) Desert

Arabian Desert

16

The Arabian Desert is a vast desert wilderness stretching from Yemen to the Persian Gulf and Oman to Jordan and Iraq. It occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula with an area of 2,330,000 square kiliometers or (900,000 square miles). At its centre is the Rub'al-Khali, one of the largest continuous bodies of sand in the world. Gazelles, oryx, sand cats, and spiny-tailed lizards are just some of the desert-adapted species that survive in this extreme environment, which features everything from red dunes to deadly quicksand. The climate is extremely dry, and temperatures oscillate between extreme heat and seasonal night time freezes. It is part of the Deserts Map of the Arabian Desert. Ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. Satellite image and xeric shrublands biome and the from NASA. The yellow line encloses the ecoregion called "Arabian Desert and Palearctic ecozone. This ecoregion holds [1] East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands", and two smaller, closely related [2] little biodiversity, although a few endemic ecoregions called "Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert" and "Red Sea [3] plants grow here. Many species, such as the Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert". National boundaries are shown in black. striped hyena, jackal and honey badger have become extinct in this area due to hunting, human encroachment and habitat destruction. Other species have been successfully re-introduced, such as the sand gazelle, and are protected at a number of reserves. Overgrazing by livestock, off-road driving, human destruction of habitat are the main threats to this desert ecoregion.

Climate
Type : hyper arid Detailed description : Most of the Rub'al-Khali is classified as hyper-arid. Rainfall is about 35millimetres (1.4in), per annum and relatively dry (50% in winter, 15% in summer). Not only is the Arabian Desert extremely dry, it also has very high evaporation, making the environment even more extreme. Temperatures range 4050 C (104122F) in summer, with an average temperature of 515 C (4159F) in winter, though it can go below 0 C (32F). Saudi Arabia shows lower summer temperatures 30 C (86F) with cold winter temperature (5 C (41F), with frequent frost), with average rainfall of less than 80millimetres (3.1in).

Arabian Desert

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Geology/Geography
Detailed geological features : A corridor of sandy terrain known as the ad-Dahna desert connects the large an-Nafud desert (65,000km2 or 40,389 square mile) in the north of Saudi Arabia to the Rub' al-Khali in the south-east. the Tuwayk escarpment is a region of 800km (500mi) arc of limestone cliffs, plateaux, and canyons. Brackish salt flats: the quicksands of Umm al Samim The Wahiba sands of Oman : an isolated sand sea bordering the east coast The Rub' al-Khali[4] desert is a sedimentary basin elongated on a southwest to northeast axis across the Arabian shelf. At an altitude of 1000metres (3300ft), the rock landscapes yield the place to the ar-Ruba' Al-Khali, vast wide of sand of the Arabian desert, whose extreme southern point crosses the centre of Yemen. The sand overlies gravel or gypsum plains and the dunes reach maximum heights of up to 250m (820ft). The sands are predominantly silicates, composed of 80 to 90% of quartz and the remainder feldspar, whose iron oxide-coated grains color the sands in orange, purple, and red.

Ecology and natural resources

Some resources are oil, natural gas, phosphates, and sulfur. The Rub'al-Khali has very limited floristic diversity. There are only 37 species, 20 recorded in the main body of the sands and 17 around the outer margins. Among these 37 species, only one or two are endemic. Vegetation is very diffuse but fairly evenly distributed, with some interruptions of near sterile dunes. Some typical plants are Calligonum crinitum on dune slopes Cornulaca arabica (saltbush) Cyperus conglomeratus. Other widespread species are Dipterygium glaucum Limeum arabicum Zygophyllum mandavillei (Mandaville 1986). Very little trees may be found except at the outer margin (typically Acacia ehrenbergiana and Prosopis cineraria). Other species are a woody perennial Calligonum comosum and annual herbs such as Danthonia forskallii

Political borders
The desert is mostly in Saudi Arabia, extending into the surrounding countries of Egypt (Sinai), southern Iraq and southern Jordan. The Arabian desert is bordered by 5 countries. Bordering the Persian Gulf, there is an extension into Qatar and, further east, the region covers almost all of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The Rub'al-Khali crosses over from Saudi Arabia into western Oman and eastern Yemen.

People, language and cultures

The area is home to several different people, languages and cultures, with Shi'a and Sunni Islam the predominant faiths. The major ethnic group in the region are the Arabs, with Arabic as their primary language.

Arabian Desert

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Ecological threats
Overgrazing by camels and goats, with increased herd size, and a more sedentary lifestyle amongst the Bedouin Human destruction of habitat Agricultural projects Oil and gas production War and its impacts

Oil spills
This ecoregion was the victim of a massive economic-environmental challenge: the sabotage of Kuwait oil facilities that caused vast oil spills and the release of toxins into the atmosphere in the 1990s. In January 1991 during the Gulf War, Iraqi forces released about 1.7 million m (11 million barrels) of oil from storage tanks and tankers directly into the Persian Gulf. In February, they also destroyed 1,164 Kuwaiti oil wells. It took nine months to extinguish these oil fires. These oil spills contaminated 1000km (620mi) of Persian Gulf coast. The result of the pollution was the death of thousands of water birds and serious damage to the Persian Gulf's aquatic ecosystem, particularly shrimp, sea turtles, dugongs, whales, dolphins and fish. The damaged wells also released 10 million m (60 million barrels) of oil into the desert and formed lakes (total surface of 49 square kilometres) which contaminated soil and ground water.

Military activity
Weaponry used by the US during the Gulf War also poses a huge risk to the environmental stability of the area. Tank columns in the desert plains may disrupt the fragile stability that exists. In 1991, the movement of US tanks over the desert damaged the top protective layer of the desert soil. As a result, a sand dune was released and has started slowly moving downhill.[5] Some people fear that this dune could ultimately reach Kuwait City.[5] Another concern is related to the use of radioactive depleted uranium munitions by the A-10 "Warthog". Some detractors claim the ammunition to be a cancer risk and a source of water contamination. In 1991, the U.S. and NATO dropped nearly 300 tons of depleted uranium on Iraqi targets. The splinters resulting from the explosion contaminated the surrounding soil.

Conservation
The conservation status of the desert is critical/endangered, with species including the white oryx and sand gazelle threatened and striped hyaenas, jackals and honey badgers already extinct. No formal protected areas exist but a number of protected areas are planned for Abu Dhabi.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] PA1303 (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1303_full. html), WWF PA1323 (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1323_full. html), WWF PA1325 (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1325_full. html), WWF http:/ / www. alovelyworld. com/ webyemen/ htmgb/ yem027. htm Environment hit the worst in Iraq - Science (http:/ / media. www. jhunewsletter. com/ media/ storage/ paper932/ news/ 2003/ 03/ 28/ Science/ Environment. Hit. The. Worst. In. Iraq-2246692. shtml)

Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert

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Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert

The Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert on the southern coasts of the Arabian peninsula is an ecoregion which experiences thick fogs where visibility may be reduced to 33 feet (10 metres). It is classed as a Afrotropic fog desert [1]

Location and description

This ecosystem exists on a strip along the western and eastern coasts of Arabia. It follows the coast of Oman southward from Masirah Island and reaches inland to Tihama on the Red Sea near Khaukha in Yemen is part of this ecosystem 120km in the Jiddat al Harasisi plateau and the Dhofar mountains. From here it continues as a very narrow strip (only 5km wide) along the coast of Yemen and up the 50km wide the Tihamah plain along the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. In Oman and Yemen moisture is provided by thick fogs coming off the ocean during the summer khareef monsoon, while the hot Tihamah plain is moisturised by some rainfall and the generally high humidity of the Red Sea.

Flora
In this region, although it rarely rains the fog provides moisture sufficient to nurture a great deal of grassland, shrubs and thick woodland. There are over sixty local species of plant. This coastal strip is of particular importance as further inland where the fog does not have an influence most of the Arabian Peninsula is desert. Vegetation varies progressively away from the coast which features dense woodland of Anogeissus dhofarica, Acacia senegal and various thorny Commiphora trees and shrubs. The richest flora can be found in the Dhofar mountains which have 900 plants including 60 endemic species and two endemic genera, Cibirhiza and Dhofaria. One of these plants, the Frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra) was a source of great wealth for Dhofar in antiquity. In Yemen the side of Jabal Urays facing the sea is covered with Euphorbia balsamifera shrubs.

Fauna
The many mammals found here include the Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx) which was reintroduced to the wild after disappearing, gazelles and the Nubian ibex, a goat antelope . Predators found on the coast include caracals, Arabian wolf, striped hyaena and the critically endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), which survives on Jebel Samhan in the Dhofar mountains. The Arabian Gazelle which once lived on the peninsula is now extinct.

Threats and preservation

The main threat to this ecosystem is overgrazing by increasing numbers of cattle and other livestock as well as off-road driving and human encroachment. Urban areas in this ecoregion include: in Oman the port of Duqm and the Dhofar capital of Salalah: in Yemen, the Hadramaut port capital Al Mukalla, the former capital and ancient port of Aden, the Red Sea coffee ports of Al Hudaydah (still the largest town on this coast of Yemen) and Mocha, and the World Heritage site of Zabid; and the city of Jizan, the fruit basket of Saudi Arabia. Protected areas in Oman include the controversial Arabian Oryx Sanctuary where the reintroduction took place, and Jebel Samhan Nature Reserve established for the protection of the leopards. There are a number of Important Bird Areas on the coast of Yemen but none are officially protected.[2]

Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert

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References
[1] National Geographic (http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1302. html) [2] EO Earth (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1302_full. html)

External links
Google books (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OPniyjxTu-UC&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=arabian+ peninsula+fog+desert&source=bl&ots=AeUihdyPFd&sig=Ef8mr_Qo3GxBcFwagdoRmrf21rc&hl=en& ei=D-TkSdKzLtOD-Aa9udmGCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPA33,M1) Britannica Arabian Desert (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31610/Arabian-Desert/47941/ Climate)

Atacama Desert

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Atacama Desert
Atacama Desert
Desert

Atacama by NASA World Wind Countries Area Biome Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina 105000 km (40541 sq mi) Desert

Map of Atacama Desert. The area most commonly defined as Atacama is yellow. In orange are the outlying arid areas of Sechura Desert, Altiplano, Puna de Atacama and Norte Chico.

The Atacama Desert is a plateau in South America, covering a 600-mile (1000km) strip of land on the Pacific coast of South America, west of the Andes mountains. The Atacama desert is, according to NASA, National Geographic and many other publications, the driest desert in the world,[1] [2] [3] due to the rain shadow on the leeward side of the Chilean Coast Range, as well as a coastal inversion layer created by the cold offshore Humboldt Current.[4] The Atacama occupies 40600square miles ( km2)[5] in northern Chile, composed mostly of salt basins (salares), sand, and felsic lava flows towards the Andes.

A chilla in Pan de Azcar National Park on the coast of the Atacama Desert.

Setting
The Atacama Desert ecoregion, as defined by the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF), extends from a few kilometers south of the Peru-Chile border to about 30 south latitude.[6] To the north lies the Sechura Desert ecoregion, in Peru, whilst to the south is the Chilean Matorral ecoregion.

Atacama Desert The National Geographic Society, by contrast, considers the coastal area of southern Peru to be part of the Atacama Desert.[7] [8] It includes in this definition the deserts south of the Ica Region in Peru. To the east lies the less arid Central Andean dry puna ecoregion. The drier portion of this ecoregion is located south of the Loa River between the parallel Sierra Vicua Mackenna and Cordillera Domeyko. To the north of the mentioned river lies the Pampa del Tamarugal.

22

Aridity
Some parts of Atacama Desert, especially, surroundings of the abandoned Yungay town[9] (in Antofagasta Region, Chile) are arguably the driest places on Earth,[10] and are virtually sterile because they are blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes mountains and by the Chilean Coast Range. A coastal inversion layer created by the cold Humboldt Current and the anticyclone of the Pacific is essential to keeping the climate of the Atacama dry. The average rainfall in the Chilean region of Antofagasta is just 1millimetre (0.04in) per year. Some weather stations in the Atacama have never received rain. Evidence suggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971.[5] It is so arid that mountains that reach as high as 6885metres (22589 ft) are completely free of glaciers and, in the southern part from 25S to 27S, may have been glacier-free throughout the Quaternary, though permafrost extends down to an altitude of 4400metres (14400ft) and is continuous above 5600metres (18400ft). Studies by a group of British scientists have suggested that some river beds have been dry for 120,000 years.[11] Some locations in the Atacama do receive a marine fog known locally as the Camanchaca, providing sufficient moisture for hypolithic algae, lichens and even some cacti. But in the region that is in the "fog shadow" of the high coastal crest-line, which averages 3000metres (10000ft) height for about 100kilometres (60mi) south of Antofagasta, the soil has been compared to that of Mars. Due to its otherworldly appearance, the Atacama has been used as a location for filming Mars scenes, most notably in the television series Space Odyssey: Voyage To The Planets. In 2003, a team of researchers published a report in the journal Science titled "Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life" in which they duplicated the tests used by the Viking 1 and Viking 2 Mars landers to detect life, and were unable to detect any signs in Atacama Desert soil.[12] The region may be unique on Earth in this regard and is being used by NASA to test instruments for future Mars missions. The team duplicated the Viking tests in Mars-like Earth environments and found that they missed present signs of life in soil samples from Antarctic dry valleys, the Atacama Desert of Chile and Peru, and other locales.
Towards Ataca, near the deserted coast, you see a land without men, where there is not a bird, not a beast, nor a tree, nor any vegetation. La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla, 1569
[13]

In 2008, the Phoenix Mars Lander detected perchlorates on the surface of Mars at the same site where water was first discovered.[14] Perchlorates are also found in the Atacama and associated nitrate deposits have contained organics, leading to speculation that signs of life on Mars are not incompatible with perchlorates. The Atacama is also a testing site for the NASA funded Earth-Mars Cave Detection Program.[15]

Atacama Desert

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Human occupation
The Atacama is sparsely populated, with most cities located along the Pacific coast.[16] In interior areas, oases and some valleys have been populated for millennia, being the seat of the most advanced Pre-Columbian societies found in Chile. These oases have had little population growth and urban development, and have, since the 20th century, faced conflicts over water resources that are needed for the coastal cities and the mining industry. The coastal cities originated in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries during the time of the Spanish Empire, when they emerged as shipping Atacama road ports for silver produced in Potos and other mines. During the 19th century the desert came under control of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru, and soon became a zone of conflict due to unclear borders and the discovery of sodium nitrate deposits. After the War of the Pacific, in which Chile annexed most of the desert, cities along the coast developed into international ports, and many Chilean workers migrated there. With the guano and saltpeter booms of the 19th century the population grew immensely, mostly due to immigration from central Chile. In the 20th century the nitrate industry declined and at the same time the largely male population of the desert became increasingly problematic for the Chilean state. Anarchist and Communist ideas gained currency among the mine workers, and protest spread throughout the region. In an oasis, in the middle of the desert, at about 2000metres (7000ft) elevation, lies the village of San Pedro de Atacama. Its church was built by the Spanish in 1577. In pre-Hispanic times, before the Inca empire, the extremely arid interior was inhabited mainly by the Atacameo tribe. The tribe is noted for the construction of fortified towns called pucars, one of which can be seen a few kilometers from San Pedro de Atacama. The Atacama desert again became a source of wealth from the 1950s onwards due to copper mining. The Escondida and Chuquicamata porphyry copper mines are located within the Atacama Desert. The Pan-American Highway runs through the Atacama in a north-south trajectory.

Abandoned nitrate mining towns

The desert has rich deposits of copper and other minerals, and the world's largest natural supply of sodium nitrate, which was mined on a large scale until the early 1940s. The Atacama border dispute over these resources between Chile and Bolivia began in the 19th century. Now the desert is littered with approximately 170 abandoned nitrate (or "saltpetre") mining towns, almost all of which were shut down decades after the invention of synthetic nitrate in Germany at the turn of the 20th century (see Haber process). The towns include Chacabuco, Humberstone, Santa Laura, Pedro de Valdivia, Puelma and Maria Elena and Oficina Anita.

Atacama Desert

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Astronomical observatories
Because of its high altitude, nearly non-existent cloud cover, dry air, and lack of light pollution and radio interference from the very widely spaced cities, the desert is one of the best places in the world to conduct astronomical observations. The European Southern Observatory operates two major observatories in the Atacama: The La Silla Observatory The Paranal Observatory, which includes the Very Large Telescope A new radio astronomy telescope called ALMA, is being built by Europe, Japan, United States, Canada and Chile in the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory. A number of radio astronomy projects are currently operating in the Chajnantor area since 1999. For example: CBI, ASTE, ACT, among others.

Gallery

Chajnantor Plateau in the Chilean Andes. This unearthly location is home to the Atacama Large Millimeter Array

Map of the Atacama Desert (Chilean area) from the CIA World Factbook

Atacama Desert

Scene from Valle de la Luna (Moon Valley) near San Pedro de Atacama

Solar Evaporation Ponds in the Atacama Desert

Paranal Observatory

Protected areas
Pan de Azcar National Park Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve La Chimba National Reserve

Legends
Alicanto Atacama Giant

Atacama Desert

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References
Bibliography
Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World, ISBN 0-520-08116-1, vol. III of Civilization and Capitalism 1984 (originally published in French, 1979). Sagaris, Lake. Bone and dream : into the world's driest desert. 1st ed. Toronto : A.A. Knopf Canada, c2000. ISBN 0-676-97223-3

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ ngm/ 0308/ feature3/ http:/ / www. extremescience. com/ DriestPlace. htm http:/ / quest. nasa. gov/ challenges/ marsanalog/ egypt/ AtacamaAdAstra. pdf Jonathan Amos (8 December 2005). "Chile desert's super-dry history" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4437153. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 29 December 2009. [5] Wright, John W. (ed.); Editors and reporters of The New York Times (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. pp.456. ISBN0-14-303820-6. [6] "Terrestrial Ecoregions Atacama desert (NT1303)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt1303_full. html). www.worldwildlife.org. . Retrieved 11 March 2008. [7] Viking Mission May Have Missed Mars Life, Study Finds (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2006/ 10/ 061023-mars-life. html) [8] Giant Penguins Once Roamed Peru Desert, Fossils Show (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 06/ 070625-giant-penguins. html) [9] Yungay - the driest place in the world, Wondermondo (http:/ / www. wondermondo. com/ Countries/ SA/ Chile/ Antofagasta/ Yungay. htm) [10] Boehm, Richard G.; Editors and writers of The World and Its People (2006). The World and Its People (2005 ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Glencoe. pp.276. ISBN0-07-860977-1. [11] "Chile desert's super-dry history" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 4437153. stm). BBC News. 8 December 2005. . Retrieved 25 April 2010. [12] Mars-Like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 302/ 5647/ 1018) Science 7 November 2003: Vol. 302. no. 5647, pp. 10181021 [13] quoted Braudel, Fernand, The Perspective of the World, ISBN 0-520-08116-1, vol. III of Civilization and Capitalism 1984 (originally published in French, 1979). p 388 [14] Thompson, Andrea. Scientists Set Record Straight on Martian Salt Find. http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ 080805-phoenix-perchlorate-update. html. Retrieved 6 August 2008 [15] Earth-Mars Cave Detection Program (http:/ / www. explorers. org/ expeditions/ reports/ Flag_Reports_PDF/ Flag 52 - J Judson Wynne Flag Report. pdf) [16] South America physical map (http:/ / southamerica. zoom-maps. com/ )

External links
Last Frontier Ex - Atacama Desert (http://www.lastfrontierexpediciones.com/) SanPedrodeAtacama.Net & Org (http://www.sanpedrodeatacama.org) News article on "Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life" (http:// amesnews.arc.nasa.gov/releases/2003/03_87AR.html) National Geographic feature about Atacama (http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0308/feature3/) Autonomous Robot Finds Life in Atacama Desert (http://science.slashdot.org/science/05/03/19/1943236. shtml?tid=216&tid=191&tid=14) Photos of Atacama Desert landscape, flora and fauna (http://www.atacamaphoto.com/atacama/atacama-1. htm) Atacama's Super-Dry History (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4437153.stm)

Atlantic coastal desert

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Atlantic coastal desert

The Atlantic coastal desert is the westernmost ecoregion in the Sahara of North Africa. It occupies a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 square miles) in Western Sahara and Mauritania. It is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the North Saharan steppe and woodlands, on the north by the Mediterranean acacia-argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets, and on the south by the Sahelian Acacia savanna.

References and external links

Atlantic coastal desert (WWF Scientific Report) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1304_full. html

Baja California Desert

The Baja California Desert is a Desert ecoregion of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula.[1]

Geography and climate

The ecoregion covers 30,000 square miles (77,700 square kilometers) and includes most of the Peninsula's western slope. It is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the east by the Peninsular Ranges. North of 30 north latitude, the Baja California desert transitions to the California chaparral and woodlands. The southern tip of the peninsula lies within the San Lucan xeric scrub ecoregion. To the north are the Sierra Jurez and San Pedro Mrtir pine-oak forests, where a number of tree species are found including the near-threatened California Fan Palm.[2] The climate is dry and subtropical. Although rainfall is low, the Pacific Ocean provides some humidity and moderates the temperature compared to the Sonoran desert, which lies on the east slope of the Peninsular Ranges. The Baja California Desert ecoregion occurs on the western portion of the Baja California peninsula, and occupies most of the Mexican states of Baja California Sur and Baja California. Elevation is variable, ranging from mountain ranges on the western central part (1000 - 1500m), plains of median elevation (300 600m), and vast extensions of coastal dunes.

Baja California Desert

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Flora
The ecoregion is mostly covered by xeric shrubs, which create varying associations based on elevation and soil conditions. The ecoregion has close to 500 species of vascular plants, of which a number are endemic, for example the Boojum tree or Creeping Devil.

Notes
[1] Taylor H. Ricketts, Eric Dinerstein, David M. Olson, Colby J. Loucks, et al. 1999 [2] C. Michael Hogan. 2009

References
C. Michael Hogan. 2009. California Fan Palm: Washingtonia filifera, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg (http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=90942) Taylor H. Ricketts, Eric Dinerstein, David M. Olson, Colby J. Loucks, et al. 1999. Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America: a Conservation Assessment. Island Press, Washington DC. http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/na/na1301_full.html

External links
Baja California desert (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/ na/na1301_full.html)

Caatinga
Caatinga (Portuguese pronunciation:[kaat]) is a type of vegetation, and an ecoregion characterized by this vegetation in the northeastern part of Brazil. The name "Caatinga" is a Tupi word meaning "white forest" or "white vegetation" (kaa = forest, vegetation, tnga = white). It covers between 700,000km and 1,000,000km (depending on the source), over 10% of the Brazil's territory. Caatinga is a xeric shrubland and thorn forest, which consists primarily of small, thorny trees that shed their leaves seasonally. Cacti, thick-stemmed plants, thorny brush, and arid-adapted grasses make up the ground layer. Many annual plants grow, flower, and die during the brief rainy season.

Caatinga during the rainy season.

Caatinga

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Setting
Caatinga covers the northeast portion of Brazil. It is located between 3S 45W and 17S 35W, extending across eight states of Brazil: Piau, Cear, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia, and parts of Minas Gerais. The Caatinga includes several enclaves of humid tropical forest, known as the Caatinga enclaves moist forests. The Caatinga is bounded by the Maranho Babau forests to the northwest, the Atlantic dry forests and the Cerrado savannas to the west and southwest, the humid Atlantic forests along the Atlantic coast to the east, and by the Atlantic Ocean to the north and northeast. The Caatinga is a very dry place in Brazil. Despite its semi-arid climate, it's inhabited by about 15 million people. There are few drinkable water sources and harvesting gets difficult because of the irregular rainfall. Droughts occur frequently in Caatinga.
Approximate vegetation map of Brazil. The Caatinga is brown

However, many critics have said the poor life of most inhabitants of Caatinga is more due to the lack (or insufficient existence) of public politics and irrigation projects in this region, arguing that most of the region has agricultural or touristical potential. In fact, there are many successful agricultural lands that became productive after being irrigated, especially in the regions near to the So Francisco river valley.[1] Irrigation policies are, however, concentrating land and water in the hands of major companies, while the small farmers who depend on agriculture for their basic subsistence are not profiting as much from it. Critics of the government's irrigation plans believe the current irrigation policies are centralizing the property of water, while endangering long-term survival by draining the existing water resources. One of the alternatives they propose is a de-centralized system of small local water cisterns and tanks to catch rain water during the rainy season and conserve it for use during the dry season. In this way, interference with the natural flow of rivers would be avoided and water would no longer be a power-factor used by politics and industry.

Climate
The Caatinga has only two distinguishable seasons. These are the winter, when it is very hot and dry, and the summer when it is hot and rainy. During the dry winter periods there is no foliage or undergrowth. The vegetation is very dry and the roots begin to protrude through the surface of the stony soil. They do this in order to absorb water before it is evaporated. All leaves fall off the trees to reduce transpiration, thus lessening the amount of water that is lost in the dry season. During the peak periods of drought the Caatinga's soil can reach temperatures of up to 60 C. With all the foliage and undergrowth dead during the drought periods and all the trees having no leaves the Caatinga has a yellow-grey, desert-like look. The drought usually ends in December or January, when the rainy season starts. Immediately after the first rains, the grey, desert-like landscape starts to transform and becomes completely green within a few days. Small plants start growing in the now moist soil and trees grow back their green leaves. At this time, the rivers that were mostly dry during the past 6 or 7 months, start to fill up and the streams begin to flow again.

Caatinga

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Flora
The Caatinga can be separated by vegetation types into eight different areas. The Caatinga forest has deciduous tropic broadleaved trees. The forest canopy covers about 60% of the ground. This type of vegetation is present in wetter areas with more rainfall. The arborescent area is an area mainly of shrubs with some trees with less than 60% coverage. Aborescent-shrubby closed Caatinga is forest with closed shrub and tree coverage less than 60%. Aborescent-shrubby open Caatinga is similar but with more shrubs and cacti. In the shrubby closed Caatinga scrub is more common. The shrubby open Caatinga areas occur on shallow soils and rocky outcrops; this area contains trees, cacti and bromeliads. The Caatinga savanna is areas with some trees and some scrub. The rocky Caatinga savanna contains less than 10% coverage of tropical scrub; these plants are protruding from cracks in rocks and pavements. People use many plant species from the Caatinga region. Palms are very important to the economy in northeast Brazil. People from this area are greatly dependent on extraction from babassu, carnaba, tucm and macaba, from which lauric and oleic oils are made from. Many trees are also used for lumber in this area, including these species: Anadenanthera macrocarpa, Ziziphus joazeiro, Amburana cearensis, Astronium fraxinifolium, Astronium urundeuva, Tabebuia impetiginosa, Tabebuia caraiba, and Schinopsis brasiliensis, Cedrela odorata, Dalbergia variabilis, Didymopanax morototoni and Pithecellobium polycephalum. Some plants are also used for medical purposes. Also, plant experts have said to have found a new cacti called the Columna Chollang. The plant is said to be pink with black thorns in a small ball shape. It is found in foliage in the hotter parts of the caatinga. It has been said that, different from man, Caatinga vegetation has adapted itself completely to its conditions. While man is trying to fight against the yearly recurring system of about 5 months of rain followed by 7 months of drought, nature has learned to cohabit with it. The idea of fighting the yearly "rain-drought" system by irrigation has been compared to the idea of Scandinavans fighting the yearly snow season (in which nothing grows, just like in the Caatinga's dry season) by promoting Global Warming. Some people believe that the best solution for human life in the Caatinga should be in finding smart ways of cohabiting with the "rain-drought system" instead of fighting drought through irrigation. Caatinga vegetation's enormous creativity in finding solutions for the regular lack of water can serve as an example to man, they believe.

Fauna
The Caatinga is home to several endemic species of birds, including Lear's Macaw or Indigo Macaw (Anodorhynchus leari), Spix's Macaw or Little Blue Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii), and Moustached Woodcreeper (Xiphocolaptes falcirostris). Other animal species include: Caatinga vesper mouse Caatinga Cacholote Caatinga Puffbird Caatinga Parakeet Caatinga Black-tyrant Caatinga Antwren

Thre is no evidence, however, that the bird formerly known as Caatinga Woodpecker occurs in Caatinga.

Caatinga

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People
Around 15 million people live in the Caatinga region,[2] and are regarded as belonging the poorest inhabitants of Brazil. A very large part of the population depends on agricultural or forest industries for over half of their income. Harvesting of the caraiba woodland for lumber has reduced its size. This reduction may have contributed to the endangerment of the Spix's Macaw.

Agriculture
In some places the Caatinga has very fertile soils. Inhabitants plant fruits in the fertile soil to process and eat, sell and export. Some regions are being irrigated, most notably the So Francisco River. While this is very good news for some farmers, it has also had serious consequences for people who have always depended on the natural flow of the river. Big dams have brought an end to the high tides in the rainy season, which used to spread fertile mud over the fields creating a rich ground that could be used for agriculture during the dry season. Also, salinization of the soil is becoming a threat since big parts of the land are irrigated with saline water, thus sterilizing the soil. The irrigated farms along the So Francisco River in the municipalities of Petrolina and Juazeiro are currently exporting grapes, papayas and melons. Having and using all these resources has some negatives. Intensive agriculture, along with excessive grazing by cattle and goats is affecting the population structure of some of the more important plant and animal species. Deforesting for industrial uses like fuel and charcoal destroys the vegetation. The combination of drought and misuse of the land are becoming a major threat. If these practices continue at the current rate, desertification maybe unavoidable.

References
[1] Vale do So Francisco - Economia - Potencialidades - Solos para Irrigao (http:/ / www. valedosaofrancisco. com. br/ Economia/ Potencialidades-SolosparaIrrigacao. asp) [2] http:/ / portal. mec. gov. br/ setec/ arquivos/ pdf/ 07tabpnad. pdf

External links
Caatinga (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt1304_full. html) IBAMA (http://www.ibama.gov.br/ecossistemas/caatinga.htm) Brazil Nature (http://www.brazilnature.com/caatinga.html) Caatinga: Brazilian national heritage threatened (http://www.agronline.com.br/artigos/artigo.php?id=81) Birds of the Caatinga (http://www.birds-caatinga.com) The Avifauna of the Interior of Cear, Brazil

Carnarvon Xeric Shrublands

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Carnarvon Xeric Shrublands

The Carnarvon xeric shrublands is a deserts and xeric shrublands ecoregion of Western Australia, contiguous with the Carnarvon Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) bioregion.
[1]

Location and description

The ecoregion covers an area of 90,500 square kilometers (34,900 square miles) from the bounded by the Indian Ocean to the west from the Peron Peninsula in Shark Bay up to the North West Cape. The The IBRA regions, with Carnarvon in red Pilbara shrublands lie to the northeast, the Western Australian Mulga shrublands to the east, and the Southwest Australia savanna to the south. The region is named for the coastal town of Carnarvon and includes a number of coastal towns and tourist resorts. The terrain is generally low, and the vegetation varies with the underlying geology, which consists mostly of recent alluvial, aeolian, and marine sediments over cretaceous strata. This is a very dry region with less than 250mm of rainfall per year.

Flora
Low samphire and saltbush shrublands cover the saline alluvial plains, snakewood scrublands cover the clay flats, Bowgada low woodland covers sandy ridges and plains, red sand dune fields are interspersed or overlain with tree to shrub steppe over hummock grasslands, and Acacia startii/A. bivenosa shrublands cover limestone outcrops in the north. Other trees in the area include Limestone wattle (Acacia sclerosperma) with an undergorwth of dead finish (Acacia tetragonophylla). The sheltered embayments and extensive tidal flats along the coast support mangroves.

Fauna
Wildlife of the area includes birds such as the Thick-billed Grasswren and the Red-tailed Black Cockatoo. This is also the area where it is possible that there may be a surviving population of the Lesser Stick-nest Rat which is thought to be extinct.

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ aa/ aa1301_full. html

Further reading
Thackway, R and I D Cresswell (1995) An interim biogeographic regionalisation for Australia : a framework for setting priorities in the National Reserves System Cooperative Program Version 4.0 Canberra : Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Reserve Systems Unit, 1995. ISBN 0642213712

Central Asian northern desert

32

Central Asian northern desert

The Central Asian northern desert is an ecoregion in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome, located in the Central Asian countries of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan

Setting
The Central Asian northern desert occupies southern Kazakhstan and most of Uzbekistan, and largely corresponds with the desert known as the Kyzyl Kum. This ecoregion experiences a typical cold desert climate; January mean temperatures range from 10 C (14.0F) to 15 C (5.0F), while July means range from 24 C (75F) to 26 C (79F). On average, precipitation ranges from 100millimetres (3.9in) to 150millimetres (5.9in) annually. The topography of this ecoregion is varied, featuring salty "solonchak" deserts with a great number of salt flats, clay deserts, rocky deserts, and a small area of sandy desert in the southern portion of the region.

Flora
The vegetation of this ecoregion is dominated by shrubs and semi-shrubs, with a variety of different species adapted to the different soil types found in it. Clay deserts support communities of Anabasis salsa, Salsola orientalis, and the Artemisia species A. terrae albae, A. turanica, and A. gurganica. The stony deserts support mainly Salsola arbusculae formis and Nanophyton erinaceum, while the "solonchaks" support the semi-shrubs Ceratoides papposa, Artemisia terrae albae', var. massagetovii, A. santolina, and A. songarica, shrubs such as Calligonum aphyllum, Ephedra lomatolepis as well as grasses such as Agropyron fragile.

Fauna
Mammals of the Central Asian northern desert include the Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus), Tolai Hare (lepus tolai), various species of Gerbil and Jerboa, Saiga Antelope (Saiga tatarica), Steppe Polecat (Mustela eversmanni), Goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa ), Onager (Equus hemonius) and suslik (Spermophilus spp.). Birds of this ecoregion include wheatears (Oenanthe isabellina, O. deserti), desert warbler (Sylvia nana), Brown-necked raven (Corvus ruficollis), the endangered Houbara Bustard (Chlamydotis undulata), Black-bellied Sandgrouse (Pterocles orientalis), Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Steppe Eagle (Aquila rapax), Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), and the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug). Numerous reptiles can be found in this ecoregion, including numerous Agama lizards, Rustamov's skink gekko (Teratoscincus scincus rustamovi), Chernov's snake-lizard (Ophimorus chernovi), Ferghana sand lizard (Eremias scripta pherganensis), Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus) and the Central Asian Cobra (Naja oxiana). The invertebrate fauna of this ecoregion is quite rich, especially in the sandy deserts, supporting a variety of grasshoppers, beetles, butterflies, termites and ants.

Central Asian northern desert

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Conservation status and threats

The conservation status of this ecoregion is listed as "Vulnerable", and the main threats to its integrity are conversion of habitat to farmland, over-hunting and poaching and the use of plants for firewood and silk production. Protected areas include the Barsa-Kelmes reserve on an island in the Aral Sea, the Kaplankyr reserve, the Ustyurt reserve, and the Altyn-Emel National Park in Kazakhstan.

References
World Wildlife Fund: Central Asian northern desert Ecoregion [1] National Geographic: Central Asian northern desert [2]
Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Afghan Mountains semi-desert Alashan Plateau semi-desert Afghanistan China, Mongolia

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Egypt, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Atlantic coastal desert Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe Badkhiz-Karabil semi-desert Baluchistan xeric woodlands Caspian lowland desert Central Afghan Mountains xeric woodlands Central Asian northern desert Central Asian riparian woodlands Central Asian southern desert Central Persian desert basins Eastern Gobi desert steppe Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe Great Lakes Basin desert steppe Junggar Basin semi-desert Kazakh semi-desert Kopet Dag semi-desert Mesopotamian shrub desert North Saharan steppe and woodlands Paropamisus xeric woodlands Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert Qaidam Basin semi-desert Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert Rigestan-North Pakistan sandy desert Sahara desert South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert South Saharan steppe and woodlands Mauritania, Western Sahara Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran Afghanistan, Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Pakistan Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan Afghanistan Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Iran China, Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia, Russia China, Mongolia Kazakhstan Iran, Turkmenistan Iraq, Jordan, Syria Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara Afghanistan Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates China Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan Iran, Iraq, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan

Central Asian northern desert

34
China Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger

Taklimakan desert Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands West Saharan montane xeric woodlands

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1310_full. html [2] http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1310. html

Central Mexican matorral

The Central Mexican matorral is a desert and xeric shrubland ecoregion of central Mexico.

Setting
The Central Mexican matorral covers an area of 59,400 square kilometers (22,900 square miles) on the southern portion of the Mexican Plateau. It covers portions of The Mexican Plateau is bounded on the east by the Sierra Madre Oriental, on the south by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, and on the west by the Sierra Madre Occidental. The Central Mexican matorral covers much of the southern portion of the plateau, extending from the Valley of Mexico in the southeast to the Bolaos River in the northwest. The Central Mexican matorral is bounded by the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests to the east and northeast, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests to the southeast, and the Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests on the northwest. An isolated enclave of the Central Mexican matorral occupies the Valley of Toluca. The higher mountain ranges of the plateau are home to sky islands of pine-oak forest, isolated by matorral at lower elevations. To the southwest, the Central Mexican matorral is bounded by tropical dry forests; the Bajo dry forests in the Lerma River basin, and the Sinaloan dry forests in the lower reaches of the Ro Grande de Santiago and its tributaries. To the northwest, the Central Mexican matorral transitions to the Meseta Central matorral, which covers the middle portion of the Mexican Plateau. The eastern portion of the Central Mexican matorral is drained by the Pnuco River and its tributaries, the central portion by the Lerma River and its tributaries, and the eastern portion by the northern tributaries of the Ro Grande de Santiago, including the Rio Verde and Bolaos.

References and external links

Central Mexican matorral (World Wildlife Fund) [1] Central Mexican matorral (National Geographic) [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1302_full. html [2] http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1302. html

Central Ranges xeric scrub

35

Central Ranges xeric scrub

The Central Ranges xeric scrub is a deserts and xeric shrublands ecoregion of Australia. [1]

Location and description

The region consists of sandy plains with some areas of rocky highland. These plains have a dry climate but do get some rain in both summer and winter. This area contains the remote city of Alice Springs while the grasslands are home to a number of Indigenous Australian communities or are used for cattle grazing.

The IBRA regions, with Central Ranges in red

Flora
This ecoregion contains four Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) bioregions; Burt Plain, MacDonnell Ranges, Finke, and Central Ranges, and includes the Central Australian Mountain Ranges Centre of Plant Diversity. The habitats consists of thick, tough spinifex grassland with some wooded areas of myall and desert oak (Acacia coriacea). The region and the MacDonnell Ranges in particular are home to a number of specialised endemic plant species including the Cabbage Palms of Palm Valley in Finke Gorge National Park.

Fauna
Birds include the Red-tailed Black Cockatoo and the Spinifexbird while animals include the Black-flanked Rock-wallaby population of the of the MacDonnell Ranges and the Green Tree Frog. Overgrazing by cattle and introduced animals including horses, donkeys and rabbits are a threat to habitats.

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ aa/ aa1302_full. html

Further reading
Thackway, R and I D Cresswell (1995) An interim biogeographic regionalisation for Australia : a framework for setting priorities in the National Reserves System Cooperative Program Version 4.0 Canberra : Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Reserve Systems Unit, 1995. ISBN 0642213712

Chihuahuan Desert

36

Chihuahuan Desert
Chihuahuan Desert
Arid Region

Ocotillo plant in the Chihuahuan Desert Countries Region Coordinates Highest point -elevation Lowest point -elevation Length Width Area 600 m (1969 ft) 1285 km (798 mi) 440 km (273 mi) 362600 km (140001 sq mi) 1675 m (5495 ft) Mexico, United States North America 303226N 1035014W

Satellite view with overlaying map of the Chihuahuan Desert Website: Centennial Museum, University of Texas at El Paso
[1]

The Chihuahuan Desert is a desert, and an ecoregion designation, that straddles the U.S.-Mexico border in the central and northern portions of the Mexican Plateau, bordered on the west by the extensive Sierra Madre Occidental range, and overlaying northern portions of the east range, the Sierra Madre Oriental. On the U.S. side it occupies the valleys and basins of central and southern New Mexico, Texas west of the Pecos River and southeastern Arizona; south of the border, it covers the northern half of the Mexican state of Chihuahua, most of Coahuila, north-east portion of Durango, extreme northern portion of Zacatecas and small western portions of Nuevo Len. It has an area of about 362000 km2 ( sqmi). It is the third largest desert of the Western Hemisphere and is second largest in North America, after the Great Basin Desert.[2]

Chihuahuan Desert

37

Geography
The terrain mainly consists of basins broken by numerous small mountain ranges. Several larger mountain ranges include the Sierra Madre, the Sierra del Carmen, the Sacramento Mountains, the Sandia-Manzano Mountains, the Magdalena-San Mateo Mountains, the Chisos, the Guadalupe Mountains, and the Davis Mountains. These create "sky islands" of cooler, wetter, climates within the desert, and such elevated areas have both coniferous and broadleaf woodlands, and even forests along drainages and favored exposures. The Chihuahuan Desert is higher in elevation than the Sonoran Desert to the west, mostly varying from 6001675 m (19695495 ft) in altitude. As a result, it tends to have a slightly milder climate in the summer (though usually daytime June temperatures are in the range of 35 to 40 C (95to 104F)). Winter weather varies from relatively mild to quite cold depending on altitude and the ferocity of northerly winds. Precipitation is somewhat more abundant than most of the southern Great Basin, the Sonoran, and Mojave deserts, however it is still usually less than 254millimeters (10.0in) per year, with much of the rain falling during the "monsoon" of late summer. The mean annual precipitation for the Chihuahuan Desert is 235mm (9.3in) with a range of approximately 150400 mm (616 in). Nearly two-thirds of the arid zone stations have annual totals between 225 and 275 mm (8.9 and 10.8 in).[3] Snowfall is scant except at the higher elevation edges. The Chihuahuan Desert is an ecoregion that has received little exploration and study. Therefore, it has not been classified or had subdivisions applied to it, as has the Sonoran Desert to the west. There are a few urban areas within the desert: the largest is Ciudad Jurez with almost two million inhabitants, neighboring El Paso; then the city of Chihuahua and Torren. Albuquerque, Las Cruces and Roswell in New Mexico are among the other significant cities in this ecoregion. Saltillo and Monterrey are located in the border of the Chihuahuan desert. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the Chihuahuan Desert may be the most biologically diverse desert in the world, whether measured on species richness or endemism, although the region has been heavily degraded over time. Many native species have been replaced with Creosote Bush. The Mexican Wolf, once abundant, has been extirpated. The main cause of degradation has been grazing.[4]

Flora
Creosote Bush (Larrea tridentata) is the dominant plant species throughout the Chihuahuan Desert. The other species it is found with depends on factors such as the soil, altitude, and degree of slope. Creosote Bush, Viscid Acacia (Acacia neovernicosa), and Tarbush (Flourensia cernua) dominate the northern portion. Yucca and Opuntia species are abundant in the central third, while Arizona Rainbow Cactus (Echinocereus polyacanthus) and Mexican Fire-barrel Cactus (Ferocactus pilosus) inhabit the southernmost portion. Herbaceous plants, such as Blue Grama (Bouteloua gracilis), Gypsum Grama (B. breviseta), and Hairy Grama (B. hirsuta), are dominant near the Sierra Madre Occidental. Lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla), Honey Mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), Opuntia macrocentra and Echinocereus pectinatus are the dominant species in western Coahuila. Anacahuita (Cordia boissieri), Ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), Lechuguilla, and Yucca filifera are the most common species in the southeastern part of the desert. Candelilla (Euphorbia antisyphilitica), Mimosa zygophylla, Acacia glandulifera and Lechuguilla are found in areas with well-draining, shallow soils. The shrubs found near the Sierra Madre Oriental are exclusively Lechuguilla, Guapilla (Hechtia glomerata), Queen Victoria's Agave (Agave victoriae-reginae), Sotol (Dasylirion spp.), and Barreta (Helietta parvifolia), while the well-developed herbaceous layer includes grasses, legumes and cacti. Grasslands comprise 20% of this desert and are often mosaics of shrubs and grasses. They include Purple Three-awn (Aristida purpurea), Black Grama (Bouteloua eriopoda), and Sideoats Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula). Early Spanish explorers reported encountering grasses that were "belly high to a horse;" most likely these were Big Alkali Sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii) and Tobosa (Pleuraphis mutica) bottomlands.[4]

Chihuahuan Desert

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Young Creosote Bush (Larrea tridentata)

Yucca, Creosote, and Mesquite typify the plants in the Chihuahuan Desert

Lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla)one of the indicator plants of the Chihuahuan Desert

References
[1] http:/ / museum. utep. edu/ chih/ chihdes. htm [2] Wright, John W. (ed.); Editors and reporters of The New York Times (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. pp.456. ISBN0-14-303820-6. [3] Chihuahuan Climate (http:/ / museum. utep. edu/ chih/ pdf/ chihuahuanclimate. pdf), Chihuahuan Desert Research Institute [4] "Chihuahuan desert (NA1303)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1303_full. html). WildWorld Full Reports. World Wild Fund for Nature. . Retrieved 2010-10-22.

External links
Chihuahuan Desert images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ ecoregions/51303frame.htm) ( slow modem version (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/ 51303.htm)) Pronatura Noreste in the Chihuahuan Desert (http://www.pronaturane.org/eng/ecoregions/chd.htm:) Small desert beetle found to engineer ecosystems (http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-03/ w-sdb032708.php) EurekAlert! March 27, 2008

Cuban cactus scrub

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Cuban cactus scrub

The Cuban cactus scrub is a xeric shrubland ecoregion that occupies 3300km2 (1300sqmi) on the leeward coast of Cuba. Most of it occurs in the southeastern part of the island in the provinces of Guantnamo and Santiago de Cuba. The ecoregion receives less than 800mm (31in) of rainfall annually. The principal soils are coastal rendzinas that were derived from coralline limestone. Cuban cactus scrub contains four vegetation zones: xerophytic coastal and subcoastal scrubland, coastal thorny semidesert, coastal sclerophyllous scrubland, and rocky coastal scrublands.[1]

Xerophytic coastal and subcoastal scrubland

Vegetation in the xerophytic coastal and subcoastal scrublands reaches a height of 6m (20ft) and is dominated by palms and succulents, especially cacti. Common evergreen plants include cafecillo (Bourreria virgata), mostacilla (Capparis cynophallophora), guairaje (Eugenia foetida), Bursera glauca, B. cubana, Croton spp., Cordia spp., Calliandra colletioides, Caesalpinia spp., Acacia spp., Phyllostylon brasiliense, Pseudosamanea cubana and guayacn negro (Guaiacum officinale). Tuna (Opuntia stricta), O. militaris, pitahaya (Harrisia eriophora), jijira (H. taetra), miramar (Pilosocereus polygonus), aguacate cimarrn (Dendrocereus nudiflorus), maguey (Agave spp.), erizo (Melocactus spp.) and Leptocereus spp. are typical succulents.[1]

Coastal thorny semidesert

Coastal thorny semidesert is similar to xerophytic coastal and subcoastal scrubland in that they both have the same succulent composition and reach a height of 6m (20ft). However, succulents represent a smaller proportion of the plant life in this zone. Other plant species include vomitel colorado (Cordia sebestena), manzanillo (Hippomane mancinella) and lirio de costa (Plumeria filifolia).[1]

Coastal sclerophyllous scrubland

The vegetation in this zone is sclerophyllous, meaning that their leaves are hard. It reaches a height of 3m (9.8ft) with emergent trees up to 56 m (1620 ft). This zone represents the transition between xeric shrublands and moister dry forests. Plant life includes yana (Picrodendron baccatum), carne de doncella (Maytenus buxifolia), yamaguey de loma (Pictetia spinosa), granadillo (Brya ebenus) and bano (Diospyros grisebachii).[1]

Rocky coastal scrublands

The most sparse and stunted vegetation is found in this zone, which occurs adjacent to the ocean on karstic soil. The flora is tolerant of wind and salt spray, and includes romero de playa (Borrichia arborescens), incienso de playa (Argusia gnaphalodes), and verdolaga de playa (Sesuvium maritimum).[1]

Fauna
Birds of the cactus scrub include the Zapata Sparrow (Torreornis inexpectata sigmani), Cuban Vireo (Vireo gundlachii), Cuban Gnatcatcher (Polioptila lembeyei), and Oriente Warbler (Teretistris fornsi). The Yellow-Striped Pygmy Eleuth (Eleutherodactylus limbatus) is a species of frog endemic to this ecoregion, while several Anolis species and the Cuban Rock Iguana (Cyclura nubila nubila) are endemic lizards.[2]

Cuban cactus scrub

40

References
[1] "Cuban cactus scrub (NT1306)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt1306_full. html). WWF Full Reports. World Wide Fund for Nature. . Retrieved 2009-04-19. [2] "Cuban cactus scrub (NT1306)" (http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt1306. html). WildWorld Ecoregion Profiles. National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 2009-04-19.

Deccan thorn scrub forests

The Deccan thorn scrub forests is a xeric shrubland ecoregion of India and northernmost Sri Lanka, a large area that was once forest and home to large numbers of elephants and tigers.

Location and description

This ecoregion covers the arid portions of the Deccan Plateau, extending across the Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu to the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. Only small patches of natural habitat remain as most of the region has been cleared for grazing land. The annual rainfall is less than 750mm (30in), all falling during the short rainy season and the area receives no rainfall during the months of November to April. Temperatures can exceed 40 C (104F) during the hotter months.[1]

Flora
Today the remaining patches of forest are mostly of southern tropical thorn scrub type [2] , they also include patches of the original vegetation, tropical dry deciduous forests. The southern tropical thorn scrub type forests consist of open, low vegetation that is characterised by thorny trees with short trunks and low, branching crowns that rarely meet to form a closed canopy. In this vegetation, the trees attain maximum heights of 69 m (2030 ft). Typical grasses of the ecoregion include Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon contortus, Eremopogon foveolatus, Aristida setacea, and Dactyloctenium species. The second story of the Deccan thorn scrub forests in India is poorly developed and mainly consists spiny and xerophytic species, mostly shrubs. An ill-defined lower story can also be discerned, during the brief wet season. The plant species that dominate the vegetation in these forests are Acacia species, Balanites roxburghii, Cordia myxa, Capparis spp., Prosopis spp., Azadirachta indica, Cassia fistula, Diospyros chloroxylon, Carissa carandas, and Phoenix sylvestris. There are also several other habitat types found in these forests. The driest, rockiest areas of the ecoregion are covered with a scrub dominated by species of Euphorbia.[2] The soil is usually bare in these areas; however, some grassy growth may also appear during the short monsoon season. The parts of the ecoregion found in Tamil Nadu receive even less rainfall than most and the vegetation in these parts is mainly made up of thinly spread thorny forests of Acacia planifrons, which are characterised by umbrella-shaped crowns. The remaining patches of forest are also home to a large number of plants, some of medicinal and botanical interest, including an endemic cycad (Cycas beddomei) and Psilotum nudum. A small patch of the tree Shorea talura also exists within the Chittoor forest division, part of which is being maintained as a preservation plot by the Forest Department of Andhra Pradesh. Finally, the area between the Nallamala and Seshachalam Hills is well known for the Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), a rare, endemic tree species that is harvested for the medicinal value of its wood.

Deccan thorn scrub forests

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Fauna
The dry grasslands that predominate do provide habitat for the native fauna remaining scattered amid the thorn scrub. The grasslands of southern Andhra Pradesh support a good population of the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), although these and other species are declining in number. The forests used to provide habitat to two prominent mammal species, the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) and the Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), until recently but their populations have dwindled and even become locally extinct. The ecoregion and is the southern limit of the Nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus). The ecoregion is home to a total of ninety-six mammal fauna species, out of which, three are considered endemic: Split Roundleaf Bat (Hipposideros schistaceus), Kondana Soft-furred Rat (Millardia kondana), and Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira). Other threatened mammal species found in these forests include the tiger, gaur (Bos gaurus), Dhole (Cuon alpinus), Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus), Chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), and Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra). The Deccan Thorn scrub forests are home to a richer variety of birds, almost 350 species of which three are considered near-endemic: Jerdon's Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), Sri Lanka Junglefowl (Gallus lafayetii), and Yellow-fronted Barbet (Megalaima flavifrons). Among these, the Jerdon's Courser is also considered a globally threatened species, and was rediscovered in this ecoregion in 1986 after being recorded for the last time in 1900. Other globally threatened bird species such as the Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indicus) and Indian Bustard can also be found in the ecoregion.

Threats and conservation

The remaining deciduous woodland continues to be cleared for grazing land, while the pasture that has been created is itself threatened by overgrazing and invasive weeds. One large area of natural forest remains in southern Andhra Pradesh and there eleven protected areas but all of them small, the largest being the Rollapadu Bird Sanctuary for the Great Indian Bustard near Nandikotkur in Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh.

References
[1] "Deccan thorn scrub forests (IM1301)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ im/ im1301_full. html). WildWorld Full Reports. World Wide Fund for Nature. . Retrieved 2011-04-22. [2] Champion, H. G., and S. K. Seth. 1968. A revised survey of the forest types of India. Government of India Press

Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Island Press; Washington, DC.

External links
Deccan thorn scrub forests (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/ terrestrial/im/im1301_full.html)

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Dzungaria
Dzungaria (Mongolian: Zngar; Uyghur:

ULY: Jongghar, simplified Chinese: ;

traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhng'r, Russian: Dzhungariya), also called Jungaria, Sungaria and Zungaria, is a geographical region in northwest China corresponding to the northern half of Xinjiang. It covers approximately 777000 km2 ( sqmi), lying mostly within Xinjiang, and extending into western Mongolia and eastern Kazakhstan. Formerly the term could cover a wider area, depending on temporary political boundaries.

Etymology
The name Dzungaria is a corruption of the Mongolian term "Zuun Gar" or "Juun Gar" depending on the dialect of Mongolian used. "Zuun"/"Juun" means "left" and "Gar" means "hand". The name originates from the notion that the Western Mongols are on the left hand side when the Mongol Empire began its division into East and West Mongols. After this fragmentation, the western Mongolian nation was called "Zuun Gar". Today, the cradle of this former nation retains its name: Zungaria.

Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin (Taklamakan) separated by the Tien Shan Mountains

Dzungarian Basin
The core of Dzungaria is the triangular Dzungarian Basin (also Junggar Basin) with its central Gurbantunggut Desert. It is bounded by the Tien Shan to the south, the Altai Mountains to the northeast and the Tarbagatai Mountains to the northwest. The three corners are relatively open. The northern corner is the valley of the upper Irtysh River. The western corner is the Dzungarian Gate with its railroad (opened in 1990). The eastern corner leads to Gansu and the rest of China. In the south an easy pass leads from rmqi to the Turfan Depression. In the southwest the Borohoro Mountains branch of the Tian Shan separates the basin from the upper Ili River.

Johan Gustaf Renat's map of Dzungaria, ca 1744

The extensive Dzungarian Basin is in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is surrounded by mountains. The basin is located between the Mongolian Altai Mountains and Tian Shan to the south.[1] The basin is similar to the larger Tarim Basin on the southern side of the Tian Shan Range. Only a gap in the mountains to the north allows moist air masses to provide the basin lands with enough moisture to remain semi-desert rather than becoming a true desert like most of the Tarim Basin, and allows a thin layer of vegetation to grow. This is enough to sustain populations of wild camels, jerboas, and other wild species.[2] The Dzungarian Basin is a structural basin with thick sequences of Paleozoic-Pleistocene rocks with large estimated oil reserves.[3] The Gurbantunggut Desert, Chinas second largest, is in the center of the basin.[4] Aibi Lake is the basin's catchment center.

Dzungaria The cold climate of nearby Siberia influences the climate of the Dzungarian Basin, making the temperature colderas low as 4 F (20C)and providing more precipitation, ranging from 3 to 10 inches (76 to 250 mm), compared to the warmer, drier basins to the south. Runoff from the surrounding mountains into the basin supplies several lakes. The ecologically rich habitats traditionally included meadows, marshlands, and rivers. However most of the land is now used for agriculture.[2] It is a largely steppe and semi-desert basin surrounded by high mountains: the Tian Shan (ancient Mount Imeon) in the south and the Altai in the north. Geologically it is an extension of the Paleozoic Kazakhstan Block and was once part of an independent continent before the Altai mountains formed in the late Paleozoic. It does not contain the abundant minerals of Kazakhstan and may have been a pre-existing continental block before the Kazakhstan Block was formed. rmqi, Yining and Karamai are the main cities; other smaller oasis towns dot the piedmont areas.

43

Prehistory
Dzungaria and its derivatives are used to name a number of pre-historic animals[5] hailing from the rocky outcrops located in an eponymous sedimentary basin of that region, the Junggar Basin. Dsungaripterus weii (pterosaur) Junggarsuchus sloani (crocodylomorph) A recent notable find, in February 2006, is the oldest tyrannosaur fossil unearthed by a team of scientists from George Washington University who were conducting a study in the Dzungarian Basin. The species, named Guanlong, lived 160 million years ago, more than 90 million years before the famed Tyrannosaurus rex.

Ecology
Dzungaria is home to a semi-desert steppe ecoregion known as the Dzungarian Basin semi-desert. The vegetation consists mostly of low scrub of Anabasis brevifolia. Taller shrublands of saxaul bush (Haloxylon ammodendron) and Ephedra przewalskii can be found near the margins of the basin. Streams descending from the Tian Shan and Altai ranges support stands of poplar (Populus diversifolia) together with Nitraria roborovsky, N. sibirica, Achnatherum splendens, tamarisk (Tamarix sibirimosissima), and willow (Salix ledebouriana). The northeastern portion of the Dzungarian Basin semi-desert lies within Great Gobi National Park, and is home to herds of Asian wild ass (Equus hemionus) and goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), and wild Bactrian camels (Camelus ferus). The basin was one of the last habitats of Przewalski's Horse (Equus przewalskii), which is now extinct in the wild.

History
One of the earliest mentions of the Dzungaria region occurs when the Han Dynasty dispatched an explorer to investigate lands to the west, using the northernmost Silk Road trackway of about 2600kilometres (1600mi) in length, which connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi'an to the west over the Wushao Ling Pass to Wuwei and emerged in Kashgar.[6] Istmi of the Gktrks received the lands of Dzungaria as an inheritance after the death of his father in the latter half of the sixth century AD.[7] Dzungaria is named after a Mongolian kingdom which existed in Central Asia during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It derived its name from the Dzungars, who were so called because they formed the left wing (zn, left; gar, hand) of the Mongolian army, self-named Oirats. Dzungar power reached its height in the second half of the 17th century, when Kaldan (also known as Galdan Boshigtu Khan), repeatedly intervened in the affairs of the Kazakhs to the west, but it was completely destroyed by the Qing government about 17571759. It has played an

Dzungaria important part in the history of Mongolia and the great migrations of Mongolian stems westward. Since 1761, its territory fell mostly to the Qing dynasty (Xinjiang and north-western Mongolia) and partly to Russian Turkestan (earlier Kazakh state provinces of Semirechye- Jetysu and Irtysh river). Its widest limit included Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, the whole region of the Tian Shan, and in short the greater proportion of that part of Central Asia which extends from 35 to 50 N and from 72 to 97 E. As a political or geographical term Dzungaria has practically disappeared from the map; but the range of mountains stretching north-east along the southern frontier of the Jeti-su, as the district to the south-east of Lake Balkhash preserves the name of Dzungarian Alatau. It also gave name to Dzungarian Hamsters.

44

Dzungaria and the Silk Road

A traveler going west from China must go either north of the Tien Shan through Dzungaria or south of the Tien Shan through the Tarim Basin. Trade usually took the south side and migrations the north. This is most likely because the Tarim leads to the Ferghana Valley and Iran, while Dzungaria leads only to the open steppe. The difficulty with south side was the high mountains between the Tarim and Ferghana. There is also another reason. The Taklamakan is too dry to support much grass, and therefore nomads when they are not robbing caravans. Its inhabitants live mostly in oases formed where rivers run out of the mountains into the desert. These are inhabited by peasants who are unwarlike and merchants who have an interest in keeping trade running smoothly. Dzungaria has a fair amount of grass, few towns to base soldiers in and no significant mountain barriers to the west. Therefore trade went south and migrations north [8]

People
The population consists of Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Mongols, Uyghurs and Han Chinese. Since 1953 there has been a massive influx of Han Chinese to work on water conservation and industrial projects, especially the Karamay oil fields.

Economy
Wheat, barley, oats, and sugar beets are grown, and cattle, sheep, and horses are raised. The fields are irrigated with melted snow from the permanently white-capped mountains. Dzungaria has deposits of coal, iron, and gold, as well as large oil fields.

References
[1] "Junggar Basin" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9031692/ Junggar-Basin). Encyclopedia Britannica. . Retrieved 2008-02-13. [2] "Junggar Basin semi-desert (PA1317)" (http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1317. html). National Geographic. . Retrieved 2008-02-13. [3] "Geochemistry of oils from the Junggar Basin, Northwest China" (http:/ / aapgbull. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 81/ 11/ 1926). AAPG Bulletin, GeoScience World. 1997. . Retrieved 2008-02-13. [4] "Junggar Basin semi-desert (PA1317)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1317_full. html). World Wildlife Organization. . Retrieved 2008-02-13. [5] Nature, Nature Publishing Group, Norman Lockyer, 1869 [6] Silk Road, North China, C.Michael Hogan, the Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham (http:/ / www. megalithic. co. uk/ article. php?sid=18006) [7] The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, By Ren Grousset [8] Grosset, 'The Empire of the Steppes', p xxii,

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Sources
This articleincorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

External links
WWF: Junggar Basin semi-desert Ecoregion (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/ pa/pa1317_full.html) National Geographic: Junggar Basin semi-desert (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/ terrestrial/pa/pa1317.html)
Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Afghan Mountains semi-desert Alashan Plateau semi-desert Afghanistan China, Mongolia

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Dzungaria

46
China Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger

Taklimakan desert Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands West Saharan montane xeric woodlands

East Saharan montane xeric woodlands

The East Saharan montane xeric woodlands is an ecoregion of central Africa, a number of high mountains in the middle of the huge area of savanna on the edge of the Sahara Desert.

Location and description

The ecoregion covers the higher elevations of the Ennedi Plateau and the Ouadda Highlands of eastern Chad and the extinct volcano system Jebel Marra in Darfur, western Sudan. These mountain ranges rise above the semi-desert sahelian Acacia savanna at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. The ecoregion covers an area of 27,900 square kilometers (10,800 square miles). The summer rains are irregular, even more so in Chad than on Jebel Marra, which has two crater lakes.

East Saharan montane xeric woodlands.

Flora
Plant life includes many species typical of the sahel belt including Ammania gracilis, the grass Panicum laetum, the forb Chrozophora brocchiana and the herbs Farsetia stenoptera, Indigofera senegalensis and Tephrosia gracilipes. One classic element of the natural flora was Lapperine's Olive (olea europaea laperrinei).
East Saharan montane xeric woodlands.

Fauna
Water from mountain streams makes the area an important habitat for wildlife such as a numbered of threatened antelope species such as addax (Addax nasomaculatus), Dama gazelle (Gazella dama), Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) and Red-fronted gazelle (Gazella rufifrons). Endemic species include the Arid Thicket Rat (Grammomys aridulus) from Jebel Marra. The mountains are home to birds of both Eurasia and Africa, species include Nubian bustard (Neotis nuba) and Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus).

East Saharan montane xeric woodlands

47

Threats and preservation

Jebel Marra has been inhabited since antiquity and although the steep mountain valley areas are mainly unhinhabited and undisturbed, habitat on the more accessible slopes has been affected. In Chad the ecoregion is thinly populated, mainly by nomadic pastoralists. Recent conflict in both Chad and Darfur have meant that less agriculture is taking place and to an extent original flora is reestablishing.

External links
East Saharan montane xeric woodlands (World Wildlife Fund) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1303_full. html

Eritrean coastal desert

The Eritrean coastal desert ecoregion is a a harsh sand and gravel strip along the southern part of the coast of Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Djibouti. This coast is of ecological importance as a channel for the mass migration of birds of prey.

Location and description

The ecoregion consists of a coastal strip in Eritrea's Southern Red Sea Region continuing to along the Red Sea coast to Obock in Djibouti.

Flora
Eritrean coastal desert ecoregion map The flora of the coastal strip consists of herbs and grasses suited to the dry climate such as Aerva javanica, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Panicum turgidum, and Lasiurus scindicus, along with some Umbrella thorn Acacia tortilis and Acacia asak trees and Rhigozum somalense and Caesalpinia erianthera shrubs.

Fauna
This is one of the busiest raptor migration routes in the world as birds such as buzzards and eagles make their way to Africa for the winter along the Red Sea coast and across the Bab-el-Mandeb strait. Animals found here include sea turtles and gazelles including Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas), Soemmerrings gazelle (Gazella soemmerringii) and Salts dik-dik (Madoqua saltiana). There are three near-endemic reptiles Ogaden burrowing asp (Atractaspis leucomelas), Ragazzi's cylindrical skink (Chalcides ragazzii), and the gecko (Hemidactylus flaviviridis).

Eritrean coastal desert

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Threats and preservation

The coast is sparsely populated with the only town of any size the small port of Assab in Eritrea. However grazing of livestock has reduced the natural vegetation, there are no protected areas and there is potential for further change to the area with the completion of the planned coast road from Djibouti to Eritrea. Hunting of the gazelles, turtles and seabirds occurs.

External links
Eritrean coastal desert (World Wildlife Fund) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1304_full. html

Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands

The Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion is a semi-desert strip on or near the Red Sea and the Gulf of Oman coasts in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia.

Location and description

Semidesert grassland and shrubland covers an area mainly from sea level to 800 m inland from the coast of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Oman along the coast of Eritrea, south through Ethiopia and Djibouti and a narrow strip along coast of the Somaliland region of Somalia. The ecoregion includes a number of islands such as the Dahlak Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands Archipelago, offshore from the Eritrean port of Massawa, and inland ecoregion map. some higher hills, and in the south the desolate Afar Depression, location of the ghost town made of salt, Dallol. The ecoregion is vulnerable to earthquakes and includes a number of active volcanoes. The area is hot and dry with little rainfall, especially near the coast, temperatures range from 21 to 30 degrees Celsius (70 to 85 F). The strip of coast in southern Eritrea and northern Djibouti has been separated out as the Eritrean coastal desert, especially as it is the site of a large migration of birds of prey.

Flora
The plantlife of the region needs more study, which has been hampered by longterm political strife in the region. Endemic flora includes a dragon tree (Dracaena ombet).

Fauna
Mammals found here include the last Somali Wild Ass (Equus africanus somalicus) to be found in the wild, on the Buri Peninsula of Eritrea. Other grazing animals include Beira, Dorcas gazelle, Soemmerring's Gazelle, gerenuk and the Beisa oryx. The only purely endemic mammal is a gerbil Gerbillus acticola. There are a number of dry habitat reptiles including the endemic geckos, Arnold's leaf-toed gecko (Hemidactylus arnoldi) and the Somalian Northern Sand Gecko (Tropiocolotes tripolitanus somalicus). Birds include the endemic Archer's lark (Heteromirafra archeri).

Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands

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Threats and preservation

The area is thinly populated, mainly by the Afar people of Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti and the Issa people further south. Habitats however have been degraded, mainly by grazing of livestock as well as cutting of trees for firewood and clearing of land for planting. The only protected area is the Mille-Serdo Wild Ass Reserve in Ethiopia although protection is planned for the Buri Peninsula and the Danakil Depression in Eritrea. Urban areas in the region include the ports of Massawa in Eritrea, Djibouti city, and Berbera in Somaliland. Smaller towns include the former Afar Region capital of Asaita in Ethiopia and smaller ports along the coast such as Tadjoura in Djibouti and Zeila in Somaliland. Tourism in the region includes diving in the Dahlak islands.

External links
Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands (World Wildlife Fund) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1305_full. html

Geography of Somalia
Africa's easternmost country. Somalia has a land area of 637,540 square kilometers. Somalia occupies the tip of a region commonly referred to as the Horn of Africa (because of its resemblance on the map to a rhinoceros' horn) that also includes Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. Somalia's terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains, and highlands. In the far north, however, the rugged east-west ranges of the Karkaar Mountains lie at varying distances from the Gulf of Aden coast. The weather is hot throughout the year, except at the higher elevations in the north. Rainfall is sparse, and most of Somalia has a semiarid-to- arid environment suitable only for the nomadic pastoralism practiced by well over half the population. Only in limited areas of moderate rainfall in the northwest, and particularly in the southwest, where the country's two perennial rivers are found, is agriculture practiced to any extent. The local geology suggests the presence of valuable mineral deposits. Somalia's long coastline (more than 3,300 kilometers)[1] has been of importance chiefly in permitting trade with the Middle East and the rest of the Horn of Africa.

Climate
Due to Somalia's proximity to the equator, there is not much seasonal variation in its climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30 to 40 C (86to 104F), except at higher elevations and along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. In Mogadishu, for instance, average afternoon highs range from 28 C (82F) to 32 C (90F) in April. Some of the highest mean annual temperatures in the world have been recorded in the country; Berbera on the northwestern coast has an afternoon high that averages more than 38 C (100F) from June through September. Nationally, mean daily minimums usually vary from about 15 to 30 C (59to 86F).[2] The greatest range in climate occurs in northern Somalia, where temperatures sometimes surpass 45 C (113F) in July on the

Geography of Somalia littoral plains and drop below the freezing point during December in the highlands.[3] [2] In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40 percent in the mid-afternoon to 85 percent at night, changing somewhat according to the season.[2] Unlike the climates of most other countries at this latitude, conditions in Somalia range from arid in the northeastern and central regions to semiarid in the northwest and south. In the northeast, annual rainfall is less than 4inches (100mm); in the central plateaus, it is about 8 to 12 inches (200 to 300 mm). The northwestern and southwestern parts of the nation, however, receive considerably more rain, with an average of 20 to 24 inches (510 to 610 mm) falling per year. Although the coastal regions are hot and humid throughout the year, the hinterland is typically dry and hot.[2] Most of the country receives less than 500millimeters (19.7in) of rain annually, and a large area encompassing the northeast and much of northern Somalia receives as little as 50 to 150 millimeters (1.97 to 5.91 in). Certain higher areas in the north, however, record more than 500millimeters (19.7in) a year, as do some coastal sites. The southwest receives 330 to 500 millimeters (13.0 to 19.7 in). Generally, rainfall takes the form of showers or localized torrential rains and is extremely variable. Mean daily maximum temperatures throughout the country range from 30 to 40 C (86to 104F), except at higher elevations and along the Indian Ocean coast. Mean daily minimum temperatures vary from 20 C (68F) to more than 30 C (86F). Northern Somalia experiences the greatest temperature extremes, with readings ranging from below freezing in the highlands in December to more than 45 C (113F) in July in the coastal plain skirting the Gulf of Aden. The north's relative humidity ranges from about 40 percent in midafternoon to 85 percent at night, varying somewhat with the season. During the colder months, December to February, visibility at higher elevations is often restricted by fog. Temperatures in the south are less extreme, ranging from about 20 to 40 C (68to 104F). The hottest months are February through April. Coastal readings are usually five to ten degrees cooler than those inland. The coastal zone's relative humidity usually remains about 70 percent even during the dry seasons. There are four main seasons around which pastoral and agricultural life revolve, and these are dictated by shifts in the wind patterns. From December to March is the Jilal, the harshest dry season of the year. The main rainy season, referred to as the Gu, lasts from April to June. This period is characterized by the southwest monsoons, which rejuvenate the pasture land, especially the central plateau, and briefly transform the desert into lush vegetation. From July to September is the second dry season, the Xagaa (pronounced "Hagaa"). The Dayr, which is the shortest rainy season, lasts from October to December.[2] The tangambili periods that intervene between the two monsoons (OctoberNovember and MarchMay) are hot and humid.[2]
Climate data for Somalia Month Average high C (F) Average low C (F) Precipitation mm (inches) Jan
30 (86) 15 (59)

50

Feb
30 (86) 15 (59)

Mar
40 (104) 15 (59)

Apr
40 (104) 15 (59)

May
40 (104) 15 (59)

Jun
40 (104) 15 (59)

Jul
40 (104) 15 (59)

Aug
30 (86) 15 (59)

Sep
30 (86) 15 (59)

Oct
30 (86) 15 (59)

Nov
30 (86) 15 (59)

Dec
30 (86) 15 (59)

Year
30 (86) 15 (59)

40 40 40 40 40 40 50 50 40 40 40 40 500 (1.57) (1.57) (1.57) (1.57) (1.57) (1.57) (1.97) (1.97) (1.57) (1.57) (1.57) (1.57) (19.69) Source: Country Studies - Somalia
[3]

Geography of Somalia

51

Terrain, Vegetation, and Drainage

Physiographically, Somalia is a land of limited contrast. In the north, a maritime semidesert plain parallels the Gulf of Aden coast, varying in width from roughly twelve kilometers in the west to as little as two kilometers in the east. Scrub-covered and generally drab, this plain, known as the Guban (scrub land), is crossed by broad, shallow watercourses that are beds of dry sand except in the rainy seasons. When the rains arrive, the vegetation, which is a combination of low bushes and grass clumps, is quickly renewed, and for a time the guban provides some grazing for nomad livestock. This coastal strip is part of the Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands ecoregion. Inland from the gulf coast, the plain rises to the precipitous northward-facing cliffs of the dissected highlands. These form the rugged Karkaar mountain ranges that extend from the northwestern border with Ethiopia eastward to the tip of the Horn of Africa, where they end in sheer cliffs at Caseyr. The general elevation along the crest of these mountains averages about 1,800 meters above sea level south of the port town of Berbera, and eastward from that area it continues at 1,800 to 2,100 meters almost to Caseyr. The country's highest point, Shimber Berris, which rises to 2,407 meters, is located near the town of Erigavo. Southward the mountains descend, often in scarped ledges, to an elevated plateau devoid of perennial rivers. This region of broken mountain terrain, shallow plateau valleys, and usually dry watercourses is known to the Somalis as the Ogo. In the Ogo's especially arid eastern part, the plateaubroken by several isolated mountain rangesgradually slopes toward the Indian Ocean and in central Somalia constitutes the Mudug Plain. A major feature of this eastern section is the long and broad Nugaal Valley, with its extensive network of intermittent seasonal watercourses. The Nugaal river enters the Indian Ocean at Eyl. The eastern area's population consists mainly of pastoral nomads eking a living in a zone of low and erratic rainfall.

Satellite image of Somalia

Topography of Somalia

The western part of the Ogo plateau region is crossed by numerous shallow valleys and dry watercourses. Annual rainfall is greater than in the east, and there are flat areas of arable land that provide a home for dryland cultivators. Most important, the western area has permanent wells to which the predominantly nomadic population returns during the dry seasons. The western plateau slopes gently southward and merges imperceptibly into an area known as the Haud, a broad, undulating terrain that constitutes some of the best grazing lands for Somali nomads, despite the lack of appreciable rainfall more than half the year. Enhancing the value of the Haud are the natural depressions that during periods of rain become temporary lakes and ponds. The Haud zone continues for more than sixty kilometers into Ethiopia, and the vast Somali Plateau, which lies between the northern Somali mountains and the highlands of southeast Ethiopia, extends south and eastward through Ethiopia into central and southwest Somalia. The portion of the Haud lying within Ethiopia was the subject of an agreement made during the colonial era. In 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis,[4] the British "returned" the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably 'protected' by

Geography of Somalia British treaties with the Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Ogaden to Ethiopia, based on an 1897 treaty in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against plundering by Somali clans.[5] Britain included the proviso that the Somali nomads would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over them.[6] This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over.[6] The stretch of land has since been a considerable source of regional strife. Southwestern Somalia is dominated by the country's only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and the Shabele. With their sources in the Ethiopian highlands, these rivers flow in a generally southerly direction, cutting wide valleys in the Somali Plateau as it descends toward the sea; the plateau's elevation falls off rapidly in this area. The adjacent coastal zone, which includes the lower reaches of the rivers and extends from the Mudug Plain to the Kenyan border, averages 180 meters above sea level. The Jubba River enters the Indian Ocean at Kismaayo. Although the Shabeelle River at one time apparently also reached the sea near Merca, its course is thought to have changed in prehistoric times. The Shabeelle now turns southwestward near Balcad (about thirty kilometers north of Mogadishu) and parallels the coast for more than eighty-five kilometers. The river is perennial only to a point southwest of Mogadishu; thereafter it consists of swampy areas and dry reaches and is finally lost in the sand east of Jilib, not far from the Jubba River. During the flood seasons, the Shabeelle River may fill its bed to a point near Jilib and occasionally may even break through to the Jubba River farther south. Favorable rainfall and soil conditions make the entire riverine region a fertile agricultural area and the center of the country's largest sedentary population. In most of northern, northeastern, and north-central Somalia, where rainfall is low, the vegetation consists of scattered low trees, including various acacias, and widely scattered patches of grass. This vegetation gives way to a combination of low bushes and grass clumps in the highly arid areas of the northeast and along the Gulf of Aden. As elevations and rainfall increase in the maritime ranges of the north, the vegetation becomes denser. Aloes are common, and on the higher plateau areas of the Ogo are woodlands. At a few places above 1,500 meters, the remnants of juniper forests (protected by the state) and areas of Euphorbia candelabrum (a chandelier-type spiny plant) occur. In the more arid highlands of the northeast, Boswellia and Commiphora trees are sources, respectively, of the frankincense and myrrh for which Somalia has been known since ancient times. A broad plateau encompassing the northern city of Hargeysa, which receives comparatively heavy rainfall, is covered naturally by woodland (much of which has been degraded by overgrazing) and in places by extensive grasslands. Parts of this area have been under cultivation since the 1930s, producing sorghum and maize; in the 1990s it constituted the only significant region of sedentary cultivation outside southwestern Somalia. The Haud south of Hargeysa is covered mostly by a semiarid woodland of scattered trees, mainly acacias, underlain by grasses that Hargeisa and much of northwestern Somalia is desert or hilly terrain. Here, the Naasa Hablood hills are shown. include species especially favored by livestock as forage. There vegetation forms spatially periodic patterns reminiscent of a tiger skin when viewed from above and therefore knowns as "Tiger bush".[7] As the Haud merges into the Mudug Plain in central Somalia, the aridity increases and the vegetation takes on a subdesert character. Farther southward the terrain gradually changes to semiarid woodlands and grasslands as the annual precipitation increases.

52

Geography of Somalia The region encompassing the Shabeelle and Jubba rivers is relatively well watered and constitutes the country's most arable zone. The lowland between the rivers supports rich pasturage. It features arid to subarid savanna, open woodland, and thickets that include frequently abundant underlying grasses. There are areas of grassland, and in the far southwest, near the Kenyan border, some dry evergreen forests are found. Along the Indian Ocean from Hobyo southwestward to near Mogadishu lies a stretch of dry coastal sand dunes, the Hobyo grasslands and shrublands ecoregion. This area is covered with scattered scrub and grass clumps where rainfall is sufficient although unpredictable. Much of this coast is thinly populated but overgrazing, particularly south of Mogadishu, has resulted in the destruction of the protective vegetation cover and the gradual movement of the once-stationary dunes inland. The original flora of this coast contains a number of endemic species and beginning in the early 1970s, efforts were made to stabilize these dunes by replanting. Endemic mammals are the Silver Dik-dik (Madoqua piacentinii), one of the world's smallest antelopes, and the Somali golden mole (Calcochloris tytonis). Other endemic species include two reptiles, a skink Haackgreerius miopus and a lizard Latastia cherchii and two birds, Ash's Lark (Mirafra ashi) and the Obbia Lark (Spizocorys obbiensis). The longterm political strife in Somalia has meant the coast is poorly studied and the state of the habitat unknown.[8] Other vegetation includes plants and grasses found in the swamps into which the Shabeelle River empties most of the year and in other large swamps in the course of the lower Jubba River. Swamps of East African mangroves are found at points along the coast, particularly from Kismaayo to near the Kenyan border. Uncontrolled exploitation appears to have caused some damage to forests in that area. Other mangroves are located near Mogadishu and at a number of places along the northeastern and northern coasts.

53

Data
Location: East Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, east of Ethiopia Geographic coordinates: 1000N 4900E Map references: Africa Area: total: 637,657km land: 627,337km water: 10,320km Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas Land boundaries: total: 2,366km border countries: Djibouti 58km, Ethiopia 1,626km, Kenya 682km Coastline: 3,300km Maritime claims: territorial sea: 200nmi (370.4km; 230.2mi) Climate: principally desert; December to February - northeast monsoon, moderate temperatures in north and very hot in south; May to October - southwest monsoon, torrid in the north and hot in the south, irregular rainfall, hot and humid periods (tangambili) between monsoons Terrain: mostly flat to undulating plateau rising to hills in north Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Shimbiris 2,416 m Natural resources: uranium and largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt

Geography of Somalia Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 69% forests and woodland: 26% other: 3% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 1,800km (1993 est.) Natural hazards: recurring droughts; frequent dust storms over eastern plains in summer; floods during rainy season Environment - current issues: famine; use of contaminated water contributes to human health problems; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification Environment - international agreements: party to: Endangered Species, Law of the Sea signed, but not ratified: Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban Geography - note: strategic location on Horn of Africa along southern approaches to Bab el Mandeb and route through Red Sea and Suez Canal

54

Extreme points
This is a list of the extreme points of Somalia, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. Northern-most point - Ras Illaue, Bari region Eastern-most point - Ras Hafun, Bari region* Southern-most point - the point at which the border with Kenya enters the Indian Ocean, Jubbada Hoose region Western-most point - the western section of the Kenyan border**

* This is also the eastern-most point of the African continent ** Somalia does not have a western-most point, the western section of the border being formed by the 41 longitude

References
Notes
[1] http:/ / www. ict. org. il/ Articles/ tabid/ 66/ Articlsid/ 745/ currentpage/ 2/ Default. aspx [2] Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science." (http:/ / handle. dtic. mil/ 100. 2/ ADA464006) Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center [3] "Somalia - Climate" (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ somalia/ 34. htm). Countrystudies.us. 14 may 2009. . [4] Federal Research Division, Somalia: A Country Study, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2004), p.38 [5] David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977), p.73 [6] Zolberg, Aristide R., et al., Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World, (Oxford University Press: 1992), p.106 [7] MacFadyen W.A. (1950). Vegetation patterns in the semi-desert plains of British Somaliland. Geographical Journal, 116, 199-210. [8] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1307_full. html

Geography of Somalia

55

General references
Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science." (http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006) Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center (now known as the Army Geospatial Center, US Army Corps of Engineers), in Alexandria, VA. Includes data and citations on the geology, geography, water and transportation in Somalia.

Gobi Desert

56

Gobi Desert
Gobi Desert ()
Desert

Gobi Desert landscape in mngovi Province, Mongolia Countries

Mongolia, People's Republic of China

Mongolian Aimags Bayankhongor, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Govi-Altai, Govismber, mngovi, Skhbaatar Chinese Region Range Landmark Length Width Area Inner Mongolia Govi-Altai Mountains Nemegt Basin 1500 km (932 mi), SE/NW 800 km (497 mi), N/S 1295000 km (500002 sq mi)

The Gobi Desert lies in the territory of People's Republic of China and Mongolia.

The Gobi (Mongolian: , Govi, "semidesert"; Chinese: ; pinyin: Gb) is a large desert region in Asia. It covers parts of northern and northwestern China, and of southern Mongolia. The desert basins of the Gobi are bounded by the Altai Mountains and the grasslands and steppes of Mongolia on the north, by the Hexi Corridor and Tibetan Plateau to the southwest, and by the North China Plain to the southeast. The Gobi is most notable in history as part of the great Mongol Empire, and as the location of several important cities along the Silk Road. The Gobi is made up of several distinct ecological and geographic regions based on variations in climate and topography. One is the Eastern Gobi desert steppe Ecoregion, a Palearctic ecoregion in the Deserts and xeric shrublands Biome, home to the Bactrian camel and various other animals.[1] . It is a rain shadow desert formed by

Gobi Desert the Himalaya range blocking rain-carrying clouds from reaching the Gobi from the Indian Ocean.

57

Geography
The Gobi measures over 1610km (1000mi) from southwest to northeast and 800km (500mi) from north to south. The desert is widest in the west, along the line joining the Lake Bosten and the Lop Nor (87-89 east). It occupies an arc of land 1295000 km2 ( sqmi)[2] in area as of 2007, making it fifth largest in the world and Asia's largest. Much of the Gobi is not sandy but is covered with bare rock. The Gobi has several different Chinese names, including (Shm, actually a generic term for deserts in general) and (Hnhi, "endless sea"). In its broadest definition, the Gobi includes the long stretch of desert and semi-desert area extending from the foot of the Pamirs, 77 east, to the Greater Khingan Mountains, 116-118 east, on the border of Manchuria; and from the foothills of the Altay, Sayan, and Yablonoi mountain ranges on the north to the Kunlun, Altyn-Tagh, and Qilian mountain ranges, which form the northern edges of the Tibetan Plateau, on the south. A relatively large area on the east side of the Greater Khingan range, between the upper waters of the Songhua (Sungari) and the upper waters of the Liao-ho, is also reckoned to belong to the Gobi by conventional usage. On the other hand, geographers and ecologists prefer to regard the western area of the Gobi region (as defined above), the basin of the Tarim in Xinjiang and the desert basin of Lop Nor and Hami (Kumul) as forming a separate and independent desert, called the Taklamakan Desert. The Nemegt Basin in the northwestern part of the Gobi Desert (in Mongolia) is famous for its fossil treasures, including early mammals, dinosaur eggs, and even prehistoric stone implements, some 100,000 years old.

Climate
The Gobi is a cold desert, and it is not uncommon to see frost and occasionally snow on its dunes. Besides being quite far north, it is also located on a plateau roughly 9101,520 meters (3,0005,000ft) above sea level, which further contributes to its low temperatures. An average of approximately 194 millimeters (7.6in) of rain falls per year in the Gobi. Additional moisture reaches parts of the Gobi in winter as snow is blown by the wind from the Siberian Steppes. These winds cause the Gobi to reach extremes of temperature ranging from 40C (40F) in winter to +50C (122F) in summer.[3] The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, combined with rapid changes of temperature, not only through the year but even within 24 hours, by as much as 35 C (95F).
Gobi by NASA World Wind

Gobi Desert

58

Sand dunes in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China

A summer monsoon produces a flash flood, 2005

Bactrian camels by the sand dunes of Khongoryn Els, Gurvansaikhan NP, Mongolia

The sand dunes of Khongoryn Els, Gurvansaikhan NP, Mongolia

Gobi Desert

59

Temperature
Sivantse (1190m) Ulaanbaatar (1150m) Annual mean January mean July mean Extremes 17.5 C (63.5F) 19.0 C (66.2F) 2.8 C (37.0F)

Even in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low as , and in Alxa, Inner Mongolia it rises as high as 37 C (99F) in July. Average winter minimals are a frigid while summertime temperatures are warm to hot, highs range up to 50 C (122F). Most of the precipitation falls during the summer. Although the southeast monsoons reach the southeast parts of the Gobi, the area throughout this region is generally characterized by extreme dryness, especially during the winter, when the Siberian anticyclone is at its strongest. Hence, the icy sandstorms and snowstorms of spring and early summer plus early January (winter)

Conservation, ecology, economy

The Gobi Desert is the source of many important fossil finds, including the first dinosaur eggs. These deserts and the surrounding regions sustain many animals, including black-tailed gazelles, marbled polecats, bactrian camels, Mongolian wild ass and sandplovers, and are occasionally visited by snow leopards, brown bears, and wolves. The desert features a number of drought-adapted shrubs such as gray sparrow's saltwort, gray sagebrush, and low grasses such as needle grass and bridlegrass. The area is vulnerable to trampling by livestock and off-road vehicles (human impacts are greater in the eastern Gobi Desert, where rainfall is heavier and may sustain livestock). In Mongolia, grasslands have been degraded by goats, raised by nomadic herders as source of cashmere wool. Economic trends of livestock privatization and the collapse of the urban economy have caused people to return to rural lifestyles, a movement contrary to urbanization. Large copper and gold deposits located at Oyuu Tolgoi, about 80 kilometers from the Chinese border into Mongolia, are being investigated for mining operations.[4]

Desertification
Currently, the Gobi desert is expanding at an alarming rate, in a process known as desertification. The expansion is particularly rapid on the southern edge into China, which has seen 3600km2 (1390sqmi) of grassland overtaken every year by the Gobi Desert. Dust storms, which used to occur regularly in China, have seen a dramatic increase in occurrence in the past 20 years, mainly due to desertification, and causing further damage to China's agriculture economy. The expansion of the Gobi is attributed mostly to human activities, notably deforestation, overgrazing, and depletion of water resources. China has made various plans to try to slow the expansion of the desert, which have met with some small degree of success, but usually have no major impact. The most recent plan involves the planting of the Green Wall of China, a huge ring of newly planted forests that the Chinese government hopes will act as a buffer against further expansion.

Gobi Desert

60

Ecoregions of the Gobi

The Gobi, broadly defined, can be divided into five distinct dry ecoregions. The 'Eastern Gobi desert steppe' is the easternmost of the Gobi ecoregions, covering an area of 281800 km2 ( sqmi). It extends from the Inner Mongolian Plateau in China northward into Mongolia. It includes the Yin Mountains and many low-lying areas with salt pans and small ponds. It is bounded by the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland to the north, the Yellow River Plain to the southeast, and the Alashan Plateau semi-desert to the southeast and east. The Alashan Plateau semi-desert lies west and southwest of the Eastern Gobi desert steppe. It consists of the desert basins and low mountains lying between the Gobi Altai range on the north, the Helan Mountains to the southeast, and the Qilian Mountains and northeastern portion of the Tibetan Plateau on the southwest. The Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe ecoregion lies north of Alashan Plateau semi-desert, between the Gobi Altai range to the south and the Khangai Mountains to the north. The Dzungarian Basin semi-desert includes the desert basin lying between the Altai mountains on the north and the Tian Shan range on the south. It includes the northern portion of China's Xinjiang province and extends into the southeastern corner of Mongolia. The Alashan Plateau semi-desert lies to the east, and the Emin Valley steppe to the west, on the China-Kazakhstan border. The Tian Shan range separates the Dzungarian Basin semi-desert from the Taklamakan Desert, which is a low, sandy desert basin surrounded by the high mountain ranges of the Tibetan Plateau to the south and the Pamirs to the west. The Taklamakan Desert ecoregion includes the Desert of Lop.

Eastern Gobi desert steppe

Here the surface is extremely diversified, although there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Ulaanbaatar (4800N 10700E) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (4345N 11150E ) the surface is greatly eroded, and consists of broad flat depressions and basins separated by groups of flat-topped mountains of relatively low elevation 150 to 180 m (490 to 590 ft)), through which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses. The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 900 to 1000 m (3000 to 3300 ft) above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dutiasu-nor and the Hwang-ho A Khulan (Mongolian Wild Ass) on a hill in the comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with flat plains, the eastern Gobi of Mongolia at sunset. latter ranging at altitudes of 10001100m and the former at 1070 to 1200 m (3510 to 3900 ft). The slopes of the plateaus are more or less steep, and are sometimes penetrated by "bays" of the lowlands. As the border-range of the Hyangan is approached, the country steadily rises up to 1370m (4490ft) and then to 1630m (5350ft). Here small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them is generally salt or brackish. Both here and for 320km (199mi) south of Ulaanbaatar, streams are frequent and grass grows more or less abundantly. There is, however, through all the central parts, until the bordering mountains are reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay and sand are the predominant formations, the watercourses, especially in the north, being frequently excavated 2 to 3 m (6ft 7in to 9ft 10in) deep, and in many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south beds of loess, 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) thick, are exposed. West of the route from Ulaanbaatar to Kalgan the country presents approximately the same general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly east to west, west-north-west to east-south-east, and west-south-west to east-north-east. The altitudes too are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 1000 to 1700 m (3300 to 5600 ft), and those of the ranges from 200 to 500 m (660 to 1600 ft) higher, though in a few cases they reach altitudes of 2400m (7900ft).

Gobi Desert The elevations do not, however, form continuous chains, but make up a congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins. But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the Han-gai (Obruchev's Gobi formation) which are characteristic of the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river, and are then greatly intersected by gullies or dry watercourses. Here there is, however, a great dearth of water, no streams, no lakes, no wells, arid precipitation falls but seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the west and northwest and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla Makan and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are wild garlic, Kalidium gracile, wormwood, saxaul, Nitraria schoberi, Caragana, Ephedra, saltwort and the grass Lasiagrostis splendens. The taana wild onion Allium polyrrhizum is the main browse eaten by many herd animals, and Mongolians claim that this is essential to produce the correct, slightly hazelnut-like flavour of camel airag (fermented milk). This great desert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes, some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most important are those from Kalgan (at the Great Wall) to Ulaanbaatar (960km (597mi)), from Jiuquan (in Gansu) to Hami 670km (416mi) from Hami to Beijing (2000km (1243mi)), from Hohhot to Hami and Barkul, and from Lanzhou (in Gansu) to Hami.

61

Alashan Plateau semi-desert

The southwestern portion of the Gobi, known also as the Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great north loop of the Yellow River on the east, the Ejin River on the west, and the Qilian Mountains and narrow rocky chain of Longshou , 3200 to 3500 m (10500 to 11500 ft) in altitude, on the southwest. The Ordos Desert, which covers the northeastern portion of the Ordos Plateau, in the great north loop of the Huang He, is part of this ecoregion. It belongs to the middle basin of the three great depressions into which Potanin divides the Gobi as a whole. "Topographically," says Przhevalsky, "it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the bed of a huge lake or inland sea." The data upon which he bases this conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saldgine clay and the sand-strewn surface, and lastly the salt lakes which occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of kilometers there is nothing to be seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without a break that the Mongols call them Tengger (i.e. sky). These vast expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the unbroken stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general altitude of 1000 to 1500 m (3300 to 4900 ft), this section, like most other parts of the Gobi, is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges going up 300m higher. The vegetation is confined to a few varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses and herbs, the most conspicuous being saxaul (Haloxylon ammondendron) and Agriophyllum gobicum. The others include prickly convolvulus, field wormwood (Artemisia campestris), acacia, Inula ammophila, Sophora flavescens, Convolvulus ammanii, Peganum and Astragalus, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna consists of little else except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sandgrouse, lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, Henderson's Ground Jay (Podoces hendersoni), Horned Lark (Eremophila alpestris), and Crested Lark (Galerida cristata).

Dzungarian Basin semi-desert

The Yulduz valley or valley of the Haidag-gol (43N 83E43N 86E) is a mini desert enclosed by two prominent members of the Shanashen Trahen Osh mountain range, namely the chucis and the kracenard pine rallies, running perpendicular and far from one another. As they proceed south they transcend and transpose, sweeping back on east and west, respectively so as to leave room for the Lake Bosten. These two ranges mark the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling, which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On its northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (130m (427ft) below sea level) to Hami (850m (2789ft) above sea-level). To the south of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop Nur, the Kum-tagh desert, and the valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which

Gobi Desert arches up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, the Mongols give the name of Ghashuun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is some 130 to 160 km (81 to 99 mi) across from north to south, and is traversed by a number of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its middle runs a broad stony valley, 40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi) wide, at an elevation of 900 to 1370 m (3000 to 4490 ft). The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude of 1800m (5900ft), is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions mentioned above. The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted relic of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably greater magnitude. In the west, between Lake Bosten and the Tarim, it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. These minor ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the region into a series of long; narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun and on the other towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs, generally elevations en masse of the bottom of the valley. Where such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the east side of the transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a dry salt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly similar to that which occurs in the inter-mount latitudinal valleys of the Kunlun Mountains. The hydrography of the Ghashiun-Gobi and the Kuruk-tagh is determined by these chequered arrangements of the latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn west after they have cut their way through one or more of the transverse barrier ranges. To the highest range on the great swelling Gruni-Grzhimailo gives the name of Tuge-tau, its altitude being 2700m (8858ft) above the level of the sea and some 1200m (3937ft) above the crown of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to the Choltagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range of Kharateken-ula (also known as the Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher Mountains), that overlooks the southern shore of the Lake Bosten, though parted from it by the drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White Pass Sands), has at first a westnorthwest to eastsoutheast strike, but it gradually curves round like a scimitar towards the eastnortheast and at the same time gradually decreases in elevation. In 91 east, while the principal range of the Kuruk-tagh system wheels to the eastnortheast, four of its subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly, on the brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees a northeast bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having over against them the cheloned terminals of similar subordinate ranges of the Pe-shan (Boy-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range, being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases. The vegetation, which is confined to these same relatively favoured spots, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes of saxaul (Haloxylon), anabasis, reeds (kamish), tamarisks, poplars, and Ephedra

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European exploration up to 1911

The Gobi had a long history of human habitation, mostly by nomadic peoples. By the early 20th century the region was under the nominal control of Manchu-China, and inhabited mostly by Mongols, Uyghurs, and Kazakhs. The Gobi desert as a whole was only very imperfectly known to outsiders, information being confined to the observations which individual travellers had made from their respective itineraries across the desert. Amongst the European explorers who contributed to early 20th century understanding of the Gobi, the most important were: Jean-Franois Gerbillon (16881698) Eberhard Isbrand Ides (16921694) Lorenz Lange (17271728 and 1736) Fuss and Alexander G. von Bunge (18301831) Hermann Fritsche (18681873)

Gobi Desert Pavlinov and Z.L. Matusovski (1870) Ney Elias (18721873) Nikolai Przhevalsky (18701872 and 18761877) Zosnovsky (1875) Mikhail V. Pevtsov (1878) Grigory Potanin (1877 and 18841886) Count Bla Szchenyi and Lajos Lczy (18791880) The brothers G. E. Grumm-Grshimailo (18891890) and ? Grumm-Grshimailo. Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov (18931894 and 18991900) Vsevolod I. Roborovsky (1894) Vladimir Obruchev (18941896) Karl Josef Futterer and Dr. Holderer (1896) Charles-Etienne Bonin (1896 and 1899) Sven Hedin (1897 and 19001901) K. Bogdanovich (1898) Ladyghin (18991900) and Katsnakov (18991900)

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References
[1] "Camelus ferus (Bactrian Camel, Wild Bactrian Camel)" (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ apps/ redlist/ details/ 63543/ 0). IUCN. April 2010. . Retrieved 2011-04-24. [2] Wright, John W. (ed.); Editors and reporters of The New York Times (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. pp.456. ISBN0-14-303820-6. [3] Planet Earth BBC TV series 2006 UK, 2007 US, Episode 5 [4] "Oyu Tolgoi Gold and Copper Project, Southern Mongolia" (http:/ / www. ivanhoe-mines. com/ s/ OyuTolgoi. asp). . Retrieved 2009-08-08.

This articleincorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Further reading
Cable, Mildred and French, Francesca (1943) The Gobi Desert London. Landsborough Publications, OCLC 411792 (http://worldcat.org/oclc/411792) Man, John (1997) Gobi: Tracking the Desert Yale University Press, New Haven, ISBN 0-300-07609-6 Stewart, Stanley (2001) In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads HarperCollinsPublishers, London, ISBN 0-00-653027-3. Thayer, Helen (2007) Walking the Gobi: 1,600 Mile-trek Across a Desert of Hope and Despair Mountaineer Books, Seattle, WA, ISBN 978-1-59485-064-6 Younghusband, Francis (1904) The Heart of a Continent John Murray

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External links
Map, from "China the Beautiful" (http://www.chinapage.com/map/map.html#desert) Flickr: Photos tagged with gobi (http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/gobi) Gobi Desert in Google Earth (http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=521894) Requires Google Earth
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Gran Desierto de Altar

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Gran Desierto de Altar

The Gran Desierto de Altar is one of the major portions of the Sonoran Desert of Mexico, including the only active erg dune region in North America. It extends across much of the northern border of the Gulf of California, reaching more than 100 kilometers east to west, and over 50km north to south, and constitutes the largest continuous wilderness area within the Sonoran Desert. The eastern portion of the area is a biosphere reserve (the full title is Reserva de la Biosfera el Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar) The Gran Desierto covers approximately 5,700 km2, most of it in the Mexican state of Sonora. The northernmost edges overlap the border into southwestern Arizona. The dominant sand sheets and dunes range in thickness from less than one meter to greater than 120 meters. The total volume of sand in the Gran Desierto is about 60 km3. Most of that volume was delivered by the Pleistocene Colorado River which flowed through the present-day Gran Desierto area ~120,000 years before present. This Pleistocene delta migrated westward concomitant with strike-slip faulting and rifting associated with the opening of the Salton Trough and the Gulf of California.

Physiography
The eastern margin of the Gran Desierto abuts the Cenozoic volcanic complex of the Sierra Pinacate, a composite volcanic field covering more than 1,800 km2 with a summit elevation of 1,206 m. Aeolian sands have climbed onto many of the western slopes of the Sierras Pinacate, defining the eastern limit of the dune field. To the north, the sands thin out against the distal margins of alluvial fans from the Tinajas Altas and Tule Mountains along the Arizona-Sonora border. The southern border of the sand sea is the northern shore of the Gulf of California. The southernmost extension of the San Andreas Fault cuts across the area and lies beneath several prominent granite inselbergs, most notably the Sierra del Rosario mountains which are surrounded by the erg on all sides. The Sierra Enternada is a smaller inselberg almost completely buried by the sand near the boundary of the Gran Desierto and the Pinacate volcanic complex.

Sand dune distribution

The Gran Desierto is best-known for its magnificent Star Dunes, many in excess of 100 meters high. More than two-thirds of the Gran Desierto is covered by sand sheets and sand streaks. The remaining area is split equally between a western population of star dunes and an eastern set of transverse or crescentic dunes. Some of the larger crescentic dunes in the northeastern sand sea exhibit reversing crests, a transitional morphologic feature associated with star dunes.

Flora
Vegetation assemblages of the Gran Desierto are typical of the lower Sonoran Desert with a marked difference in vegetation type and density with location. Large areas of the southern and eastern sand sea, especially near the margins, have a moderately dense (up to 20%) cover of perennial low shrubs and herbs such as bursage (Ambrosia dumosa) and longleaf jointfir (Ephedra trifurca) with creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) in areas of thin sand cover. Palo Verde/Acacia/Ocotillo communities occur on alluvial slopes on the northern side of the sand sea, particularly in arroyos and washes. Felger [1980] estimated total vegetation cover at 15% in the star dunes and about 10% in the low transverse or crescentic dunes areas. These percentages are substantially greater than in most active dune fields where vegetation covers of 15% are more typical [Seely and Louw, 1980]. Several teams (e.g. Van Devender et al. [1987] and Hall et al. [1988]) have examined the nests (middens) built by pack rats as a proxy for ancient vegetation regimes. All have concluded that the Gran Desierto has been a refugia for desert plants since at least the late Pleistocene. The Gran Desierto has served as a refuge for most dominant Mojave

Gran Desierto de Altar Desert plant species during cooler pluvial epochs as well. Van Devender has also reported C14 dates for a midden from the Tinajas Altas Mountains showing assemblages of Juniper and Joshua trees coexisting with contemporary Gran Desierto flora and fauna more than 43,000 years before present. Although midden studies do not provide information beyond the late Pleistocene, they do indicate that, in gross form, the climate of the Gran Desierto as recorded by plant communities has been desert-like since at least the peak of the Wisconsinan glaciation.

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Fauna
See articles in: Fauna of the Sonoran Desert

Climate
The Gran Desierto has a warm-to-hot arid climate. Mean annual rainfall, most of which occurs between September and December, is 73mm at Puerto Peasco, Sonora (located on the southeastern margin of the sand sea) and decreases northward toward Yuma, Arizona (on the northwestern edge) to 62mm per year [Lancaster et al., 1987]. Mid-summer highs in excess of 45C are common in the central sand sea. Mid-winter lows of less than 10C are rare. Winds are controlled in part by the position and strength of the Sonoran Low in summer, creating southerly winds, and by the Great Basin High in winter, with north-to-northeasterly winds.

Paleoclimate
Van Devender and Spaulding [1979] and Spaulding et al. [1983] report that the well-documented pluvial epochs which occurred over much of the southwestern United States during the most-recent (Wisconsin) ice age may not have extended as far south as the Gran Desierto. It appears that the climatic regime of the past 150,000 years at this site has been one of gradually increasing aridity with current hyperarid conditions being firmly in place by at least 43,000 years ago. As a minimum, it may be assumed that onshore coastal winds from the south were less important to sand movement when the Wisconsin shoreline was located 45km seaward of its current position.

Tectonics
The Gran Desierto is located adjacent to a rapidly subsiding tectonic basin, the Salton Trough, which is a northern extension of the Gulf of California, an embayment created by rifting initiated during the Pliocene along the East Pacific Rise and the San Andreas fault system [Rusnak and Fisher, 1964; Larson et al., 1968; Angelier et al., 1981]. Regional subsidence has propagated to the northwest as rifting and strike-slip faulting continues into the present-day. The central portion of the nearby Salton Trough is more than 70 m below sea level; it is protected from marine embayment only by the natural dike of the Colorado River Delta. Ongoing tectonic activity modifies the Gran Desierto today. The southernmost extension of the San Andreas fault system, the Cerro Prieto Fault, passes directly through the area before continuing offshore into the Gulf of California [Merriam, 1965]. Strike-slip movement in the area is as high as 60mm/yr. [Gastil et al., 1975; Curray and Moore, 1984]. Since 1900, one magnitude 6.3 and two magnitude 7.1 earthquakes have originated within the erg. Most seismicity within the Gran Desierto originates at depths of five to six kilometers, corresponding to the transition between deltaic deposits and basement crystalline rocks (Von der Haar and Howard, 1981]. Local uplift is still occurring along the Mesa Arenosa, a drag folded fault block forming the coastal boundary.

Gran Desierto de Altar

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Origin
The geological history of the Gran Desierto is intimately linked to the opening of the Gulf of California and the capture of the ancestral Colorado River; source areas which were adjacent to the Gran Desierto have shifted in position, basement topography has been altered continuously, bedforms have been created, modified or completely destroyed and then reworked. The Gran Desierto sand sheets and dunes are located atop deltaic deposits of the Pleistocene Colorado River. Lucchitta [1988] showed that the lower Colorado River was captured by the Gulf of California 1.2 million years before present. This event places an upper bound on the age of the Gran Desierto with the Colorado's major clastic sediment sources. Conglomeritic sands and silts beneath the Mesa Arenosa were examined by Colletta and Ortlieb [1984] and dated at between 700,000 and 120,000 years before present. Vertebrate fossils found by Merriam [1965] within the deltaic deposits include Equus, Gomphotherium and Bison and were assigned to Irvingtonian age (0.5 to 1.8 million years before present); dates consistent with the aforementioned capture of the lower Colorado River. Shaw and McDonald [1987] documented evidence of a giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla in the deltaic deposits in the southern Gran Desierto. Van Devender notes that the specimen was found in association with fossils of mammoths, sloths and boa constrictors; a tropical faunal assemblage which supports a contention that the Colorado River delta of a previous interglacial period (>120,000 years ago) was much warmer and wetter than the present interglacial. Paleo-deltaic deposits near Salina Grande correlate with a ubiquitous indurated shell deposit dated by Io/U radiometric methods at 146,000 + 13,000/-11, 000 years of age [Colletta and Ortlieb, 1984]. Slate [1985] obtained K-Ar ages for basalt flows in the western Pinacates. Based on this work, some aeolian activity may have been present as early as 700,000 years ago, as evidenced by the dated accretionary mantles on basalt flows of the Pinacate volcanic field. Blount and Lancaster [1990] proposed that by late Pleistocene time, the Colorado River was a highly competent stream flowing through the area which is occupied today by the massive western star dune zone. The seashore at this time was at least 45km south of its present-day location. Primary bed loads of poorly sorted gravel were deposited from present-day Yuma, Arizona to an area south of the present-day Sierra del Rosario mountains. As rifting of the Gulf of California progressed to the northwest, and uplift along the coast began, the river channel shifted westward, leaving primary bedload deposits in the former channel and floodplain. Deltaic sediments beneath the Gran Desierto may be as much as 6,000 meters deep (Biehler et al. [1964]; Colleta and Ortlieb [1984].) Annual sediment loads prior to the damming of the Colorado River were prodigious. Sykes [1937b] reported a single flood event which deposited an estimated 100,000,000 m3 of coarse to medium sand as a sheet deposit on the modern delta just south of the international boundary. Events like this, even if rare, could fill up the Gran Desierto in only a few millennia.

Offshore features
The synchronous development of the Colorado River Delta and the associated Gran Desierto sand sink continues offshore into the Gulf of California. Reports on the submarine topography of the Gulf of California by van Andel [1964], describe three former river channels on the seafloor: one originating at the present-day Colorado delta, another from the area of the paleo-delta between El Golfo and Salina Grande, and a third to the area of present-day Puerto Penasco. Rusnak et al. [1964] reported on sonar soundings which discovered the valleys and also describe two elongate depressions, each about 40km in length, into which the valley networks terminate at a depth of ~180 m below sea level. Those incised valley systems were also interpreted as fluvial in origin.

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References
Angelier, J., Colleta, B., Chorowicz, J., Ortlieb, L. and Rangin, C., Fault tectonics of the Baja California peninsula and the opening of the Sea of Cortez, Mexico, J. of Structural Geology, 3, 347- 357, 1981. Biehler, S., Kovach, R.L. and Allen, C.R., Geophysical framework of the northern end of the Gulf of California structural province, in Marine Geology of the Gulf of California, van Andel, T .H. and Shor, G.G., eds., A.A.P.G., Memoir 3, 126-143, 1964. Blount, Grady and Nicholas Lancaster, Development of the Gran Desierto sand sea, northwestern Mexico, Geology, v. 18, pp.724728, 1990. Colleta, B. and Ortlieb, L., Deformations of middle and late Pleistocene deltaic deposits at the mouth of the Rio Colorado, northwestern Gulf of California, in Malpica-Cruz, V. et al.(eds.), Neotectonics and sea level variations in the Gulf of California area: A symposium, University Nacional Auton Mexico, Institute Geolocia, 31-53, 1984. Curray, J.R. and Moore, D.G., Geologic history of the mouth of the Gulf of California, in, Crouch, J.K. and Bachman, S.B., eds., Tectonics and Sedimentation along the California Margin, Pacific Section-S.E.P.M., 17-36, 1984. Felger, R.S., Vegetation and flora of the Gran Desierto, Sonora, Mexico, Desert Plants, 2, 87-114, 1980. Gastil, R.G., Phillips, R.P. and Allison, E.C., Reconnaissance geology of the state of Baja California, G.S.A. Mem. 140, 170 p., 1975. Guzman, A.E., Petroleum possibilities in Altar Desert, Sonora, Mexico, abs., A.A.P .G., 64, 716, 1980. Hall, W.E., Van Devender, T.R. and Olson, C.A., Late Quaternary arthropod remains from Sonoran desert packrat middens, southwestern Arizona and northwestern Sonora, Quaternary Research, in press, 1988. Lancaster, N., Greeley, R. and Christensen, P.R., Dunes of the Gran Desierto sand sea, Sonora, Mexico, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 12, 277 -288, 1987. Larson, R.L., Menard, H.W. and Smith, S., Gulf of California: A result of ocean floor spreading and transform faulting, Science, 161 , 881-884, 1968. Lucchitta, I., Late Cenozoic uplift of the southwestern Colorado Plateau and adjacent lower Colorado River region, Tectonophysics, 61, 63-95, 1979. Lucchitta, I., History of the Grand Canyon and of the Colorado River in Arizona, Az. Geol. Soc., in press, 15 p., 1988. MacDougal, D.T., Across Papagueria, Bull. American Geographical Soc., 40, 705-725, 1908. Merriam, R., San Jacinto fault in northwestern Sonora, Mexico, Bull. G.S.A., 76, 1965. Ruznak, G.A. and Fisher, R.L., Structural history and evolution of the Gulf of California, in Marine Geology of the Gulf of California, van Andel, T.H. and Shor, G.G., eds., A.A.P .G., Memoir 3, 144-156, 1964. Shaw, C.A. and McDonald, H.G., First record of Giant Anteater (Xenarthra, Myrmecophagidae) in North America, Science, 236, 186-188, 1987. Slate, J.L., Soil-Carbonate genesis in the Pinacate volcanic field, northwestern Sonora, Mexico, M.S. thesis, University of Arizona, Tucson, 85 p., 1985. Spaulding, W.G., Leopold, E.B. and Van Devender, T.R., Late Wisconsin paleoecology of the American Southwest, in, Wright, H.E., Jr., ed., Late Quaternary Environments of the United States, v. 1, Univ. of Minnesota Press, 259-293, 1983. Sykes, G., The Colorado Delta, Carnegie Institution/American Geographical Society, New York, 193 p., 1937a. Sykes, G., Delta, estuary, and lower portion of the channel of the Colorado River, 1933 to 1935, Carnegie Institution, New York, 76 p., 1937b. van Andel, T.H., Recent marine sediments of Gulf of California, in Marine Geology of the Gulf of California, van Andel, T.H. and Shor, G.G., eds., A.A.P .G., Memoir 3, 216-310, 1964. Van Devender, T.R. and Spaulding, W.G., Development of vegetation and climate in the southwestern United States, Science, 204, 701-710, 1979.

Gran Desierto de Altar Van Devender, T.R., Thompson, R.S. and Betancourt, J.L., Vegetation history of the deserts of southwestern North America; The nature and time of the late Wisconsin-Holocene transition, in Ruddiman, W.F. and Wright, H.E., Jr., eds., North America and adjacent oceans during the last deglaciation: Boulder, Colorado, The geology of North America, K-3, G.S.A., 323-351, 1987. Von der Haar, S. and Howard, J.H., Intersecting faults and sandstone stratigraphy at the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, Geothermics, 10, 145-167, 1981.

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Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub

The Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub is a xeric shrubland ecoregion in Colombia, covering an estimated area of 150.000 km2.

The Guajira Peninsula satellital view.

Setting
The ecoregion occupies the Guajira Peninsula, the valley of Rancheria river and Guajira Department, covering parts of the northeastern coast of Venezuela. The valleys lie in the rain shadow of the surrounding mountain range of Macuira that reaches 900 m over sea level that trap some of the Trade winds and cause mist. An important touristic destination in the area is Cabo de la Vela

A wayuu rancheria. The wayuu people are the native inhabitants of the Guajira xeric scrub

Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub

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Flora
Most of the Macuira mountain range is a protected area called National Natural Park of Macuira. Nearby there is also the 80km Flamingos Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, which is a center of plant diversity, with over 2700 species, of which approximately 30% are endemic. It is a center of diversity for species of Divi-divi, Hechtia, Salvia, and cactus.

Divi-divi (Caesalpinia coriaria)

Fauna
The ecoregion is notable for being the habitat of a large community of Caribbean Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), besides a diversity of birds and bats.

References and external links

(Spanish) Martha Ligia Castellanos, Luis Carlos Pardo L. 2000. Caracterizacin y primera aproximacin a la determinacin del Caribbean Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) ndice de biodiversidad en los suelos de la cuenca del arroyo Mekijanao, Serrana de la Macuira, Alta Guajira. En: Juan Carlos Prez (editor) X Congreso Nacional de la Ciencia del Suelo. Programa y resmenes. El suelo un componente del medio natural. Medelln, Octubre 11 al 13 de 2000 (Spanish) Edith Gonzlez, Gabriel Guillot, Nstor Miranda, Diana Pombo (editores). 1990. Perfil Ambiental de Colombia. Colciencias. Escala. Bogot.

Gulf of California xeric scrub

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Gulf of California xeric scrub

The Gulf of California xeric scrub is a xeric shrubland ecoregion of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula.

Setting
The Gulf of California xeric scrub covers an area of 23,600 square kilometers (9,100 square miles), lying on the eastern side of the peninsula along the Gulf of California, and extending to several of the islands in the gulf. The Peninsular Ranges, which run the length of the peninsula, separate the Gulf of California xeric scrub from the Baja California Desert which lies along Baja California's Pacific slope. To the north, the Gulf of California xeric scrub transitions to the Sonoran Desert. At the southern end of the peninsula, the Gulf of California xeric scrub yields to the San Lucan xeric scrub.

References and external links

Gulf of California xeric scrub (World Wildlife Fund) [1] Gulf of California xeric scrub (National Geographic) [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1306_full. html [2] http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1306. html

Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert

The Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert is a coastal ecoregion on the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in Oman and the United Arab Emirates at the tip of northeast Arabia

Location and description

In Oman this ecoregion includes the Musandam Peninsula, the enclave of Oman within the UAE on the Strait of Hormuz, the entrance to the Persian Gulf. In the main part of Oman it includes the coastal plain of the Al Batinah Region on the Gulf of Oman continuing along past Muscat to the beaches and dunes of the Ash Sharqiyah Region. From the Ras al Hadd point it runs south along the coast to the desert island of Masirah. It also includes an inland strip running along to the southwest of the Al Hajar Mountains. In the UAE it covers the plains around the Al Hajar mountains in the east, in the emirates of Dubai, Sharjah and Ras Al-Khaimah, and the country's Al Batinah coast around Fujairah. This dry ecoregion contains a mixture of habitats including mangrove swamps, lagoons and mudflats on the coast, gravelly plains and savanna with thorny acacia trees inland with a background of the Musandam and Al Hajar mountains. The climate is hot and dry with temperatures up to 49 degrees Celsius (120 F) and little rainfall, especially on the Persian Gulf coast of the UAE. There is more rainfall on the Gulf of Oman and humidity provides moisture on both coasts.

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Flora
The coastal mangrove consists of Avicennia marina, trees of the inland savanna include Ziziphus spina-christi, Prosopis cineraria and the Umbrella Thorn Acacia tortilis while the mountains are home to Ficus cordata salicifolia, and Acacia tortilis. Finally the traditional flora of the Al Batinah coast is Acacia tortilis and Prosopis cineraria. Some of these species are found across the Persian Gulf in Iran.

Fauna
The world's largest population of Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) breeds on Masirah Island and other turtles that come to these coasts include the Olive Ridley (Lepydochelys olivacea), green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the endangered hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). The area is extremely rich in birdlife including a large migration between Asia and Africa. Endemic birds include a species of Collared kingfisher. Mammals include the endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) in the mountains and Arabian tahr, as well as caracals but all these are vulnerable to hunting.

Threats and preservation

Habitats have been degraded by the grazing of livestock, especially camels and goats. The Al Batinah coastal strip of Oman is the country's most densely populated area and is intensively farmed, partly by Oman's large community of Baloch people of Pakistani origin. Urban areas in this ecoregion in Oman include the country's capital and largest city, the historical port of Muscat, and the fishing towns of Barka, famous for its bull-butting, and Sohar, legendarily the home of Sindbad the Sailor, and the resort of Al Sawadi. Other tourist attractions along this coast include the historic castles of Nakhal Fort and Rustaq, the Wahiba Sands and the turtle beaches at Ras Al Hadd and Ras al-Jinz. Cities of the UAE in this ecoregion include the huge commercial centre of Dubai and the nearby city of Sharjah. A popular excursion from Dubai is to the Hajar mountain enclave of Hatta. Other threats to the ecoregion include oil spills in the sea, poaching of wildlife and off-road driving to locations such as Wadi Bani Awf. Protected areas include Ras Al Khor in Dubai, famous for its wintering flamingos, and an area of mangroves at Khor Kalba Nature Reserve on the Gulf of Oman in the UAE near the border with Oman.

External links
Gulf of Oman desert and semidesert (World Wildlife Fund) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1306_full. html

Haloxylon recurvum

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Haloxylon recurvum
Haloxylon recurvum Scientific classification Kingdom: Unranked: Unranked: Unranked: Order: Family: Plantae Angiosperms Eudicots Core eudicots Caryophyllales Amaranthaceae

Subfamily: Chenopodioideae Genus: Species: Haloxylon H. recurvum

Binomial name Haloxylon recurvum Haloxylon recurvum is a drought and salt tolerant plant found in Thar Desert of western Rajasthan. It is locally known as Khar, meaning salty. It is a 2569cm (1027in) tall, pale, spread-out shrub with many branches almost leafless with woody stem. Its inflorescence consists of short cup, 35cm (1.11.9in) long, scattered spikes and pale greenish in colour. Fruits look like wings which are 78cm (3in) in size, brownish in colour. It is one of the dominant halophytic species around saline lakes of Thar Desert. It is also distributed in the Middle East.

Uses
It is a source of crude salts with sodium carbonate (barilla or sajji-khar). The sajji-khar is added as an ingredient for unique taste of famous Bikaneri papad. The ash of this plant is used as substitute of soap for cleaning clothes and is also taken with water for treatment of internal ulcers.

Hamada

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Hamada
A hamada (Arabic, ammda) is a type of desert landscape consisting of largely barren, hard, rocky plateaus, with very little sand.[1] A hamada may sometimes also be called a reg (pronounced "rug"), though this more properly refers to a stony plain rather than a highland.[2] Hamadas exist in contrast to ergs, which are large areas of shifting sand dunes.[3] [4] The world's largest hamada is the Hamada du Draa, in the northwest Sahara desert, between Morocco, Algeria and Moroccan Sahara. Hamada areas form 70% of the Sahara desert.

Cyclists crossing hamada, approaching Erg Chebbi sand dunes, Morocco (311406N 40145W)

Formation
Hamadas are produced by the wind removing the fine products of weathering: a process known as deflation. The finer products are removed in suspension, whilst the sand is removed through saltation and surface creep, leaving behind a landscape of gravel, boulders and bare rock.[5]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Geological dictionary (http:/ / www2. wwnorton. com/ college/ geo/ earth2/ glossary/ h. htm#8), definition of a hamada. Geological dictionary (http:/ / www2. wwnorton. com/ college/ geo/ earth2/ glossary/ r. htm#21), definition of reg. Geological dictionary (http:/ / www2. wwnorton. com/ college/ geo/ earth2/ glossary/ e. htm#34), definition of erg. McKnight, Tom L. and Darrel Hess. Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, 8th ed., pp. 495-6. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005. (ISBN 0-13-145139-1) [5] B.W. Sparks. Geomorphology, 2nd ed., pp322-3. Longman Group Ltd. 1972. (ISBN 0-582-48147-3)

Indus Valley Desert

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Indus Valley Desert

The Indus Valley Desert is an almost uninhabited desert ecoregion of northern Pakistan.

Location and description

The Indus Valley desert covers an area of 19,500 square kilometers (7,500 square miles) in northwestern Punjab Province between the Chenab and Indus rivers. The Indus Valley Desert is drier and less hospitable than the Northwestern thorn scrub forests that surround it with temperatures ranging from freezing in winter to extremely hot (more than 45)in summer with only 600-800mm of rainfall per year. [1]

Flora
The desert vegatation is quite varied due to the variety of temperatures with Prosopis shrubs being the characteristic species.

Fauna
The desert is home to four large mammals: Wolf, hyena, caracal, leopard and the Urial (Ovis orientalis punjabensis) along with many rodents and other mammals. Meanwhile the 190 species of bird in the desert include the Red-necked Falcon.

Threats and preservation

Like the nearby Thar Desert the Indus Valley desert has little farming or grazing due to its hard climate and therefore the natural habitats are almost intact. However hunting still goes on and is a threat to caracals, wolves and other mammals.

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ im/ im1302_full. html

Indus Valley Desert (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/ im1302_full.html)

Kaokoveld

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Kaokoveld
The Kaokoveld Desert is a coastal desert of northern Namibia and southern Angola.

Setting
The Kaokoveld Desert occupies a coastal strip covering 45,700 square kilometers (17,600 square miles), and is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Namibian savanna woodlands to the east, and the Namib Desert to the south. It includes the Mossamedes Desert of southern Angola. It receives most of its rainfall during the summer, which distinguishes it from the adjacent Namib Desert immediately to the south, which receives most of its rain during the winter.

External links
Kaokoveld desert (National Geographic) [1] Kaokoveld desert (WWF) [2] Kaokoveld Minerals (Erongominerals.com) [3]

References
[1] http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1310. html [2] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1310_full. html [3] http:/ / www. erongominerals. com/ kaokoland. html

Kazakh semi-desert
The Kazakh semi-desert is an ecoregion in the Deserts and xeric shrublands Biome, located in Kazakhstan.

Setting
The Kazakh semi-desert is an ecotone between the Kazakh steppe to the north and the Central Asian northern desert to the south, running in a band across central Kazakhstan. The climate here is semi-arid and highly continental. Precipitation averages between 160millimetres (6.3in) and 240millimetres (9.4in) annually. Mean temperatures in January range from 13 C (8.6F) and 16 C (3.2F), while July means are between 21 C (70F) and 24 C (75F). Annual average temperatures are around 10 C (50F). The region's topography consists of vast, flat plains and salt flats broken by dissected plateaus (known locally as "melkosopochniki").

Flora
As a transition between steppes and deserts of Central Asia, this ecoregion supports flora found in both biomes. Grasses, more dominant in the north, include various Stipa species (S. lessingiana, S. sareptana, S. kirghisorum and the endemic S. richterana) and tipchak (Festuca valesiaca). To the south, shrubs come to dominate, mainly Artemisia species (A. lerchena and A. lessingiana, A. gracilescens, A. sublessingiana, A. terrae albae semiarida and A. sublessingiana). Vegetation on the saline plains consists of Artemisia pauciflora, A. schrenkiana, A. nitrosa, Atriplex cana, Anabasis salsa, and Camphorosma monspeliaca.

Kazakh semi-desert

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Fauna
Mammals in the ecoregion include the critically endangered saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), Karaganda argali (Ovis ammon collium), goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutterosa), Pallas's Cat (Otocolobus manul), gray wolf (Canis lupus), European Badger (Meles meles) and marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna). Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) is native to the ecoregion, but has not been seen in it since 1968. Avian species include the Common Crane (Grus grus), Demoiselle Crane (Anthropoides virgo), red-headed bunting (Emberiza bruniceps), larks (Alaudidae), wheatears (Oenanthe), pipits (Anthus spp.), Black-bellied Sandgrouse (Pterocles orientalis), Pallass Sandgrouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus), Steppe Eagle (Aquila rapax), Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) and the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug).

Conservation status and threats

Agriculture, overgrazing, and fragmentation of habitat from human encroachment are the main threats to this ecoregion's integrity, and it's conservation status is listed as "Critical/Endangered". However, recent and dramatic reductions in the number of livestock in Kazakhstan have resulted in large areas having a greater chance for rehabilitation. No areas in this ecoregion are strictly protected, and some refuges do not adequately preserve local ecosystems.

References
World Wildlife Fund: Kazakh semi-desert Ecoregion [1] National Geographic: Kazakh semi-desert [2]
Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Afghan Mountains semi-desert Alashan Plateau semi-desert Afghanistan China, Mongolia

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Egypt, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Atlantic coastal desert Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe Badkhiz-Karabil semi-desert Baluchistan xeric woodlands Caspian lowland desert Central Afghan Mountains xeric woodlands Central Asian northern desert Central Asian riparian woodlands Central Asian southern desert Central Persian desert basins Eastern Gobi desert steppe Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe Great Lakes Basin desert steppe Junggar Basin semi-desert Kazakh semi-desert Kopet Dag semi-desert Mauritania, Western Sahara Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran Afghanistan, Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Pakistan Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan Afghanistan Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Iran China, Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia, Russia China, Mongolia Kazakhstan Iran, Turkmenistan

Kazakh semi-desert

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Iraq, Jordan, Syria Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara Afghanistan Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates China Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan Iran, Iraq, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan China Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger

Mesopotamian shrub desert North Saharan steppe and woodlands Paropamisus xeric woodlands Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert Qaidam Basin semi-desert Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert Rigestan-North Pakistan sandy desert Sahara desert South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert South Saharan steppe and woodlands Taklimakan desert Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands West Saharan montane xeric woodlands

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1318_full. html [2] http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1318. html

List of flora of the LCRV (birdwatching)

This is a List of flora of the Lower Colorado River Valley (birdwatching). See also: Images of Flora of the Lower Colorado River Valley There are various types of plant communities and habitats for flora categories. For example: for water birds the riparian habitat of the Colorado River, creeks, and desert oasis.

Alphabetical lists
Acacia spp. Acacia greggii, Catclaw acacia Arundo donax, Giant Reed Atriplex, Saltbush(Desert Saltbush)(Atriplex polycarpa) Baccharis(Baccharis Salicifolia), Seepwillow Chenopodium, Goosefoots Cirsium, Thistles Cynodon spp.

Cynodon dactylon, Bermuda grass Cyperus, Flatsedges Erodium cicutarium, Filaree Encelia spp. Encelia farinosa, Brittlebush Larrea tridentata, Creosote bush Lemnaceae, Duckweed Nicotiana glauca, Tree tobacco

List of flora of the LCRV (birdwatching) Olneya tesota, Desert Ironwood Phalaris (grass), Canary grasses Phragmites, Common Reed see also Reed (plant) Polygonum, Smartweed (Buckwheat) Potamogeton

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Lists by category
Acacia spp. Acacia greggii Lemnaceae Nicotiana glauca Olneya tesota Larrea tridentata Scirpus California bulrush Three-square bulrush

Arundo donax Atriplex Baccharis

Athel Tamarisk Saltcedar Typha spp. Typha latifolia

Chenopodium Cynodon Encelia farinosa

Phalaris (grass) Phragmites 'Populus fremontii (Cottonwood tree) Potamogeton Prosopis Honey Mesquite Screwbean Mesquite

Erodium cicutarium-Filaree

List of North American Deserts

The North American Deserts includes all the deserts located on the continent. It is also the term for a large U.S. Level 1 ecoregion (EPA)[1] of the North American Cordillera, in the Deserts and xeric shrublands biome (WWF). The continent's deserts are largely between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Madre Oriental on the east, and the rain shadow creating Sierra Nevada, Transverse, and Peninsular Ranges on the west. The North American xeric region of over 95751sqmi ( km2) includes: 3 major deserts; numerous smaller deserts; and large non-desert arid regions; in the western United States and in northeast, central, and northwest Mexico.

Deserts of North America

Major deserts
Chihuahuan Desert - (Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona) (140000square miles ( km2)) Mojave Desert - (California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona) (22000square miles (57000 km2)) Sonoran Desert - (Mexico, Arizona, California) (120000square miles ( km2))

Smaller deserts
Alvord Desert - (Great Basin) (84square miles (220km2)) Amargosa Desert - (MojaveGreat Basin) (600square miles (1600km2)) Baja California Desert Black Rock Desert - (Great Basin) (1000square miles (2600km2)) Black Rock Pocket (>12950acres (5240ha))[2]

List of North American Deserts Bruneau Desert Carson Desert - (Great Basin) [3] (300square miles (780km2)) Colorado Desert - (Sonoran) Diamond A Desert (>203square miles (530km2))[4] El Vizcano Desert Escalante Desert - (Great Basin) (3270square miles (8500km2)) Forty Mile Desert - (Great Basin) Great Basin Desert - (Great Basin) Gran Desierto de Altar - (Sonoran) Great Salt Lake Desert - (Great Basin) (4000square miles (10000km2)) Great Sandy Desert - (Great Basin) (24000square miles (62000 km2)) J-P Desert Lechuguilla Desert - (Sonoran) Owyhee Desert - (Great Basin) (14000square miles (36000 km2)) Ralston Desert Red Desert San Emidio Desert[5] (305square miles (790km2)) Seventy One Desert (>42211square miles ( km2))[6] Sevier Desert - (Great Basin) Smoke Creek Desert - (Great Basin) (980square miles (2500km2))[7] Tamaulipan mezquital Ten Mile Desert Tule Desert (Arizona) - (Sonoran) Tule Desert (Nevada) - (MojaveGreat Basin) (412square miles (1070km2))[8] Twenty-Six-Mile Desert Yp Desert - (Great Basin) Yuha Desert - (Sonoran) Yuma Desert - (Sonoran)

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Western arid regions of North America

The separately defined western arid regions of North America are continental regions of aridity based on available water in addition to rain shadow diminished rainfall [9] and which have many non-desert shrub-steppe (EPA) and xeric shrublands (WWF) in addition to desert ecosystems and ecoregions. This large arid region of 190000 sqmi ( km2) includes: deserts, such as the Great Basin Desert and Sonoran Desert; and the non-desert arid region areas (with greater than 10 inches annual precipitation) in the Great Basin arid region, Colorado Plateau, Mexican Plateau, and others. This arid region extends from the top of the North American Desert in Washington and Idaho southward into Mexico in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The 'western arid region' is east of and (except for Mojave sky islands) discontiguous from the Mojave Desert, [10] unlike the southwestern Great Basin deserts adjacent with ecotones to the northern Mojave Desert.

List of North American Deserts

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References
[1] epa.gov: Level 1 Ecoregions (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ wed/ pages/ ecoregions/ na_eco. htm#Level I) [2] (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ pacific/ bulltrout/ PCH_04/ Jarbidge Olympic StMary Puget/ BT_DEA_Jarbidge Piget St Mary. pdf) [3] "Query Form For The United States And Its Territories" (http:/ / geonames. usgs. gov/ pls/ gnispublic). U.S. Board on Geographic Names. . Retrieved 2010-05-18.; "Carson Desert (856208)" (http:/ / geonames. usgs. gov/ pls/ gnispublic/ f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:856208). Geographic Names Information System, U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2010-05-18. [4] (http:/ / www. regulations. gov/ search/ Regs/ contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803f003a& disposition=attachment& contentType=msw8) [5] (http:/ / www. renolocals. com/ evanoff/ feb-07. php) [6] (http:/ / www. fws. gov/ pacific/ bulltrout/ PCH_04/ Jarbidge Olympic StMary Puget/ BT_DEA_Jarbidge Piget St Mary. pdf) [7] (http:/ / water. nv. gov/ WaterPlanning/ cty-bsn/ wa_basin. cfm) [8] (http:/ / water. usgs. gov/ GIS/ huc_name. html) [9] (1953 Meigs criteria) [10] "The World's Largest Desert" (http:/ / geology. com/ records/ largest-desert. shtml). Geology and Earth Science. geology.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-25.

Madagascar spiny thickets

The Madagascar spiny thickets (also known as the Madagascar spiny forests) is an ecoregion in Madagascar. The vegetation type is found on poor substrates with low, erratic winter rainfall. An estimated 14,000 to 17000square miles (44000 km2) is covered with this habitat, all in the southwest of the country. The ecoregion contains an outstanding proportion of endemic plant species.

Spiny forest at Ifaty, featuring various Adansonia (baobab) species, Alluaudia procera (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation

Madagascar spiny thickets

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Plant diversity
Many constituent plants show extreme adaptations to drought. Spiny plants of the endemic family Didiereaceae form a conspicuous component, especially towards the east. They are woody but distantly related to the Cacti (See Caryophyllales). The remaining component of the thickets is dominated by members of the Burseraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Anacardiaceae and Fabaceae families of plants, all which have representatives elsewhere.

Conservation
Existing reserves protect a maximum of 3% of remaining vegetation. The Andohahela National Park offers limited protection through its 'parcel 3' section. Elsewhere the spiny thicket habitat is under pressure from human exploitation. The main impacting activities are: Burning for conversion to grazing land Harvesting for charcoal and firewood Logging for construction[1]
Approximate extent of the spiny thickets of Toliara Province, Madagascar.

Gallery

The Madagascar octotillo, Alluaudia procera, named after the unrelated Ocotillo

The Bottle tree, Moringa drouhardii, found mainly in the spiny thickets

A Fat-tailed Dwarf Lemur of the spiny thickets and succulent woodlands

Verreaux's Sifaka, a lemur species occurring, in part, in the spiny thickets

A Ring-tailed Lemur in Berenty Reserve, set in the spiny thickets ecoregion

Grandidier's Mongoose, a range-restricted carnivore of the spiny thickets

The Chirping giant pill millipede sp., S. musicus, a spiny thickets endemic

The Subdesert Mesite, endemic to the spiny thickets

Madagascar spiny thickets

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References and external links

[1] Crowley, Helen. "Madagascar spiny thickets (AT1311), WWF Full report" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1311_full. html). . Retrieved 4 February 2011.

For extent, fragmentation and intact sections, see: A refined classification of the primary vegetation of Madagascar based on the underlying geology, Du Puy and Moat, 1996. For dominant plant families, see: Structure and floristic composition of the vegetation in the Rserve Naturelle Intgrale dAndohahela, Madagascar, Rakotomalaza and Messmer, 1999. Madagascar spiny thickets (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/ terrestrial/at/at1311_full.html) Madagascar spiny thickets (Encyclopedia of the Earth) (http://www.eoearth.org/article/ Madagascar_spiny_thickets?topic=49597)

Matorral
Matorral is a Spanish word for shrubland, thicket or bushes.[1] Matorral originally referred to the Matorral shrublands of Spain's Mediterranean climate regions, but the term followed Spanish settlement of the Americas, and is used to refer to both Mediterranean-climate[2] and xeric shrublands in Mexico[3] , Chile[2] , and elsewhere. Mediterranean shrublands are often part of a mosaic landscape, interspersed with forests, woodlands, grassland, and scrublands.[4] [5] In Portugal, the term mato or matagal is used to refer to the scrublands, or heaths, that formed on the Cambrian and Silurian schists in the north and central parts of Portugal. The term was imported to the New World, where it was used to refer to the great scrublands, Mato Grosso, of western Brazil.

Examples
There are mattoral areas in central Chile including portions of La Campana National Park.

Notes
[1] Velazquez, Mariano (comp.) (1973) "Matorral" A New Pronoucing Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages (rev. ed.) Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 431 [2] Jimnez, Hctor E. and Armesto, Juan J. (December 1992) "Importance of the Soil Seed Bank of Disturbed Sites in Chilean Matorral in Early Secondary Succession" Journal of Vegetation Science 3(5): pp. 579-586, p. 579 [3] Camargo-Ricalde, Sara Luca; Dhillion, Shivcharn S. and Grether, Rosaura (October 2002) "Community Structure of Endemic Mimosa Species and Environmental Heterogeneity in a Semi-Arid Mexican Valley"Journal of Vegetation Science 13(5): pp. 697-704 [4] Arroyo, J. and Maranon, T. (March 1990) "Community Ecology and Distributional Spectra of Mediterranean Shrublands and Heathlands in Southern Spain" Journal of Biogeography 17(2): pp. 163-176 [5] Lavorel, Sandra (1999) "Ecological Diversity and Resilience of Mediterranean Vegetation to Disturbance" Diversity and Distributions 5(1/2): pp. 3-13

Mojave Desert

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Mojave Desert
Mojave Desert (Hayikwiir Mat'aar [1] in Mojave)
Desert Country States Part of Borders on United States California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona North American Desert ecoregion Great Basin Desert (north) Sonoran Desert (south) Colorado Plateau (east) Colorado Desert (south) Mojave River 350.5N 11528.5W
[2]

River Coordinates

Lowest point Badwater Basin 282ft (86.0m)) -location -coordinates Area Biome Geology For public Death Valley
[3]

3651N 11717W 25000 sq mi (64750 km) Desert Basin and Range Province Mojave National Preserve, National Parks (Death Valley, Joshua Tree, Zion, and Grand Canyon)

Alternate Mojave depiction with Sonoran Desert

The Mojave Desert ( /mohvi/ or /mhvi/; High Desert) occupies a significant portion of southeastern California and smaller parts of central California, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah and northwestern Arizona, in the United States. Named after the Mohave tribe of Native Americans, it displays typical basin and range topography. The Mojave Desert's boundaries are generally defined by the presence of Yucca brevifolia (Joshua trees); considered an indicator species for this desert. The topographical boundaries include the Tehachapi together with the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountain ranges. The mountain boundaries are quite distinct since they are outlined by the two largest faults in California: the San Andreas and the Garlock. The Great Basin shrub steppe lies to the north; the warmer Sonoran Desert (the Low Desert) lies to the south and east. The desert is believed to support between 1,750 and 2,000 species of plants.[4]

Mojave Desert While most of the Mojave desert is sparsely populated, there are several large cities there. The largest is Las Vegas, while other large cities include Lancaster, California and Victorville, California.

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Climate
The Mojave Desert receives less than 13in (330mm) of rain a year and is generally between 2000 and 5000 feet (610 and 1500 m) in elevation. The Mojave Desert also contains the Mojave National Preserve, as well as the lowest and hottest place in North America: Death Valley, where the temperature normally surpasses 120F (49C) in late July and early August. Zion National Park, in Utah, lies at the junction of the Mojave, the Great Basin Desert, and the Colorado Plateau. Despite its aridity, the Mojave (and particularly the Antelope Valley in its southwest) has long been a center of alfalfa production, fed by irrigation coming from groundwater and (in the 20th century) from the California Aqueduct. The Mojave is a desert of temperature extremes and four distinct seasons. Winter months bring temperatures dipping to below 20 F (7C) on valley floors, and below 0 F (18C) at higher elevations. Mojave Desert scene in Joshua Tree National Storms moving from the Pacific Northwest can bring rain and snow Park across the region more often, the rain shadow created by the Sierra Nevada as well as mountain ranges within the desert such as the Spring Mountains bring only clouds and wind. In longer periods between storm systems, winter temperatures in valleys can approach 80 F (27C). Spring weather continues to be influenced by Pacific storms, but rainfall is more widespread and occurs less frequently after April. By early June, it is rare for another Pacific storm to have a significant impact on the region's weather, and temperatures after mid-May are normally above 90 F (32C) and frequently above 100 F (38C). Summer weather is dominated by heat temperatures on valley floors can soar above 120 F (49C) and above 130 F (54C) at the lowest elevations and the presence of the North American monsoon. Low humidity, high temperatures and low pressure draw in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico, creating thunderstorms across the desert southwest. While the Mojave does not get nearly the amount of rainfall that the Sonoran desert to the east receives, monsoonal moisture will create thunderstorms as far west as California's Central Valley from mid-June through early September. Autumns are generally pleasant, with one to two Pacific storm systems creating regional rain events. October is one of the driest and sunniest months in the Mojave, and temperatures usually remain between 70 F (21C) and 90 F (32C) on the valley floors. After temperature, wind is the most significant weather phenomenon in the Mojave. Across the region, windy days are common, and in areas near the transition between the Mojave and the California low valleys, including near Cajon Pass, Soledad Canyon and the Tehachapi areas. During the June Gloom, cooler air can be pushed out into the desert from Southern California; in Santa Ana wind events, hot air from the desert blows out into the Los Angeles basin and other coastal areas. Wind farms in these areas generate power from these winds.
Sand blowing off a crest in the Kelso Dunes of the Mojave Desert

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The other major weather factor in the region is elevation. The highest peak within the Mojave is Charleston Peak at 11918feet (3633m),[5] while the Badwater Basin in Death Valley is 282feet (86m) below sea level. Accordingly, temperatures and precipitation ranges wildly, in all seasons, across the region. The Mojave Desert has not historically supported a fire regime because of low fuel loads and connectivity. However, in the last few decades, invasive annual plants (e.g., Bromus spp., Schismus spp., Brassica spp.) have facilitated fire, which has significantly altered many areas of the desert. At higher elevations, fire regimes are regular but infrequent.

Church near Lancaster, California used as a filming location for Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill films, Vol. I & II (2003, 2004)

Geography
The Mojave Desert is defined by the mountain ranges creating its xeric conditions, and it also has numerous mountain ranges within it. They often create valleys, endorheic basins, salt pans, and seasonal saline lakes when precipitation is high enough. These mountain ranges and valleys are part of the Basin and Range province and the Great Basin, a geologic area of crustal thining which pulls open valleys over millions of years. Most of the valleys are internally drained, so all precipitation that falls within the valley does not eventually flow to the ocean. Some of the Mojave (toward the east, in and around the Colorado River/Virgin River Gorge) is within a different geographic domain, the Colorado Plateau. This area is known for its incised canyons, high mesas and plateaus, and flat strata, a unique geographic locality found

An ephemeral lake in Badwater Basin, Death Valley National Park

nowhere else on earth.

Cities and regions

While the Mojave Desert itself is sparsely populated, it has increasingly become urbanized in recent years. Las Vegas, Nevada is the largest city in the Mojave, with a metropolitan population of around 1.9 million in 2006. Lancaster is the largest California city in the desert, and over 850,000 people live in areas of the Mojave attached to the Greater Los Angeles metropolitan area, including Palmdale and Lancaster (referred to as the Antelope Valley); and Victorville, Apple Valley and Hesperia (referred to as the Victor A typical Mojave desert valley and city: Indian Valley) attached to the Inland Empire metropolitan area, the 14th Wells Valley and Ridgecrest, California largest in the nation. Smaller cities in the Mojave include St. George; Lake Havasu City; Kingman; Laughlin; Bullhead City; and Pahrump. All have experienced rapid population growth since 1990.

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Towns with fewer than 30,000 people in the Mojave include Barstow, California; Rosamond, California; Needles, California; Nipton, California; Ridgecrest, California; Mesquite, Nevada; Hurricane, Utah; Moapa Valley, Nevada; California City, California; Twentynine Palms, California; Joshua Tree, California; Pioneertown, California; Lone Pine, California; Boron, California and Mojave, California. The California portion of the desert also contains Edwards Air Force Base, noted for experimental aviation projects, and the largest Marine Corps base in the world at Twentynine Palms. Mojave airport is also home to a long term storage facility for large airplanes due to extremely dry non-corrosive weather conditions and a hard ground ideal for parking aircraft.

Where the San Bernardino Mountains meet the Mojave Desert

The Mojave Desert contains a number of ghost towns, the most significant of these being the gold-mining town of Oatman, Arizona, the silver-mining town of Calico, California, and the old railroad depot of Kelso. Some of the other ghost towns are of the more modern variety, created when U.S. Route 66 (and the lesser-known US Highway 91) were abandoned in favor of the Interstates. The Mojave Desert is crossed by major highways Interstate 15, Interstate 40, Highway 58, US Highway 395 and US Highway 95. Other than the Colorado River on the eastern half of the Mojave, few long streams cross the desert. The Mojave River is an important source of water for the southern parts of the desert. The Amargosa River flows from the Great Basin Desert south to near Beatty, Nevada, then underground through Ash Meadows before returning to the surface near Shoshone, California and ending in Death Valley. The Mojave Desert is also home to the Devils Playground, about 40miles (64km) of dunes and salt flats going in a northwest-southeasterly direction. The Devils Playground is a part of the Mojave National Preserve and is located between the town of Baker, California and Providence Mountains. The Cronese Mountains are found within the Devils Playground.

Parks and tourism

The Mojave Desert is one of the most popular tourism spots in North America, primarily because of the gambling destination of Las Vegas, Nevada. The Mojave is also known for its scenic beauty, with three national parks Death Valley National Park, Joshua Tree National Park, and the Mojave National Preserve. Lakes Mead, Mohave, and Havasu provide water sports recreation, and vast off-road areas entice off-road enthusiasts. Hoover Dam is a popular tourist destination. Visitors get a chance to see the structure, the hydroelectric power plant, and hear the history of the dam's construction during the Great Depression.[6]

Besides the major national parks there are other areas of identified significance and tourist interest in the desert such as the Big Morongo Canyon Preserve, which spans the Mojave and Colorado Desert, and the Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area, 17miles (27km) west of Las Vegas, both of which are managed by the Bureau of Land Management.

Lake Mead provides much needed water for cities in Arizona, California, and Nevada

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Among the more popular and unique tourist attractions in the Mojave is the self described world's tallest thermometer at 134feet (41m) high, which is located along Interstate 15 in Baker, California. The newly-renovated Kelso Depot is the Visitor Center for the Mojave National Preserve. Nearby the massive Kelso Dunes are a popular recreation spot. Nipton, California, located on the northern entrance to the Mojave National Preserve, is a restored ghost town founded in 1885. Several attractions and natural features are located in the Calico Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area Mountains. Calico Ghost Town, in Yermo, is administered by San Bernardino County. The ghost town has several shops and attractions, and inspired Walter Knott to build Knott's Berry Farm. The BLM also administers Rainbow Basin and Owl Canyon, two "off-the-beaten-path" scenic attractions together north of Barstow in the Calicos. The Calico Early Man Site, in the Calico Hills east of Yermo, is believed by some archaeologists, including the late Louis Leakey, to show the earliest evidence with lithic stone tools found here of human activity in North America. The Calico Peaks scenically rise above all the destinations. A tour of the Mojave Desert inspired American songwriter Carrie Jacobs-Bond to compose the parlor song "A Perfect Day" in 1909.[7]

Museums
Antelope Valley Indian Museum State Historic Park Amargosa Opera House and Hotel Barstow Route 66 "Mother Road" Museum [8] California Route 66 Museum Desert Discovery Center Harvey House Railroad Depot Kelso Depot, Restaurant and Employees Hotel Maturango Museum Mojave River Valley Museum [9]

Maturango Museum, in Ridgecrest

Western America Railroad Museum

Parks and protected areas

Main: Category: Protected areas of the Mojave Desert Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve Arthur B. Ripley Desert Woodland State Park Death Valley National Park Joshua Tree National Park Mojave National Preserve Providence Mountains State Recreation Area Red Rock Canyon State Park Saddleback Butte State Park

Skull Rock, a rock formation in Joshua Tree NP

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Native Mojave plants and animals

Cholla cactus in bloom at night

Plants
Abies concolor Astragalus newberryi Barrel Cactus Banana yucca Beaver Tail Prickly Pear California Fan Palm Camissonia campestris Mojave suncup Cooper dyssodia Death Valley monkeyflower Desert candle Desert five-spot Desert larkspur Desert Lily Desert rock pea Desert star Erigeron concinnus Ipomopsis arizonica Joshua Tree[10] Jumping Cholla Larrea tridentata Linanthus demissus Lupinus arizonicus Mojave prickly poppy Mojave sage[11] Mojave yucca[11] Mormon Tea Pencil Cholla Phacelia calthifolia Phacelia crenulata Pinus monophylla Prairie clover Senna covesii Teddy-bear Cholla[11]

Warm Springs Natural Area is a natural oasis about 50 miles northeast of Las Vegas

Mojave Desert Utah Juniper Western poison oak[12] White woolly daisy Wide-bannered lupine

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Animals
See also: Category: Fauna of the Mojave Desert Burrowing Owl California Kingsnake Chuckwalla Common Side-blotched Lizard Long-tailed Brush Lizard Cottontail rabbit Cougar Coyote Desert Bighorn Sheep Desert Chipmunk Desert Horned Lizard Desert Iguana Desert kit fox Desert night lizard Desert tortoise Elf Owl Fringe-toed lizard Gila Monster Glossy Snake Gopher Snake Great Basin Collared Lizard Hummingbird Jackrabbit Kangaroo Rat Long-nosed Leopard Lizard Mojave Green Rattlesnake Mojave ground squirrel Mohave tui chub - an endangered fish Mule Deer Pronghorn Red-spotted Toad Red-tailed Hawk Rosy boa Tarantula Western Diamondback Rattlesnake Zebra-tailed lizard

Animals live among the various formations and canyons in the Mojave. Virgin River Gorge, Arizona

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West Mojave Plan litigation

The U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages public lands in the Mojave Desert as part of its "crown jewels of the American West" National Landscape Conservation System. It has designated numerous large off-road vehicle open use areas on public lands in the western Mojave Desert, including El Mirage, Jawbone Canyon, Rasor, Spangler Hills, Stoddard Valley, Dove Spring Canyon, Dumont Dunes, and the world's largest open off-road vehicle use area, Johnson Valley. Open areas designated for unrestricted vehicle travel in the western Mojave Desert total 363480acres (1471.0km2). Several additional open areas dedicated to unrestricted vehicle travel on public lands have been designated in the northern and eastern Colorado (NECO) Desert. In 2002, BLM designated all washes in the southeastern third of the NECO planning area as also open to unrestricted vehicle travel. This was followed in 2003 by BLM expanding the off-road vehicle network in the western Mojave Desert to enhance off-road vehicle recreation opportunity. In 2004, relative to the case of Center for Biological Diversity, et al., Plaintiffs, v. Bureau of Land Management, et al., Defendants; the United States District court enjoined "all off-road vehicle use in the washes of the NECO Desert planning area pending issuance of a new biological opinion."[13] :a. A new biological opinion was subsequently issued and BLM's open wash designation in the NECO planning area was reinstated. In 2006, several environmental groups protested an additional route network expansion designated under the West Mojave Desert (WEMO) plan. In 2009, U.S. District Judge Susan Illston ruled against the BLM's proposed designation of additional off-road vehicle use allowance in the western Mojave Desert. According to the ruling, the BLM violated its own regulations[14] when it designated approximately 5000miles (8000km) of off-roading routes in 2006.[15] According to Judge Ilston, the BLM's designation was significantly "flawed because it does not contain a reasonable range of alternatives" to limit damage to sensitive habitat.[16] Judge Illston found that the bureau had inadequately analyzed the routes' impacts on air quality, soils, plant communities, riparian habitats, and sensitive species such as the endangered Mojave fringe-toed lizard, pointing out that the desert and its resources are "extremely fragile, easily scarred, and slowly healed."[16] The court also found that the BLM failed to follow route designation procedures established in the agencys own California Desert Conservation Area Plan, which allowed visitors to create hundreds of illegal OHV routes during the past three decades. The plan normally requires the BLM to consider the impacts to private property, non-motorized recreation opportunity, and natural resources before establishing off road areas.[14] The adopted West Mojave plan amendment was found to have violated the BLM's own manual of regulations, the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA) and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA).[15] The ruling was considered a success for a coalition of conservation groups, including the California Native Plant Society [17], Friends of Juniper Flats, the Alliance for Responsible Recreation, Community Off Road Vehicle Watch [18], The Center for Biological Diversity, Sierra Club, and The Wilderness Society, who together initiated the legal challenge in late 2006.[16] In 2011, Judge Illston ruled on a remedy request submitted by the ten involved environmental organizations. BLM in this ruling was directed to complete a revised WEMO route designation complying with all laws and regulations by March, 2014. The agency is also required per this ruling to place signs on all off-road vehicle routes which are legal to use, create a monitoring plan to determine if illegal vehicle use is occurring, and provide additional enforcement to prevent illegal use.[19]

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Munro, P., et al. A Mojave Dictionary Los Angeles: UCLA, 1992 Western Ecology Division (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ wed/ pages/ ecoregions/ na_eco. htm#Level I), US Environmental Protection Agency Lynch, David K.. "Land Below Sea Level" (http:/ / geology. com/ below-sea-level/ ). Geology.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-26. Mazzucchelli, Vincent G., "The Southern Limits of the Mohave Desert, California," The California Geographer, 1967, VIII: 127-133. This study provides original maps of the Mohave and adjacent deserts in the southwestern states. [5] Stark, Lloyd R.; Whittemore, Alan T.. "[[Bryophytes (http:/ / heritage. nv. gov/ mosses/ mojavems. htm)] From the Northern Mojave Desert"]. Bryophytes of Nevada On-line. State of Nevada. . Retrieved 2010-04-26. [6] "Hoover Dam" (http:/ / www. constructioncompany. com/ historic-construction-projects/ hoover-dam/ ). General Contractor Bob Moore Construction Company. . Retrieved 2010-04-26. [7] Reublein, Rick. "America's first great woman popular song composer" (http:/ / parlorsongs. com/ bios/ cjbond/ cjbond. php) site. [8] http:/ / www. route66museum. org/ [9] http:/ / mojaverivervalleymuseum. org/ [10] Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight (2000). North American Terrestrial Vegetation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-55986-3. [11] Annerino, John (1999). Canyoneering: How to Explore the Canyons of the Great Southwest. Stackpole Books. ISBN0-8117-2700-9. [12] Hogan, C. Michael (2008) "Western poison-oak: Toxicodendron diversilobum" (http:/ / globaltwitcher. auderis. se/ artspec_information. asp?thingid=82914), GlobalTwitcher, ed. Nicklas Strmberg [13] "Desert Lawsuit Settlement" (http:/ / www. blm. gov/ ca/ st/ en/ fo/ cdd/ lawsuit. html). California Desert District. Bureau of Land Management. April 27, 2007. . Retrieved 2010-01-12. a. "Order Re: Defendants' motion to alter or amend the judgment and plaintiffs' motion for injunctive relief" (http:/ / www. blm. gov/ pgdata/ etc/ medialib/ / blm/ ca/ pdf/ pdfs/ caso_pdfs. Par. ba8f28ba. File. pdf/ Ilston. ruling. 12. 30. 04. pdf) (PDF). United States District Court for the Northern District of California. December 20, 2004. . Retrieved 2010-01-12. [14] Mojaves Off-Highway Roads Found Illegal (http:/ / wilderness. org/ content/ road-routes-mojave-desert-found-illegal) [15] Judge rejects federal plan for SoCal desert routes (http:/ / www. sddt. com/ News/ article. cfm?SourceCode=20090930cg) [16] Judge rejects U.S. management plan for California desert (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ local/ la-me-mojave30-2009sep30,0,6696095. story), Los Angeles Times, 30 September 2009. [17] http:/ / www. cnps. org/ [18] http:/ / www. orvwatch. com/ [19] Danelski, David (31 January 2011). "Judge: Redo off-roading routes in Mojave Desert" (http:/ / www. pe. com/ localnews/ stories/ PE_News_Local_D_offroad01. 283e22a. html). Press-Enterprise. .

Further reading
Miller, D.M. and Amoroso, L. (2007). Preliminary surficial geology of the Dove Spring off-highway vehicle open area, Mojave Desert, California [U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1265]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Mojave Desert Wildflowers, Jon Mark Stewart, 1998, pg. iv

External links
Mojave Desert images (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/51308frame.htm) at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu Mojave Desert Blog (http://www.mojavedesertblog.com/) Mojave Desert Catalog Project (http://digital-desert.com/)

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Monte Desert
The Monte Desert is a South American desert, located within the country of Argentina. The desert lies southeast of the Atacama Desert in Chile, north of the larger Patagonian Desert, and east of the Andes.[1]

Geography and climate

The delineations between the Monte Desert, the Atacama Desert, and the Patagonian Desert are not exact and the desert seems to be more-or-less continuous with the other two nearby deserts. The geography of the land is very similar to that of the interior Patagonian Desert, with volcanic sediments, piedmont plains, and large mountain blocks, a lot of these the result of its proximity to the ancient And Due to the region lying on the eastern, or leeward, side of the Andes, it experiences very little rain. This rain shadow effect is the primary reason for the aridity of the region and for the formation of the Monte and the nearby deserts. Although a difference between this desert and the other two deserts is the lack of intensity of effect from the cold water currents off the South American coast for the Monte Desert. This allows the desert to support a wider variety of life than the other two more extreme deserts.[2]

Flora and fauna

The flora of the region is much more diverse than the nearby Patagonian Desert (which contains mainly shrubs and grasses) and the Atacama Desert (which is pretty much devoid of life). Shrubs and grasses are not only common, but tall cacti even appear in the more hospitable areas of the desert. The fauna of the area is also very similar to that of the Patagonian Desert, only in greater diversity and number due to the Monte's more hospitable conditions. Small mammals like mice abound and larger animals like the guanaco and burrowing owl can be found as well.

References
[1] http:/ / www. ege. fcen. uba. ar/ ecodes/ Proyectos/ Area/ Monte_eng. htm [2] Dawson, John; Lucas, Rob. The Nature Of Plants: Habitats, Challenges, and Adaptations (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oSl_snNdP1EC& pg=PA72& dq="monte+ desert"& ie=ISO-8859-1& sig=CbxwJPGhKYtHikNo6eeznLjR3Gg). 2005 Timber Press. ISBN 0881926752.

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Muggins Mountains Wilderness flora

This is a list of Muggins Mountains Wilderness flora. The Muggins Wilderness covers about 15-20 percent of the Muggins Mountains, (of southwest Arizona's, northwest Sonoran Desert), and is on the southwest of the triangular mountain region; the southwest mountain flank is block faulted and parallels the northwest-southeast Dome Valley and the northeast flank of the northeast end of the Gila Mountains (Yuma County), also northwest-southeast aligned. Three washes drain the wilderness area southwestwards, and there are two major interior mountain peaks, Muggins Peak, at 1424feet (434m), and Klothos Temple, at 1666feet (508m). The Muggins Mountains Wilderness is excessively arid, especially as summer progresses, and the wilderness is also a sun-drenched southwesterly facing region. This list is incomplete.

Perennials
Perennials: Common name
Anderson Thornbush Bebbia -- Chuckwalla's Delight Brittlebush Catclaw Acacia Desert Ironwood Desert Lavender Hairy milkweed Rush Milkweed Creosote bush [1] Desert fir, (named Peucephyllum, a monotypic genus of the Asteraceae, (daisy, aster, sunflower family))(a tree form resembling the creosote bush, in color, form, and height) Desert Globemallow Desert Holly also called Saltbush-(found with some Mesquite ssp-Muggins Wash) Desert Milkweed, Leafless Milkweed

Ocotillo Blue Palo Verde

Saguaro Scruffy Prairie Clover Smoketree (Psorothamnus) Smokethorn

White Ratany

Perennials: Genus-species-(binomials)
Acacia greggii Asclepias subulata Bebbia juncea "ReDir" Carnegiea gigantea Cercidium floridum Dalea albiflora Encelia farinosa Hyptis emoryi Krameria grayi Larrea tridentata Lycium andersonii Olneya tesota Peucephyllum schottii Psorothamnus spinosus Sarcostemma hirtellum Sphaeralcea ambigua

Atriplex hymenelytraSaltbush

"ReDir" Fouquieria splendens

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Annuals
Common name
Arizona Lupine Canyon Ragweed Chicura Rigid Spiny Herb Scorpionweed Desert trumpet Notch-leaved Phacelia Mojave Desert Star Narrow-leaved Popcorn Flower Rattlesnake Weed-No 1

California Fagonbush

Desert Sunflower Desert Tobacco

White-bract Stick Leaf White-bract Blazing Star

Fremont's pincushion

White tackstem

Genus-species
Ambrosia ambrosioides Calycoseris wrightii Chaenactis fremontii Chorizanthe rigida Cryptantha angustifolia "ReDir" Eriogonum spp Desert trumpet (Phacelia crenulata spp) Scorpionweed Fagonia laevis Geraea canescens Lupinus arizonicus Mentzelia involucrata Monoptilon bellioides Nicotiana obtusifolia

ReDir Euphorbia albomarginata

The 3 washes
Wash 2: Muggins Wash
The "saltbush", Atriplex hymenelytra, the Desert holly is found from the 1/2 to 7/8 point up Muggins Wash and side washes to the northeast-(because of the geology-). Mesquite is in the vicinity, but very less common. The main drainage of Muggins Wash which drains from the north-northwest contains areas of the Peucephyllum, the Desert fir. This occurs just north of the split to the major northeast drainage of Muggins Wash, which is to the east of Muggins Peak.

Wash 3: Morgan Wash

On ridges, the headwater sub, sub-washes between Muggins Wash to northwest, some special plants are known: Hairy Milkweed, the Sarcostemma hirtellum milkweed

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References
[1] Peucephyllum schottii, Sonoran Desert Plants, packrat middens, Whipple Mountains, 11,500 ybp; Picacho Peak, 11,000 ybp; p 315-317.

Turner, Bowers, & Burgess. Sonoran Desert Plants; an Ecological Atlas, Raymond M. Turner, Janice E. Bowers, Tony L. Burgess, c 1995, Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson. 504 pages. Warren, Scott S. Exploring Arizona's Wild Areas. Mountaineers Books, 1996, 2nd Ed 2002. (softcover, ISBN 978-0-89886774-9). Reference to the common plants -(a short list-(perennials))-(p 265): Muggins Mountains Wilderness: Seasons, Plants and Wildlife: "ocotillo, creosote bush, brittlebush, paloverde, 'Desert ironwood', 'Smoketree (Psorothamnus)';" p.265.

North Saharan steppe and woodlands

The North Saharan steppe and woodlands is a desert ecoregion, in the Deserts and xeric shrublands Biome, that forms the northern edge of the Sahara, adjacent to the Mediterranean Maghreb and Cyrenaica ecoregions of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Biome. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. The North Saharan steppe and woodlands covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,800 square miles) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.

Souss-Massa National Park in Morocco

References and external links

North Saharan steppe and woodlands (WWF Scientific Report) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1321_full. html

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Northwestern thorn scrub forest

The Northwestern thorn scrub forests are a xeric shrubland ecoregion of Pakistan and northwestern India, a region of extreme temperatures and a very climate that was once covered in deciduous forest.

Location and description

The ecoregion encircles the Thar Desert and Indus Valley Desert ecoregions. It stretches along the border lowlands and hills between India and Pakistan and includes: the western half of Gujarat (excluding the mountain of Girnar), and extending through Rajasthan, where it is bounded on the southeast by the Aravalli Range; most of Haryana and Punjab states of India as well as the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, extending to the foothills of the Himalayas; in Pakistan, most of Punjab province, extending into easternmost Northwest Frontier and Baluchistan provinces and western Sindh. This ecoregion, together with the Thar Desert and Indus Valley Desert ecoregions, form Miklos Udvardy's "Thar Desert" Biogeographic province.[1]

Flora
The Northwestern thorn scrub forests are thought to be tropical dry forests that have been degraded through intensive agriculture and grazing into stunted and open thorn scrub, dominated by species such as Acacia senegal and Acacia leucophloea, as well as Prosopis cineraria, Capparis zeylandica, and species of Salvadora, Gymnosporia, Grewia, and Gardenia. However the region also contains patches of semi-desert where the soil is particularly saline.[2] [3] The temperature is dork degrees!

Fauna
Despite the large scale forest clearance large mammals still have fun remain in the ecoregion including leopard and their prey such as chinkara (Gazella bennettii) and the threatened species chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra). The scrubland is also home to another large cat, the caracal, which preys on mice, birds, and reptiles. There are two endemic mammals, both bats: Triaenops persicus and the Small Mouse-tailed Bat (Rhinopoma muscatellum) There are more than 400 species of birds in the region including the endemics Rufous-vented Prinia (Prinia burnesii), the near-endemic White-winged Tit (Parus nuchalis) and the threatened Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and Lesser Florican (Eupodotis indica).

Threats and preservation

Over 90% of the ecoregion has been converted to human use, and the remaining habitat is highly fragmented. There are many protected areas but they are very small and unconnected and even these are liable to invasion for firewood collecting and clearance for planting. However the traditions of the Bishnoi community based in this region extend protection to some wildlife, especially the blackbuck and the tree Prosopis cinerea.

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ im/ im1303_full. html [2] Champion, H. G., and S. K. Seth. 1968. A revised survey of the forest types of India. Government of India Press [3] Puri, G.S., Gupta, R.K., and Meher-Homji, V.M.P.S. 1989. Forest Ecology Volume 2. New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH Publishing Company

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Nullarbor Plain
The Nullarbor Plain ( /nlrbr/ nul-r-bor; Latin: nullus, "no", and arbor, "tree") is part of the area of flat, almost treeless, arid or semi-arid country of southern Australia, located on the Great Australian Bight coast with the Great Victoria Desert to its north. It is the world's largest single piece of limestone, and occupies an area of about 200000square kilometres (77000 sqmi).[1] At its widest point, it stretches about 1100kilometres (684mi) from east to west between South Australia (SA) and Western Australia (WA).
NASA - Visible Earth, Nullarbor. The true Nullarbor is the light tan semi-circular area adjacent to the coast. Image acquired by the Terra (satellite) on August 19, 2002

History
Historically, the almost uninhabitable Nullarbor was used by the semi-nomadic Spinifex Wangai Aboriginal people.

European settlers were determined to cross the plain, despite the hardships created by the nature of the Nullarbor. Although Edward John Eyre described the Plain as "a hideous anomaly, a blot on the face of Nature, the sort of place one gets into in bad dreams", he became the first European to successfully make the crossing in 1841. Eyre set out from Fowlers Bay, South Australia on 17 November 1841 with John Baxter and a party of three Aboriginal men. When three of his horses died of dehydration, he was forced to return to Fowler's Bay. He departed with a second expedition on 25 February 1841. By 29 April, the party had reached Caiguna. Lack of supplies and water led to a mutiny, and two of the Aboriginal men killed Baxter and made off with the party's supplies. Eyre and the third Aboriginal man, Wylie, continued on their journey, surviving through bushcraft and some fortuitous circumstances, such as receiving some supplies from a French whaling vessel anchored at Rossiter. They completed their crossing in June 1841. On December 25, 1896, after an arduous journey of thirty-one days, Arthur Charles Jeston Richardson became the first cyclist to cross the Nullabor Plain, pedaling his bicycle from Coolgardie to Adelaide.[2] Carrying only a small kit and a water-bag, he followed the telegraph line as he crossed the Nullabor. He later described the heat as "1,000 degrees in the shade".[3] A proposed new state Auralia (meaning "land of gold") would have comprised the Goldfields, the western portion of the Nullarbor Plain and the port town of Esperance. Its capital would have been Kalgoorlie. The Wangai Aboriginal people were forced to abandon their homelands during the British nuclear tests at Maralinga in the 1950s. Since then they have been awarded compensation and many have returned to the general area. In fact, many never left. Due to their isolation it was impossible to warn them all about the testing.

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Cultural significance
'Crossing the Nullarbor', for many Australians, is a quintessential experience of the 'Australian Outback'. Stickers bought from roadhouses on the highway show 'I have crossed the Nullarbor', and can be seen on vehicles of varying quality or capacity for long distance travel. The process of 'beating the crowds' on overbooked air services at the time of special sporting events can also see significant numbers of vehicles on the road. Crossings in the 1950s and earlier were significant as most of the road back then was unmade dirt track. Round-Australia car trials (The Redex Trials) used the Nullarbor crossing for good photo shoots of cars negotiating poor track.

Road sign

Geography
The Nullarbor Plain is a former shallow seabed, as indicated by the presence of bryozoans, foraminifera, echinoids and red algae calcareous skeletal that make up the limestone.[4] The region is also the location of Nullarbor limestone and it has a reputation as a significant karst region with Oligocene and Miocene cave formations.[5] [4] The sequence within the limestone includes five formations: the upper formation is the Nullarbor Limestone which is early middle Miocene in age; the Mullamullang member of this formation is a paraconforming member, being separated by 5 million years;[4]
Escarpment near Eucla

the third member is the Abrakurrie Limestone that was formed in a central depression of the earlier formation; this is late Oligocene to Early Miocene in age and does not reach the edge of the plain;[4] the last two formations are conforming formations; the late Eocene Toolinna Limestone lies on the Wilsons Bluff Limestone which is mid to late Eocene in age; and the Toolinna Limestone does not cover the whole Nullarbor and is extant only in the extreme east beside the Abrakurrie formation which lies in a depression. One theory is that the whole area was uplifted by crustal movements in the Miocene, and since then, erosion by wind and rain has reduced its thickness. The plain has most likely never had any major defining topographic features, resulting in the extremely flat terrain across the plain today.[4] In areas, the southern ocean blows through many subterranean caves, resulting in blowholes up to several hundred metres from the coast. The Murrawijinie Caves in South Australia are open to the public, but most of the Nullarbor Caves can only be visited and viewed with a permit from the Department of Environment and Conservation.

Famous shoe tossing tree in the middle of the desert

The Nullarbor is known for extensive meteorite deposits, which are extremely well preserved in the arid climate. In particular, many meteorites have been discovered around Mundrabilla, some up to several tonnes in weight.[6]

Nullarbor Plain According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Nullarbor's soils are considered to be mainly aridisols (see Image:Global soil regions.jpg). The prevailing climate across the Nullarbor is typical of a desert, characterised by arid to semi-arid conditions, with maximum daytime temperatures of up to 48.5 C (119.3F), although freezing conditions can occur at night. The mean annual rainfall at Cook is 179.7millimetres (7.07in).[7]

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Transport
The need for a communications link across the continent was the spur Rainbow over the Nullarbor Plain for the development of an east-west crossing. Once Eyre had proved that a link between South Australia and Western Australia was possible, efforts to connect them via telegraph began. In 1877, after two years of labour, the first messages were sent down the new telegraph line, boosted by a series of eight repeater stations along the way. The line operated for about 50 years before being superseded; relics of it are still visible. The Trans-Australian Railway railway line crosses the Nullarbor Plain from Kalgoorlie to Port Augusta. Construction of the line began in 1917, when two teams set out from Kalgoorlie in Western Australia and Port Augusta in South Australia, meeting in the centre of the Plain at Ooldea, an uninhabited area noted for a water supply. This original line suffered severe problems with track flexing and settling in the desert sands, and journeys across the Plain were slow and arduous. The line was entirely rebuilt in 1969, as part of a project to standardise the previously disparate rail gauges in the various states, and the first crossing of the Nullarbor on the new line reached Perth on 27 February 1970. The Indian Pacific is a regular passenger train crossing the Nullarbor from Perth to Sydney via Adelaide. The Eyre Highway, which connects Norseman in Western Australia to Port Augusta, was carved across the continent in 1941. At first it was little more than a rough track, but was gradually sealed over the next thirty years. The last unsealed section of the Eyre Highway was finally sealed in 1976.[8] Unlike the railway, though, it crosses the plain at its southernmost edge rather than through the centre. The railway line holds the record for the longest straight section of railway in the world (478km), while the road contains the longest straight piece of tarred road surface in Australia (146.6km).

The Nullarbor Plain viewed from the Indian

Pacific Most of the inhabited areas of the Nullarbor Plain can be found in a series of small settlements located along the railway line, and in small settlements along the Eyre Highway that provide services to travellers, mostly spaced between one and two hundred kilometres apart. The town of Cook, in South Australia, was formerly a moderately thriving settlement of about 40 people, with a school and a golf course. However, the scaling back of railway operations at the town resulted in its virtual desertion, and it now has a permanent population of just four. The Tea and Sugar Train operated until 1996 supplying provisions to the town along the railway line.

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Biogeography
Nullarbor is a biogeographic region under the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) [9] [10] and the Nullarbor Plains Xeric Shrubland ecoregion of the World Wildlife Fund.[11] Vegetation in the area is primarily low saltbush and bluebush scrub. A large part of the Nullarbor Plain is now a National Park. The fauna of the Nullarbor includes communities of crustaceans, spiders, and beetles adapted to the darkness of the Nullarbor Caves and the underground rivers and lakes that run through them. Mammals of the desert include the Southern Hairy-nosed Wombat which shelters from the hot sun by burrowing into the sands. The grasslands of the plain are suitable for some sheep grazing and are also damaged by rabbits.

The IBRA regions, with Nullarbor in red

Limits
Frequently The Nullarbor is expanded in tourist literature and web based material to loosely refer to all the land between Adelaide, South Australia and Perth, Western Australia.[12]

References
[1] "Across the Nullarbor Plain" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071010135423/ http:/ / wilderness. esmartweb. com/ Australia/ nullabor. html). Kevin's Wilderness Journeys. June 7, 2004. Archived from the original (http:/ / wilderness. esmartweb. com/ Australia/ nullabor. html) on October 10, 2007. . [2] Fitzpatrick, Jim, Richardson, Arthur Charles Jeston (1872 - 1939), Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 11, Melbourne University Press (1988), p. 379 [3] Fitzpatrick, p. 379 [4] John A. Webb & Julia M. James (2006). "Karst evolution of the Nullarbor Plain, Australia" (http:/ / www. latrobe. edu. au/ geosci/ Downloads/ pdfs/ John Webb_Jan 09/ Geomorphology/ Webb & James 2006. pdf). In Russell S. Harmon & Carol M. Wicks (PDF). Perspectives on Karst Geomorphology, Hydrology and Geochemistry - a Tribute Volume to Derek C. Ford and William B. White. Geological Society of America Special Paper 404. pp.6578. doi:10.1130/2006.2404(07). ISBN9780813724041. . [5] Stratigraphic Search - Full Results - Geoscience Australia (http:/ / dbforms. ga. gov. au/ pls/ www/ geodx. strat_units. sch_full?wher=stratno=25355) [6] The Meteoretical Bulletin, No. 77, 1994 November (http:/ / www. lpi. usra. edu/ meteor/ docs/ mb77. html) [7] (http:/ / www. bom. gov. au/ climate/ averages/ tables/ cw_018110. shtml) [8] "Road links to the East" (http:/ / www. slwa. wa. gov. au/ federation/ iss/ 078_road. htm). State Library of Western Australia. . Retrieved 2008-09-27. [9] Environment Australia. Revision of the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) and Development of Version 5.1 Summary Report (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060905215218/ http:/ / www. deh. gov. au/ parks/ nrs/ ibra/ version5-1/ summary-report/ index. html). Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Australian Government. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. deh. gov. au/ parks/ nrs/ ibra/ version5-1/ summary-report/ index. html) on 5 September 2006. . Retrieved 31 January 2007. [10] IBRA Version 6.1 (http:/ / www. deh. gov. au/ parks/ nrs/ ibra/ version6-1/ index. html) data [11] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ aa/ aa1306_full. html [12] A tourist map of the Nullarbor Plain Perth to Adelaide Scale 1:2,250,000 (E 11600 --E 13900/S 3000--S 3800) Unley, S. Aust. : Carto Graphics, ISBN 0-9579060-4-8

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Further reading
Bolam, A. G. (Anthony Gladstone), 18931966. The trans-Australian wonderland Melbourne : Modern Printing, (many editions in the early 20th century) Edmonds, Jack (1976) Nullarbor crossing : with panorama photographs by Brian Gordon. Perth. West Australian Newspapers, Periodicals Division. ISBN 0-909699-09-7

External links
Nullarbor Net (http://www.nullarbornet.com.au) Across The Nullarbor (http://www.travography.com/nullarbor/) Travel story by Roderick Eime Information about crossing the Nullarbor (http://www.mynrma.com.au/travel/holidays/ideas/wa/ across-the-nullarbor.htm) Eyre Bird Observatory (http://www.eyrebirds.org/observatories/eyre.htm) Climate charts (http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_018106.shtml) History of the rail crossing (http://www.gsr.com.au/apps/media/story.php?primKeyPost=12) Mundrabilla meteorite information (http://spaceresearch.nasa.gov/research_projects/meteorite.html) Nullarbor Plain xeric shrublands (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/ terrestrial/aa/aa1306_full.html) Caverns give up huge fossil haul (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6296029.stm) BBC News Online, 25 January 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2007 aerial video footage of the Nullarbor Plain (http://www.aerialvideo.com.au/nullabor.html) Photo Essay on Driving Australia's Nullarbor Plain (http://www.nicholsonprints.com/Essays/NullarborIntro. htm) Governmental Biodiversity Assessment of the Nullarbor Plain (http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/vegetation/ assessment/sa/ibra-nullarbor.html)

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Sahara
Sahara Desert ()
Desert

A satellite image of the Sahara by NASA World Wind Country

Algeria Chad Egypt Eritrea Libya Mali Mauritania Morocco Niger Sudan Tunisia Western Sahara

Highest point Emi Koussi 11204ft (3415m) -coordinates Lowest point -coordinates Length Width Area Biome 194736N 18336E Qattara Depression 436ft (132.9m) 3000N 2750E 4800 km (2983 mi), E/W 1800 km (1118 mi), N/S 9400000 km (3629360 sq mi) Desert

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The Sahara (Arabic: A ar al Kubr, English: The Great Desert) is the world's second largest desert, after Antarctica. At over 9400000square kilometres ( sqmi), it covers most of Northern Africa, making it almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara stretches from the Red Sea, including parts of the Mediterranean coasts, to the outskirts of the Atlantic Ocean. To the south, it is delimited by the Sahel, a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna that comprises the northern region of central and western Sub-Saharan Africa. Some of the sand dunes can reach 180metres (590ft) in height.[1] The name comes from the Arabic word for desert: (,) "ar" (; Arabic [2] [3] pronunciation:[sr]).

Tadrart Acacus desert in western Libya, part of the Sahara

Overview
The Sahara's boundaries are the Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Atlas Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea on the north, the Red Sea and Egypt on the east, and the Sudan and the valley of the Niger River on the south. The Sahara is divided into western Sahara, the central Ahaggar Mountains, the Tibesti Mountains, the Air Mountains (a region of desert mountains and high plateaus), Tnr desert and the Libyan desert (the most arid region). The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi (3415m/11204ft) in the Tibesti Mountains in northern Chad.

The Sahara is the largest desert on the African continent. The southern border of the Sahara is marked by a band of semiarid savanna called the Sahel; south of the Sahel lies the lusher Sudan and the Congo River Basin. Most of the Sahara consists of rocky hamada; ergs (large sand dunes) form only a minor part. People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago[4] since the last ice age. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles [5] survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here.

The top image shows the Safsaf Oasis on the surface of the Sahara. The bottom (using radar) is the rock layer underneath, revealing black channels cut by the meandering of an ancient river that once fed the oasis.

Sahara The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. The region has been this way since about 5,000 years ago. Dominant ethnicities in the Sahara are various Berber groups including Tuareg tribes, various Arabized Berber groups such as the Hassaniya-speaking Maure (Moors, also known as Sahrawis), including Toubou, Nubians, Zaghawa, Kanuri, Hausa, Songhai, and Fula/Fulani (French: Peul; Fula: Fule). Important cities located in the Sahara include Nouakchott, the capital of Mauritania; Tamanrasset, Ouargla, Bechar, Hassi Messaoud, Ghardaia, and El Oued in Algeria; Timbuktu in Mali; Agadez in Niger; Ghat in Libya; and Faya-Largeau in Chad.

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Geography
The Sahara covers large parts of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan and Tunisia. It is one of three distinct physiographic provinces of the African massive physiographic division. The desert landforms of the Sahara are shaped by wind or by occasional rains and include sand dunes and dune fields or sand seas (erg), stone plateaus (hamada), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys, and salt flats (shatt or chott).[6] Unusual landforms include the Richat Structure in Mauritania. Several deeply dissected mountains and mountain ranges, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the Ar Mountains, Ahaggar Mountains, Saharan Atlas, Tibesti Mountains, Adrar des Iforas, and the Red Sea hills. The highest peak in the Sahara is Emi Koussi, a shield volcano in the Tibesti range of northern Chad. Most of the rivers and streams in the Sahara are seasonal or intermittent, the chief exception being the Nile River, which crosses the desert from its origins in central Africa to empty into the Mediterranean. Underground aquifers sometimes reach the surface, forming oases, including the Bahariya, Ghardaa, Timimoun, Kufrah, and Siwah. The central part of the Sahara is hyper-arid, with little vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and desert shrub, with trees and taller shrubs in wadis where moisture collects. To the north, the Sahara reaches to the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in Cyrenaica and the Magreb, the Sahara borders Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub ecoregions of northern Africa, which have a Mediterranean climate characterized by a winter rainy season. According to the botanical criteria of Frank White[7] and geographer Robert Capot-Rey,[8] [9] the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of Date Palm cultivation and the southern limit of Esparto, a grass typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and Iberia. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100mm (3.9in) isohyet of annual precipitation.[10] To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry tropical savanna with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of Cornulaca monacantha (a drought-tolerant member of the Chenopodiaceae), or northern limit of Cenchrus biflorus, a grass typical of the Sahel.[8] [9] According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150mm (5.9in) isohyet of annual precipitation (this is a long-term average, since precipitation varies
A geographical map of Africa, showing the ecological break that defines the Saharan area

Sahara annually).[10]

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Climate
The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variation between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years.[11] During the last glacial period, the Sahara was even bigger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries.[12] The end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, from about 8000 BC to 6000 BC, perhaps because of low pressure areas over the collapsing ice sheets to the north.[13] Once the ice sheets were gone, northern Sahara dried out. In the southern Sahara though, the drying trend was soon counteracted by the monsoon, which brought rain further north than it does today. The monsoon season is caused by heating of air over the land during summer. The hot air rises and pulls in cool, wet air from the ocean, which causes rain. Thus, though it seems counterintuitive, the Sahara was wetter when it received more insolation in the summer. This was caused by a stronger tilt in Earth's axis of orbit than today, and perihelion occurred at the end of July around 7000 BC.[14] By around 3400 BC, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today,[15] leading to the gradual desertification of the Sahara.[16] The Sahara is now as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.[11] These conditions are responsible for what has been called the Sahara pump theory.
An oasis in the Ahaggar Mountains. Oases are crucial to support life in very arid deserts.

An intense Saharan dust storm sent a massive dust plume northwestward over the Atlantic Ocean on March 2, 2003

The Sahara has one of the harshest climates in the world. The prevailing north-easterly wind often causes sand storms and dust devils.[17] When this wind reaches the Mediterranean, it is known as sirocco and often reaches hurricane speeds in North Africa and southern Europe. Half of the Sahara receives less than 20mm (0.79in) of rain per year, and the rest receives up to 100mm (3.9in) per year.[18] The rainfall happens very rarely, but when it does it is usually torrential when it occurs after long dry periods. The southern boundary of the Sahara, as measured by rainfall, was observed to both advance and retreat between 1980 and 1990. As a result of drought in the Sahel, the southern boundary moved south 130kilometers (81mi) overall during that period.[19] Recent signals indicate that the Sahara and surrounding regions are greening because of increased rainfall. Satellite imaging shows extensive regreening of the Sahel between 1982 and 2002, and in both Eastern and Western Sahara a more than 20 year long trend of increased grazing areas and flourishing trees and shrubs has been observed by climate scientist Stefan Krpelin.[20]

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Snow and ice

On February 18, 1979, snow fell in several places in southern Algeria, including a half-hour snowstorm that stopped traffic in Ghardaa, and was reported as being "for the first time in living memory".[21] The snow was gone within hours.[22] Several Saharan mountain ranges, however, receive snow on a more regular basis. Although relative humidity is low in the arid environment, the absolute humidity is sufficiently high for moisture to condense when driven up a mountain range. In winter, temperatures drop low enough on the Tahat summit to cause snow on average every three years; the Tibesti Mountains receive snow on peaks over 2500meters (8200ft) once every seven years on average.[23] [24]

Ecoregions
The Sahara comprises several distinct ecoregions, and with their variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soil, they harbor distinct communities of plants and animals. The Atlantic coastal desert occupies a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast, where fog generated offshore by the cool Canary Current provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety The major topographic features of the Saharan region. of lichens, succulents, and shrubs. It covers 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 square miles) in Western Sahara and Mauritania.[25] The North Saharan steppe and woodlands lies along the northern desert, next to the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,800 square miles) in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.[26] The Sahara desert ecoregion covers the hyper-arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (erg, chech, raoui), stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square km (1,791,500 square miles) of Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan.[27] The South Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion occupies a narrow band running east and west between the hyper-arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (3.9 to 7.9 in) but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. The ecoregion covers 1,101,700km2 (425,400mi2) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.[28] In the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands, several volcanic highlands provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo-Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100km2 (99,700mi2), mostly in the Tassili n'Ajjer of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the Ar of Niger, the Dhar Adrar of Mauritania, and the Adrar des Iforas of Mali and Algeria.[29] The Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion consists of the Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat highlands. Higher and more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures support woodlands and shrublands of palms, acacias, myrtle, oleander, tamarix, and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200km2

Sahara (31,700mi2) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.[30] The Saharan halophytics is an area of seasonally flooded saline depressions which is home to halophytic, or salt-adapted, plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000km2 (20,800mi2), including the Qattara and Siwa depressions in northern Egypt, the Tunisian salt lakes of central Tunisia, Chott Melghir in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and Western Sahara.[31] The Tanezrouft is one of the harshest regions on Earth and the driest in the Sahara, with no vegetation and very little life. It is situated along the borders of Algeria, Niger and Mali, west of the Hoggar mountains.

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Flora and fauna

Dromedary camels and goats are the domesticated animals most commonly found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favorite animal used by nomads. The deathstalker scorpion can be 10cm (3.9in) long. Its venom contains large amounts of agitoxin and scyllatoxin and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. Several species of fox live in the Sahara, including the fennec fox, pale fox and Rppell's fox. The addax, a large white antelope, can go nearly a year in the desert without drinking. The dorcas gazelle is a north African gazelle that can also go for a long time without water.

Camels in the Guelta d'Archei, in north-eastern Chad.

The Saharan cheetah (Northwest African Cheetah) lives in Algeria, Togo, Niger, Mali, Benin, and Burkina Faso. There remain less than 250 mature cheetahs which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October. It then seeks the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale.[32] [33] Other animals include the monitor lizards, hyrax, Sand vipers, and small populations of African Wild Dog,[34] in perhaps only 14 countries.[35] and ostrich. There exist other animals in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as African Silverbill and Black-throated Firefinch among others. There are also small desert crocodiles in Mauritania and the Ennedi Plateau of Chad.[36] The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by evapo-transpiration. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover. Human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to soil degradation and salinization.

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History
Berbers
The Berber people occupied (and still occupy) much of the Sahara. The Garamantes Berbers built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert.[37] The Tuareg nomads continue, to present day, to inhabit and move across wide Sahara surfaces.

Egyptians
By 6000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle Photo of the Sahara from 1908 and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BC centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also.[38] There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BC, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found.[39] Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and dead were buried facing due west.[38] By 3400 BC, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, and it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with only scattered settlements around the oases but little trade or commerce through the desert. The one major exception was the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.

Nubians
During the Neolithic, before the onset of desertification, around 9500 BC the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution," living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today.[40] Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world's first known Archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 1,000 years.[41] This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.[42]

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Phoenicians
The people of Phoenicia, who flourished between 1200-800 BC, created a confederation of kingdoms across the entire Sahara to Egypt. They generally settled along the Mediterranean coast, as well as the Sahara, among the people of Ancient Libya, who were the ancestors of people who speak Berber languages in North Africa and the Sahara today, including the Tuareg of the central Sahara.

Azalai salt caravan. The French reported that the 1906 caravan numbered 20,000 camels.

The Phoenician alphabet seems to have been adopted by the ancient Libyans of north Africa, and Tifinagh is still used today by Berber-speaking Tuareg camel herders of the central Sahara. Sometime between 633 BC and 530 BC, Hanno the Navigator either established or reinforced Phoenician colonies in Western Sahara, but all ancient remains have vanished with virtually no trace.

Greeks
By 500 BC, Greeks arrived to the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea coast. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.

Urban civilization
An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BC in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fazzan, Libya.[11] The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Market on the main square of Ghardaa (1971) Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.[43]

Trans-Saharan trade
Following the Islamic conquest of North Africa in the mid-seventh to early eighth centuries, trade across the desert intensified. The kingdoms of the Sahel, especially the Ghana Empire and the Mali Empire, grew rich and powerful exporting gold and salt to North Africa. The emirates along the Mediterranean Sea sent south manufactured goods and horses. From the Sahara itself, salt was exported. This process turned the scattered oasis communities into trading centres and brought them under the control of the empires on the edge of the desert. A significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to the 19th century some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.[44]

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This trade persisted for several centuries until the development in Europe of the caravel allowed ships, first from Portugal but soon from all Western Europe, to sail around the desert and gather the resources from the source in Guinea. The Sahara was rapidly marginalized.

European imperialism
At the beginning of the 19th century, most of the northern Sahara, including most of present-day Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt, was part of the Ottoman Empire. The Sahel and southern Sahara were home to several independent states. European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered Algeria from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present-day Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881).

The Tuareg once controlled the central Sahara desert and its trade.

Egypt, under Muhammad Ali and his successors, conquered Nubia in 182022, founded Khartoum in 1823, and conquered Darfur in 1874. Egypt, including the Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and Britain lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the Mahdist War. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became a Anglo-Egyptian condominium. Spain captured present-day Western Sahara after 1874. In 1912, Italy captured Libya from the Ottomans. To promote the Roman Catholic religion in the desert, the Pope in 1868 appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara.

Modern times
Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and maintained the British-Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954. Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after World War II: Libya in 1951, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960, and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979, but Morocco continues to hold the territory.

A natural rock arch in south western Libya

In the modern era several mines and communities have developed to utilize the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of oil and natural gas in Algeria and Libya and large deposits of phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.

Sahara

112 A number of Trans-African highways have been proposed across the Sahara, including the Cairo-Dakar Highway along the Atlantic coast, the Trans-Sahara Highway from Algiers on the Mediterranean to Kano in Nigeria, the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway from Tripoli in Libya to Ndjamena in Chad, and the Cairo-Cape Town Highway which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections.

The Desert today

People and languages

Arabic is the most widely spoken language in the Sahara, from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Berber people are found from western Egypt to Morocco, including the Tuareg pastoralists of the central Sahara. The Beja live in the Red Sea Hills of southeastern Egypt and eastern Sudan. The Arabic, Berber, and Beja languages are part of the Afro-Asiatic language family.

Notes
[1] Arthur N. Strahler and Alan H. Strahler. (1987) Modern Physical GeographyThird Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Page 347 [2] "Sahara." (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=Sahara) Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper, Historian. Retrieved June 25, 2007. [3] "English-Arabic online dictionary" (http:/ / online. ectaco. co. uk/ main. jsp?do=e-services-dictionaries-word_translate1& status=translate& lang1=23& lang2=ar& source_id=2119140). Online.ectaco.co.uk. 2006-12-28. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [4] Discover Magazine (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2006/ oct/ sahara-desert-savanna-climate), 2006-Oct. [5] National Geographic News (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2002/ 06/ 0617_020618_croc. html), 2006-06-17. [6] "Sahara desert" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1327_full. html). Retrieved December 30, 2007. [7] Wickens, Gerald E. (1998) Ecophysiology of Economic Plants in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands. Springer, Berlin. ISBN 978-3-540-52171-6 [8] Grove, A.T., nicole (1958,2007). "The Ancient Erg of Hausaland, and Similar Formations on the South Side of the Sahara". The Geographical Journal 124 (4): 528533. doi:10.2307/1790942. JSTOR1790942. [9] Bisson, J. (2003). Mythes et ralits d'un dsert convoit: le Sahara. L'Harmattan.(French) [10] Walton, K. (2007). The Arid Zones. Aldine. [11] Kevin White and David J. Mattingly (2006). Ancient Lakes of the Sahara. 94. American Scientist. pp. 5865 [12] Christopher Ehret. The Civilizations of Africa. University Press of Virginia, 2002. [13] Fezzan Project Palaeoclimate and environment (http:/ / www. cru. uea. ac. uk/ ~e118/ Fezzan/ fezzan_palaeoclim. html). Retrieved March 15, 2006. [14] "Geophysical Research Letters" Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene (http:/ / www. awi. de/ fileadmin/ user_upload/ Research/ Research_Divisions/ Climate_Sciences/ Paleoclimate_Dynamics/ Modelling/ Research_periods/ SimulationAbrupt. pdf) - July 15th, 1999

Stop in the Desert, Giulio Rosati

Sahara
[15] Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started by Changes in Earth's Orbit (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 1999/ 07/ 990712080500. htm), Accelerated by Atmospheric and Vegetation Feedbacks. [16] Krpelin, Stefan; et al. (2008). "Climate-Driven Ecosystem Succession in the Sahara: The Past 6000 Years" (http:/ / www. old. uni-bayreuth. de/ departments/ geomorph/ docs/ Kroepelinetal_2008. pdf). Science 320 (5877): 765768. doi:10.1126/science.1154913. PMID18467583. . [17] Oxfam Cool Planet - the Sahara (http:/ / www. oxfam. org. uk/ coolplanet/ ontheline/ explore/ nature/ deserts/ sahara. htm) - access February 10, 2008 [18] Tiempo Climate Newswatch: Climate Change and the Sahara (http:/ / www. cru. uea. ac. uk/ tiempo/ newswatch/ feature060915. htm) [19] "Expansion and contraction of the Sahara Desert between 1980 and 1990| Science 253: 299-301" (http:/ / www. ciesin. columbia. edu/ docs/ 005-319/ 005-319. html). Ciesin.columbia.edu. 1991-07-19. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [20] "Sahara Desert Greening Due to Climate Change?" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2009/ 07/ 090731-green-sahara. html). News.nationalgeographic.com. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [21] "Think It's Cold Here? It Snowed On Sahara!" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract. html?res=F4081EFB3A5D12728DDDA00994DA405B898BF1D3). New York Times (New York City, NY: The New York Times Company): pp.D4. 19 February 1979. . Retrieved 17 June 2010. [22] "Snow Falls In The Sahara" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=UsoRAAAAIBAJ& sjid=9O0DAAAAIBAJ& dq=snow sahara& pg=2960,2123284). The Spokesman-Review: Eastern Washington Edition (Spokane, WA: Cowles Publishing Company): pp.1. 19 February 1979. . [23] Messerli, B. (1973). "Problems of Vertical and Horizontal Arrangement in the High Mountains of the Extreme Arid Zone" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1550163). Arctic and Alpine Research (Boulder, CO: University of Colorado) 5 (3): 139147. . Retrieved 17 June 2010. [24] Kendrew, Wilfrid George (1922). The Climates of the Continents (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=pyDpdkVOInMC& pg=PA27& lpg=PA27& dq=ahaggar+ snowcapped& q). Oxford: The Clarendon press. pp.27. ISBN9781406781724. . [25] "Atlantic coastal desert" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1304_full. html). Retrieved December 29, 2007. [26] "North Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1321_full. html). Retrieved December 29, 2007. [27] "Sahara desert" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1327_full. html). Retrieved December 29, 2007. [28] "South Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1329_full. html). Retrieved December 29, 2007. [29] "West Saharan montane xeric woodlands" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1332_full. html). Retrieved December 29, 2007. [30] "Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1331_full. html). Retrieved December 29, 2007. [31] "Saharan halophytics" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa0905_full. html). Retrieved December 29, 2007. [32] "Rare cheetah captured on camera" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7905986. stm). BBC News. 2009-02-24. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [33] http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ apps/ redlist/ details/ 221/ 0/ full The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Acinonyx jubatus ssp. hecki [34] McNutt et al. (2008). Lycaon pictus (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ apps/ redlist/ details/ 12436). In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 06 May 2008. [35] Borrell, Brendan (2009-08-19). "Endangered in South Africa: Those Doggone Conservationists" (http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2225607/ entry/ 2225663/ ). Slate. . [36] " Desert-Adapted Crocs Found in Africa (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2002/ 06/ 0617_020618_croc. html)", National Geographic News, June 18, 2002 [37] Mattingly et al. 2003. Archaeology of Fazzan, Volume 1 [38] Predynastic] (5,5003,100 BC), Tour Egypt]. [39] Fayum, Qarunian (http:/ / www. digitalegypt. ucl. ac. uk/ fayum/ fayumb. html) (Fayum B, about 60005000 BC?), Digital Egypt (http:/ / www. digitalegypt. ucl. ac. uk). [40] "History of Nubia" (http:/ / www. anth. ucsb. edu/ faculty/ stsmith/ research/ nubia_history. html). Anth.ucsb.edu. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [41] PlanetQuest: The History of Astronomy (http:/ / www. planetquest. org/ learn/ nabta. html) - Retrieved on 2007-08-29 [42] Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa (http:/ / www. comp-archaeology. org/ WendorfSAA98. html) - by Fred Wendorf (1998) [43] Keys, David. 2004. Kingdom of the Sands. Archaeology. Volume 57 Number 2, March/April 2004. Abstract (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 0403/ abstracts/ sands. html). Retrieved March 13, 2006. [44] Fage, J.D. A History of Africa. Routledge, 4th edition, 2001. pg. 256

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References
Michael Brett and Elizabeth Frentess. The Berbers. Blackwell Publishers, 1996. Charles-Andre Julien. History of North Africa: From the Arab Conquest to 1830. Praeger, 1970. Abdallah Laroui. The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay. Princeton, 1977. Hugh Kennedy. Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Longman, 1996. Richard W. Bulliet. The Camel and the Wheel. Harvard University Press, 1975. Republished with a new preface Columbia University Press, 1990.

External links
About Sahara subsurface [[hydrology (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200701/seas.beneath.the. sands.htm)] and planned usage of the aquifers] Tassili and Ahaggar National Parks (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sf51SQjXxeA) kbd:

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Sahara Desert (ecoregion)

Sahara Desert

Ecology Ecozone Biome Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Geography Rivers Climate type Nile River; intermittent rivers and streams hyper-arid and subtropical Conservation Conservation status Vulnerable

The Sahara desert ecoregion, as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), includes the hyper-arid center of the Sahara, between 18 and 30N.[1] It is one of several desert and xeric shrubland ecoregions that cover the northern portion of the African continent.

Sahara Desert (ecoregion)

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Setting
The Sahara is the world's largest hot desert, located in northern Africa. It stretches from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The vast Sahara encompasses several ecologically distinct regions. The Sahara desert ecoregion covers an area of 4,619,260 km (1,791,500 square miles) in the hot, hyper-arid center of the Sahara, surrounded on the north, south, east, and west by desert ecoregions with higher rainfall and more vegetation.[1] The North Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion lies to the north and west, bordering the Mediterranean climate regions of Africa's Mediterranean and North Atlantic coasts. The North Saharan steppe and woodlands receives more regular winter rainfall than the Sahara desert ecoregion. The South Saharan steppe and woodlands ecoregion lies to the south, between the Sahara desert ecoregion and the Sahel grasslands. The South Saharan steppe and woodlands receives most of its annual rainfall during the summer. The Red Sea coastal desert lies in the coastal strip between the Sahara desert ecoregion and the Red Sea. Some mountain ranges rise up from the desert and receive more rainfall and cooler temperatures. These Saharan mountains are home to two distinct ecoregions; the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands in the Ahaggar, Tassili n'Ajjer, Ar, and other ranges in the western and central Sahara, and the Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands in the Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat of the eastern Sahara. The surface of the desert ranges from large areas of sand dunes (erg), to stone plateaus (hamadas), gravel plains (reg), dry valleys (wadis), and salt flats. The only permanent river that crosses the ecoregion is the Nile River, which originates in central Africa and empties northwards into the Mediterranean Sea. Some areas encompass vast underground aquifers resulting in oases, while other regions severely lack water reserves.

Ubari Oasis in Libya

Climate

The Sahara desert generally features an arid climate. The Sahara desert is one of the hottest regions of the world, with a mean temperature over 30 C (86 F). Daily variations may also be extreme: a swing from 37.5 to -0.5 C (100to 31F) has been observed.[1] The Sahara receives very little rain in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone which moves up from the south.[1] Wind and sand storms occur as soon as early spring. Local inhabitants protect themselves from heat, cold and mostly wind and sand by covering their heads, such as the cheche worn by Tuareg.

History and conservation

The Sahara was one of the first regions of Africa to be farmed. Some 5,000 years ago, the area was not so arid and the vegetation might have been closer to a savanna. Previous fauna may be recognised in stone carvings. However, desertification set in around 3000 BCE, and the area became much like it is today. The Sahara is largely undisturbed.[1] The most degradation is found in areas where there is water, such as aquifer oases or along the desert margins where some rain usually falls most years. In these areas, animals such as addaxes, scimitar-horned oryxes, and bustards are over-hunted for their meat. Only one area of conservation is recorded in the Sahara: the Zellaf Nature Reserve in Libya.[1]

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References
[1] "Sahara Desert (PA1327)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1327_full. html). Ecoregion description. World Wildlife Fund. . Retrieved 2011-03-21.

Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago

Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago

Native name: Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo

Brazilian Navy scientific station and lighthouse of the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago.

Geography Location Coordinates Archipelago Total islands Major islands Area Highestelevation Atlantic Ocean 00551N 29207W Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo 15 [1]

Belmonte, Challenger, Nordeste, Cabral, South 15000m2 (161000sqft) 17m (56ft) Country [1] [1]

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118

Brazil Region State Northeast Pernambuco Demographics Population 4 [2]

Additional information Official Website [3]

The Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago (Portuguese: Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo) is a group of 15 small islands and rocks in the Atlantic Ocean.[4] It lies in the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a region of severe storms. It is approximately 510nmi (940km; 590mi) from the northeastern coastal town of Touros, 625km (388mi) northeast of the archipelago of Fernando de Noronha, and 990km (620mi) from the city of Natal. The islets expose serpentinized mantle peridotite and kaesurtite mylonite on the top of the second-largest megamullion in the world (after the Parece Vela megamullion under Okinotorishima in the Pacific), and they are the only location on Earth where the abyssal mantle is exposed above sea level.[5] In 1986, the archipelago was designated as an environmentally protected area[6] . Since 1998, the Brazilian Navy has maintained a permanently manned research facility on the islands.[2] The main economic activity around the islets is tuna fishing.

Map of the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago

History
On April 20, 1511, a Portuguese Navy fleet composed of six caravels under the command of Captain Garcia de Noronha discovered the islets by accident while on their journey to India. That day, while navigating in open sea at late night, the Saint Peter caravel, under the command of Captain Manuel de Castro Alcoforado, crashed against the islets.[5] On the morning of February 16, 1832, the rocks were visited by Charles Darwin on the first leg of his voyage on the HMS Beagle Periscope eyeview - USS Triton (1960) around the world. Darwin listed all the fauna he could find; noting that not a single plant or even a lichen could be found on the island. Darwin found two birds, a booby and a noddy, a large crab that stole the fish intended for baby birds, a fly that lived on the booby and a parasitic tick. He found a moth that lived on feathers, a beetle, a woodlouse that lived on dung, and numerous spiders that he thought lived on scavengers of the waterfowl. Darwin felt that these rocks represented how life first took hold on a newly formed outcrop.[7] Darwin was correct in noting that, unusually, these small islands were not volcanic, but were instead formed by a geologic uplift.[5] Another famous person to visit the Rocks was Ernest Shackleton, on his last expedition to Antarctica (1921-1922).[5] In 1942, during World War II, the islets were declared to be part of the Federal Territory of Fernando de Noronha (which also included the Rocas Atoll).

Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago In early 1960, the rocks served as the starting-point and terminus for the first submerged circumnavigation of the world by the American nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton (SSRN-586).[8]

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Air France Flight 447

On June 1, 2009, Air France Flight 447, an Airbus A330-200 en route from Rio de Janeiro to Paris was reported missing and is presumed to have crashed off the coast of Fernando de Noronha. Fragments from the aircraft were found near the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago.[9]

Geography
The Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, 100km (62mi) north of the Equator and is the only group of Brazilian oceanic islets in the Northern Hemisphere. The nearest point in the Brazilian coast, is Cabo do Calcanhar, Rio Grande do Norte, approximately 1010kilometres (630mi) from the archipelago. The total emerged area is about 4.2acres (1.7ha) and the maximum land elevation is 18m (59ft), on Nordeste Island. The archipelago is composed of several rocks, five small rocky islets and four larger islets: [5] [10] Belmonte Islet: 5380square metres (57900 sqft) Challenger Islet (also known as So Paulo): 3000square metres (32000 sqft) Nordeste Islet (also known as So Pedro): 1440square metres (15500sqft) Cabral Islet: 1170square metres (12600sqft) South Islet: 943square metres (10150sqft). Their base is over 3650metres (11980ft) below sea level.[5] None of the islets has a permanent fresh water supply available.[5]

Biology
Only the largest of the islets, Belmonte, is vegetated with mosses and grasses. The other rocks are mostly barren, except for some sea algae and fungi that can tolerate the salt spray. The rocks are inhabited by sea birds, including the Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster), Brown Noddy (Anous stolidus), and Black Noddy (Anous minutus), as well as crabs (Grapsus grapsus), insects and spiders.[11]

Scientific station
On June 25, 1998, the Brazilian Navy inaugurated the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago Scientific Station (Portuguese: Estao Cientfica do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo; ECASPSP). The station is manned with four researchers, who are rotated in and out every 15 days.[12] By maintaining permanent occupation of the archipelago, the Brazilian Navy extends Brazil's Exclusive Economic Zone, territorial waters and airspace into the North Atlantic Ocean.[13] On June 5-6, 2006, an earthquake with a magnitude of above six on the Richter scale rocked the archipelago. The strong tidal surge following the earthquake caused the battery compartment to crash against the station's outer wall, allowing sea water to flood the station. The four researchers who were on the archipelago took shelter in the lighthouse, while maintaining constant contact with the Brazilian Navy. A fishing vessel located nearby rescued the researchers, who were then transferred to a Brazilian Navy patrol boat. The incident caused considerable damage to the station and equipment. [14] The station was repaired on September 9-11, 2006, and became operational shortly after.[15] In 2007, the Brazilian Navy started to build a new scientific station on the archipelago.[12] Construction began on July 24, 2007, and was completed on June 25, 2008.[12] The new station was built with seismic isolation, and is considerably larger and better equipped than the previous one.[16] The station is composed of a main building -

Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago equipped with reverse osmosis salt water desalination system, photovoltaics system and satellite communications system; deposits and a mooring dock.[4] [17] The Brazilian Navy also maintains a lighthouse on the archipelago, (ARLHS: SPP-001), built in 1995 to replace a previous one from 1930.[5] [18]

120

References
[1] The Scientific Station of So Pedro and So Paulo Archipelago (http:/ / timber. ce. wsu. edu/ Resources/ papers/ P74. pdf) Alvarez, Cristina; Melo, Julio; Mello, Roberto L. Retrieved on 2009-07-14. [2] Programa Arquiplago (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ secirm/ psrm/ proarq/ arq_esta. htm) Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on 2009-07-16.

(Portuguese)
[3] https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ secirm/ psrm/ psrm_arq. htm [4] The scientific station of So Pedro and So Paulo Archipelago - Brazil (http:/ / timber. ce. wsu. edu/ Resources/ papers/ P74. pdf) Alvarez, Cristina E., Melo, Julio E., Mello, Roberto L. Retrieved on June 6, 2009. [5] Saint Peter and Saint Pauls Archipelago (http:/ / www. unb. br/ ig/ sigep/ sitio002/ sitio002. pdf) Campos, T.F.C.; Virgens Neto, J.; Srivastava, N.K.; Petta, R.A.; Harmann, L.A.; Moraes, J.F.S.; Mendes, L.; Silveira, S.R.M. Retrieved on 2006-12-31. [6] Decree 92755 of 5 June 1986 (http:/ / www. glin. gov/ view. action?glinID=23607) Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2009-07-16. [7] Darwin's description from Voyage of the Beagle (http:/ / www. literature. org/ authors/ darwin-charles/ the-voyage-of-the-beagle/ chapter-01. html#St. Paul's Rock) Retrieved on 2009-07-16. [8] Beach, Edward L. (1962). Around the world submerged: the voyage of the Triton (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=EPFzq8dt6E4C& printsec=frontcover& dq=Around+ the+ world+ submerged+ :+ the+ voyage+ of+ the+ Triton#PPP1,M1). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. pp.102105, 257. ISBN1557502153. OCLC1292457. . [9] Air France Flight 447 (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2009/ WORLD/ americas/ 06/ 02/ brazil. france. plane. missing/ index. html) [10] "Reef fishes of St. Paul's Rocks: new records and notes on biology and zoogeography" (http:/ / www. nceas. ucsb. edu/ ~floeter/ PDFs/ Feitoza et al 2003_Aqua. pdf). Aqua, Journal of Ichthyology and Aquatic Biology 7 (3): pp. 122. May 2003. . Retrieved 2009-06-03. [11] Srie de reportagens sobre o arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo e as ilhas de Trindade e Martim Vaz (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ menu_h/ noticias/ diversos/ seriedereportagensdoOGlob. htm) O Globo. Retrieved on 2009-07-16. (Portuguese) [12] Nova Era no Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ caaml/ Revista/ 2008/ Portugues/ 24-Pag76. pdf) Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on June 6, 2009. [13] Lanamento da nova Estao Cientfica do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ menu_h/ noticias/ secirm/ lancamento_estacao_saoPedroSaoPaulo. htm) Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on June 6, 2009. [14] Acidente no Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ secirm/ document/ doc_psrm/ doc_parq/ arq_acid. pdf) Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on 2009-07-16. (Portuguese) [15] Recuperao da Estao Cientfica do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo (ECASPSP) (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ secirm/ document/ doc_psrm/ doc_parq/ arq_recu. pdf) Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on 2009-07-16. (Portuguese). [16] A construo da nova Estao Cientfica (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ secirm/ document/ doc_psrm/ doc_parq/ arq_cons. pdf) Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on 2009-07-16. (Portuguese) [17] Manual do Pesquisador (https:/ / www. mar. mil. br/ secirm/ document/ doc_psrm/ doc_parq/ man_pesq. pdf) Brazilian Navy. Retrieved on 2009-07-16. (Portuguese) [18] "ARLHS: SPP-001" (http:/ / wlol. arlhs. com/ lighthouse/ SPP1. html). ARLHS. 2006-06-01. . Retrieved 2009-06-07.

Further reading
Andrade, F.G.G., Simes, L.S.A., Campos, T.F.C., Silva, A.J.C.A. 2007. Padro estrutural da foliao milongica do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo. Anais do 11 Simpsio Nacional de Estudos Tectnicos, 5th International Symposium of Tectonics of the SBG. Natal, 233. (in Portuguese) Beach, Edward L. November 1960 (Vol. 118, No. 5). "Triton Follows Magellan's Wake" National Geographic Magazine. 585-615 Bonatti, E. 1990. Subcontinental mantle exposed in the Atlantic Ocean on St Peter-Paul islets. Nature, 345, 800-802. Campos, T.F.C., Virgens Neto, J., Amorim, V.A., Hartmann, L.A., Petta, R.A. 2003. Modificaes metassomticas das rochas milonitizadas do complexo ultramfico do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo, Atlntico Equatorial. Geochimica Brasiliensis, 17-2, 81-90. (in Portuguese) Campos, T.F.C., Virgens Neto, J., Costa, L.S., Petta, R.A., Sousa, L.C., Silva, F.O. 2007. Sistema de diaclasamento do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo (Atlntico Equatorial) como indicador de movimentao

Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago destral associado falha transformante de So Paulo. Anais do 11 Simpsio Nacional de Estudos Tectnicos, 5th International Symposium of Tectonics of the SBG. Natal, 238. (in Portuguese) Hkinian, R., Juteau, T., Gracia, E., Udintsev, G., Sichler, B., Sichel, S.E., Apprioual, R. 2000. Submersible observations of Equatorial Atlantic Mantle: The St. Paul Frature Zone region. Marine Geophysical Research, 21, 529-560. Melson, W.G., Jarosewich, E., Bowen, V.T., Thompsonm G. 1967. St. Peter and St. Paul rocks: a high-temperature mentle-derived intrusion. Science, 155. 1532-1535. Moraes, J.F.S., Linden, E.M., Moraes, F.A.B. 1997. Planta topogrfica do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo, escala 1:500. CPRM - Servio Geolgico do Brasil. Motoki, A., Sichel, S.E., Baptista Neto, J.A., Szatmari, P., Soares, R., Melo, R.C., Petrakis, G.H. 2007. Caractersticas geomorfolgicas do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo, Oceano Atlntico Equatorial, e sua relao com a histria de soerguimento. Revista Brasileira de Geomorfologia. (in Portuguese, in submission) O'Brian, Patrick: H.M.S. Surprise, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 1973, Chapter 5, page 117. Savi, D.C., Sichel, S.E. Possibilidade de catstrofe no Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo e suas implicaes sobre a soberania do mar Brasileiro. Pesquisa Naval, 19. (in Portuguese, in press)

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Sichel, S.E., Motoki, A., Esperana, S., Maia, M., Mello, S.L.M., Horan, M.F. 2007. Geophysical and geochemical indications for existence of cold upper mantle beneath the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Revista de Sociedade Brasileira de Geofsica. (in Portuguese, in submission) Souza, Jos Eduardo Borges de: O arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Revista do Clube Naval, Ano 115, N 340, Out/Nov/Dez 2006. p. 70-72, ISSN 0102-0382. Thompson, Geoffrey: St. Peter and St. Paul's Rocks (Equatorial Atlantic) and the Surrounding Sea Floor, Woods Hole, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1981 (Technical Report) (Woods Hole Oceanog. Inst. Tech. Rept. WHOI-81 -98) (https://darchive.mblwhoilibrary.org/bitstream/1912/1515/3/WHOI-81-98.pdf) Tressler, Willis L.: Rochedos So Pedro e So Paulo (St. Peter and St. Paul Rocks), Washington, U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office, 1956 (Technical Report, TR-31). Virgens Neto, J., Campos, T.F.C. 2007. A influncia da zona de fratura So Paulo no contexto estrutural do Arquiplago de So Pedro e So Paulo - Atlntico Equatorial. Anais do 11. Simpsio Nacional de Estudos Tectnicos, 5th International Symposium of Tectonics of the SBG. Natal, 294-295. (in Portuguese) Wiseman, J. D. H. 1966. St Paul's Rocks and the Problem of the Upper Mantle. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 11, 519-525. (in Portuguese)

External links
Official website (https://www.mar.mil.br/secirm/psrm/psrm_arq.htm) (Portuguese) A New Era on the Archipelago of Saint Peter and Saint Paul (https://www.mar.mil.br/caaml/Revista/2008/ ingles/pag_24.pdf) Brazilian Navy publication St. Peter and St. Paul rocks (WWF) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/ nt1318_full.html) Information and pictures from landing, February 2001 (http://www.soutomaior.eti.br/mario/paginas/dx.htm) Darwin's description from Voyage of the Beagle (http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/ the-voyage-of-the-beagle/chapter-01.html)

San Lucan xeric scrub

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San Lucan xeric scrub

The San Lucan xeric scrub is a xeric shrubland ecoregion of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula.

Setting
The San Lucan xeric scrub covers an area of 3,900 square kilometers (1,500 square miles) at the southern tip of the peninsula. The xeric scrub extends from coast up to 250 meters elevation, where the Sierra de la Laguna dry forests start.

References and external links

San Lucan xeric scrub (World Wildlife Fund) [1] San Lucan xeric scrub (National Geographic) [2]

Bursera microphylla near Todos Santos, Baja California Sur, Mexico

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt1314_full. html [2] http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt1314. html

Sechura Desert

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Sechura Desert
The Sechura Desert is located south of the Piura Region of Peru along the Pacific Ocean coast and inland to the foothills of the Andes Mountains. It is north of the Atacama Desert.

Location and extent

Within Peru, the desert is described as the strip along the northern Pacific coast of Peru in the southern Piura and western Lambayeque regions, and extending from the coast 20100km inland to the secondary ridges of the Andes Mountains. At its northern end near the city of Piura, the Sechura Desert transitions to the Tumbes-Piura tropical-dry forests ecoregion. Comprising much of eastern Lambayeque Region, this habitat is composed of equatorial dry forests. The total area of the Sechura Desert is 188,735km. The international World Wildlife Fund (WWF) defines the Sechura Desert as the entire stretch of coastal desert from the northwestern tip of Peru to parts of northern Chile, where it meets the Atacama Desert. In a third definition, the National Geographic Society includes part of the coastal desert in southern Peru (near Ica, Peru|Ica) within the Atacama Desert (See graphic map at Atacama Desert.) For the purposes of this article, the entire arid region of the coast of Peru, as defined by the WWF, shall be hereby referenced as the Sechura Desert.

History
While a desert, the Sechura has been subject to flooding from rivers and to storms driven in from the Pacific Ocean. In 1728 a tsunami generated from an earthquake swept inland, destroying the town of Sechura, then located closer to the water. Survivors moved inland and re-established the town in its current location. During El Nio years, flooding in the desert regularly occurs. In 1998 the runoff from the flooding rivers poured into the coastal Sechura Desert. Where there had been nothing but arid, hardscrabble waste for 15 years, suddenly, the second-largest lake in Peru had developed: 90 miles (145 kilometers) long, 20 miles (30 kilometers) wide, and ten feet (three meters) deep, with occasional parched domes of sand and clay poking up from the surface.

Climate
The Peruvian Desert has a low range of temperature changes due to the moderating effect of the nearby Pacific Ocean. Because of the upwelling of cold coastal waters and because of subtropical atmospheric subsidence, the desert is one of the most arid on Earth.[1] Summer (December through March) is warm and sunny with temperatures that average over 24 C, with ranges from 25 to 38. The Winter (June through September) is cool and cloudy with temperatures that vary from 16C during the night to 24C during the day.

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Geography
The numerous short rivers that cross the Sechura supported prehistoric indigenous human settlements for millennia. A number of urban cultures flourished here, including the Moche. The Moche thrived on fish, guinea pigs, squash and peanuts. The Sican Culture (c. 800-1300 CE) succeeded the Moche, and developed refined techniques of lost wax goldsmithing. Today the rivers support intensive irrigated agriculture on the fertile bottomlands. Two of Peru's five largest cities, including Piura and Chiclayo, lie within the agricultural region in the North.

References
[1] Cooke, Ronald U.; Warren, Andrew; Goudie, Andrew. Desert Geomorphology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WOcUNbRUGtwC& pg=PA441& ots=pw1YhBGNDp& dq="patagonian+ desert"& ie=ISO-8859-1& sig=ztkdF3MS5eh3-u4_xsE9X8gjLRs#PPA441,M1), 1992, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1857280172

External links
Sechura desert (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/ nt1315_full.html)

Shrubland
Shrubland, scrubland, scrub or brush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity.[1] It may be the mature vegetation type in a particular region and remain stable over time, or a transitional community that occurs temporarily as the result of a disturbance, such as fire. A stable state may be maintained by regular natural disturbance such as fire or browsing. Shrubland may be unsuitable for human habitation because of the danger of fire. The term "shrubland" was first coined in 1903.[2]

Low shrubland in Hawaii

Shrubland as a botanical structural form

In botany and ecology a shrub is defined as a much-branched woody plant less than 8 m high and usually with many stems. Tall shrubs are mostly 28 m high; small shrubs 12 m high: subshrubs less than 1 m high.[3] A descriptive system widely adopted in Australia to describe different types of vegetation is based on structural characteristics based on plant life-form, plus the height and foliage cover of the tallest stratum or dominant species.[4]
Scrub vegetation in the Texas Hill Country

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For shrubs 28 m high the following structural forms result: dense foliage cover (70100%) closed-scrub mid-dense foliage cover (3070%) open-scrub sparse foliage cover (1030%) tall shrubland very sparse foliage cover (<10%) tall open shrubland For shrubs <2 m high the following structural forms result: dense foliage cover (70100%) closed-heath mid-dense foliage cover (3070%) open-heath sparse foliage cover (1030%) low shrubland
Prince Edward County bird observatory shrubland.

very sparse foliage cover (<10%) low open shrubland

Shrubland as a biome plant group

Similarly, shrubland is a category used to describe a type of biome plant group. In this context, shrublands are dense thickets of evergreen sclerophyll shrubs and small trees,[5] called: Chaparral in California Matorral in Chile and Spain Maquis in France and elsewhere around the Mediterranean Macchia in Italy Fynbos in South Africa Kwongan in Southwest Australia
Fynbos in South Africa

In some places shrubland is the mature vegetation type, and in other places the result of degradation of former forest or woodland by logging or overgrazing, or disturbance by major fires. A number of World Wildlife Fund biomes are characterized as shrublands. These biomes are reviewed, below.

Desert scrublands
Xeric or desert scrublands occur in the world's deserts and xeric shrublands ecoregions, or in areas of fast-draining sandy soils in more humid regions. These scrublands are characterized by plants with adaptations to the dry climate, which include small leaves to limit water loss, thorns to protect them from grazing animals, succulent leaves or stems, storage organs to store water, and long taproots to reach groundwater.[6]

Mediterranean scrublands

The Nullarbor plain in Australia

Mediterranean scrublands occur naturally in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biomes, located in the five Mediterranean climate regions of the world. Scrublands are most common near the seacoast, and have often adapted to the wind and salt air of the ocean. Low, soft-leaved scrublands around the Mediterranean Basin are known as garrigue in France, phrygana in Greece, tomillares in Spain, and batha in Israel. Northern coastal scrub and coastal sage scrub occur along the California coast, strandveld in the

Shrubland Western Cape of South Africa, coastal matorral in central Chile, and sand-heath and kwongan in Southwest Australia.[7]

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Interior scrublands
Interior scrublands occur naturally in semi-arid areas where soils are nutrient-poor, such as on the matas of Portugal which are underlain by Cambrian and Silurian schists. Florida scrub is another example of interior scrublands.

Dwarf shrubs
Some vegetation types are formed of dwarf-shrubs: low-growing or creeping shrubs. These include the maquis of Mediterranean climates, and the acid-loving dwarf shrubs of heathland and moorland.

Other scrub
Scrub vegetation also occurs as part of other habitats, such as grasslands, heathlands and dune vegetation.

Notes and references

[1] "Chapter 12 Scrub Management" (http:/ / naturalengland. etraderstores. com/ NaturalEnglandShop/ grassland1). Natural England. . [2] [3] [4] [5]

Moorland on Kilimanjaro

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition (2003). Flora of New South Wales, Vol.4 ed. Gwen J. Harden, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney ISBN 0868401889 Costermans, L. F. (1993) Native trees and shrubs of South-Eastern Australia. rev. ed. ISBN 0947116761 Woodward, Susan. "Mediterranean Shrublands" (http:/ / www. runet. edu/ ~swoodwar/ CLASSES/ GEOG235/ biomes/ medit/ medit. html). Geography 235. Radford University. . Retrieved 2010-10-07. [6] "Deserts and Xeric Shrublands" (http:/ / wwf. panda. org/ about_our_earth/ ecoregions/ about/ habitat_types/ selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/ habitat13. cfm). World Wildlife Fund. . Retrieved 2010-10-07. [7] "Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands and Scrub" (http:/ / wwf. panda. org/ about_our_earth/ ecoregions/ mediterranean_forests_scrub. cfm). World Wildlife Fund. . Retrieved 2010-10-07.

Sonoran Desert

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Sonoran Desert
The Sonoran Desert is a North American desert which straddles part of the United States-Mexico border and covers large parts of the U.S. states of Arizona and California and the northwest Mexican states of Sonora, Baja California, and Baja California Sur. It is one of the largest and hottest deserts in North America, with an area of 311000square kilometers ( sqmi). The desert contains a variety of unique plants and animals, such as the saguaro cactus.

Location
The Sonoran Desert wraps around the northern end of the Gulf of California, from Baja California Sur (El Vizcano Biosphere Reserve in central and Pacific west coast, Central Gulf Coast subregion on east to southern tip), north through much of Baja California, excluding the central northwest mountains and Pacific west coast, through southeastern California and southwestern and southern Arizona to western and central parts of Sonora.[1] It is bounded on the west by the Peninsular Ranges, which separate it from the California chaparral and woodlands-(northwest), and Baja California desert-(Vizcaino subregion, central and southeast), ecoregions of the Pacific slope. To the north in California and northwest Arizona, the Sonoran Desert transitions to the colder-winter, slightly higher elevation Mojave, Great Basin, and Colorado Plateau deserts. To the east and southeast, the deserts transition to the coniferous Arizona Mountains forests and Sierra Madre Occidental forests at higher elevations. Finally, to the south the Sonoran-Sinaloan transition subtropical dry forest is the transition zone from the Sonoran Desert to the tropical dry forests of the state of Sinaloa.[1]

Map of the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. Source: USGS

The desert's sub-regions include the Colorado Desert of southeastern California and the Yuma Desert east of the north-south Colorado River. In the 1957 publication, Vegetation of the Sonoran Desert, Forrest Shreve divided the Sonoran Desert into seven regions Mountains in the Sonoran Desert according to characteristic vegetation: Lower Colorado Valley, Arizona Upland, Plains of Sonora, Foothills of Sonora, Central Gulf Coast, Vizcano Region, and Magdalena Region.[2] Many ecologists now consider Shreve's Vizcano and Magdalena regions, which lie on the western side of the Baja California Peninsula, to be a separate ecoregion, the Baja California desert. Within the southern Sonoran Desert in Mexico is found the Gran Desierto de Altar, with the Reserva de la Biosfera el Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar ('Pinacate National Park' in Mexico), extending 2000square kilometers (770sqmi) of desert and mountainous regions.[3] The Pinacate National Park includes the only active Erg dune region in North America. The nearest city to the Reserva de la Biosfera el Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar is Puerto Peasco (a.k.a. 'Rocky Point') in the state of Sonora, Mexico.

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Ecology
The Sonoran Desert includes 60 mammal species, 350 bird species, 20 amphibian species, over 100 reptile species, 30 native fish species, over 1000 native bee species, and more than 2000 native plant species.[4] The Sonoran Desert area southwest of Tucson and near the Mexican border is vital habitat for the only population of Jaguars living within the United States.[5]

Flora

Sonoran Desert near Maricopa, Arizona

Many plants not only survive the harsh conditions of the Sonoran Desert, but actually thrive. Many have evolved to have specialized adaptations to the desert climate. The Sonoran Desert's biseasonal rainfall pattern results in more plant species than in the other North America deserts.[6] The Sonoran Desert includes such plants from the agave family, palm family, cactus family, legume family, and many others. The Sonoran is the only place in the world where the famous saguaro cactus grows in the wild.[7] Cholla, beavertail, hedgehog, fishhook, prickly pear, night blooming cereus, and organ pipe are other species of cactus found here. Cactus provide food and homes to many desert mammals and birds, with showy flowers in reds, pinks, yellows, and whites blooming most commonly from late March through June, depending on the species and seasonal temperatures. Creosote bush and bur sage dominate valley floors. Indigo bush, Mormon tea, and mesquite are other shrubs that may be found. Sonoran Desert near Tucson, AZ in December Wildflowers of the Sonoran Desert include desert sand verbena, desert sunflower, and evening primroses. Ascending from the valley up bajadas, various subtrees such as palo verde, ironwood, desert willow, and crucifixion thorn are common, as well as multi-stemmed ocotillo. Shrubs found at higher elevations include whitethorn acacia, fairy duster, and jojoba. In the desert subdivisions found on Baja California, cardon cactus, elephant tree, and boojum tree occur.[8] The California Fan Palm is also found in parts of the Sonoran Desert, including areas of the Anza Borrego Desert State Park.[9]

Human population
The Sonoran Desert is home to the cultures of seventeen contemporary Native American Indigenous peoples in Arizona, with settlements at the American Indian reservations in Arizona. The largest city in the Sonoran Desert is Phoenix, Arizona, with a 2008 metropolitan population of about 4.3 million.[10] Located on the Salt River in central Arizona, it is one of the fastest-growing metropolitan areas in the United States. In 2007 in the Phoenix area, desert was losing ground to urban sprawl at a rate of approximately 4000 square meters (0.99acres) per hour.[11] The next largest cities are Tucson, in southern Arizona, with a metro area population of around 1 million,[10] and Mexicali, Baja California, whose municipality also has a population of around 900,000. The municipality of Hermosillo, Sonora, has a population of around 700,000. Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, in the southern part of the desert has a population of 375,800.[12] [13]

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Parks, conservation centers and research facilities

The Sonoran Desert National Monument, 2008square kilometers ( acres) in Arizona, was created in 2001 to enhance protection of the unique resources of the Sonoran Desert.[14] See also Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge Kofa National Wildlife Refuge Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument Reserva de la Biosfera el Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar, ('Pinacate National Park,' in Mexico) Saguaro National Park Sonoran Arthropod Studies Institute

References
[1] Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum (http:/ / www. desertmuseum. org/ ) [2] An Overview of the Sonoran Desert, by William G. McGinnies (http:/ / alic. arid. arizona. edu/ sonoran/ documents/ mcginnies/ McGinnies_overview. html) [3] http:/ / www. bajaquest. com/ penasco/ pinacate. htm [4] Surviving the Sonoran (http:/ / nationalzoo. si. edu/ Publications/ ZooGoer/ 2005/ 1/ survivingsonoran. cfm) [5] The Jaguar in the Borderlands of Arizona, New Mexico and Northern Mexico: Conservation - Threats & Strategies (http:/ / www. envsci. nau. edu/ scbs/ students/ 2004_newell/ Jaguar web site/ conservation. html) [6] Sonoran desert (World Wildlife Fund) (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1310_full. html) [7] The Saguaro Cactus (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ sagu/ guides/ saguarocactus. pdf) [8] James A MacMahon, Deserts, 1986, 638 pages [9] C. Michael Hogan. 2009. California Fan Palm: Washingtonia filifera, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg (http:/ / globaltwitcher. auderis. se/ artspec_information. asp?thingid=90942) [10] Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006 (CBSA-EST2006-01) (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ www/ estimates/ metro_general/ 2006/ CBSA-EST2006-01. csv), United States Census Bureau, 2007-04-05. Accessed 2007-09-11 [11] Make No Small Plans (http:/ / researchmag. asu. edu/ stories/ ewan. html), Adelheid Fischer, ASU Research magazine. Accessed on line October 15, 2007 [12] Principales resultados por localidad 2005 (http:/ / www. inegi. gob. mx/ est/ contenidos/ espanol/ sistemas/ conteo2005/ localidad/ iter/ ), Instituto Nacional de Estadstica Geografa e Informtica (Mexico). Accessed on line October 15, 2007 [13] Population Projections (http:/ / www. bajacalifornia. gob. mx/ english/ Our_State/ proyecciones. jsp), state government of Baja California, Mexico. Accessed on line October 15, 2007 [14] Sonoran Desert National Monument (http:/ / www. blm. gov/ az/ st/ en/ prog/ blm_special_areas/ natmon/ son_des. html), Bureau of Land Management, U. S. Department of the Interior. Accessed on line June 17, 2009.

External links
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum (http://www.desertmuseum.org/) Sonoran Desert and its subdivisions (http://www.desertmuseum.org/desert/sonora.php), with map and photos Timeline of the Sonoran desert (http://www.oneworldjourneys.com/sonoran/hist_timeline.html) An Overview of the Sonoran Desert, by William G. McGinnies (http://alic.arid.arizona.edu/sonoran/ documents/mcginnies/McGinnies_overview.html) The Sonoran Desert Naturalist (http://arizonensis.org/sonoran/) Very short overview of Sonoran Desert Geology (http://dana.ucc.nau.edu/~are-p/road_map/eco/geology. html#sonoran) Sonoran desert (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/na/ na1310_full.html) Sonoran Desert images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/ 51310frame.htm) ( slow modem version (http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/ecoregions/51310.htm))

Sonoran Desert International Sonoran Desert Alliance (http://www.isdanet.org) Sounds of the Sonoran Desert (http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/wss,2460))

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Links to parks and recreational areas within the Sonoran Desert

Saguaro National Park Page (http://www.nps.gov/sagu/) South Mountain Park / Preserve (http://www.ci.phoenix.az.us/PARKS/hikesoth.html)

South Saharan steppe and woodlands

The South Saharan steppe and woodlands is a deserts and xeric shrublands ecoregion of northern Africa. The ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometers (425,400 square miles) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan. It extends east and west across the continent in a band, forming a transition between the hyper-arid Sahara Desert to the north and the Sahel grasslands and savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm, but vary greatly from year to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses.[1]

References
[1] "South Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1329_full. html). Accessed December 29, 2007.

External links
South Saharan steppe and woodlands (WWF Scientific Report) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/ profiles/terrestrial/pa/pa1329_full.html)

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Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands

The Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands is a xeric woodland ecoregion of the Arabian Peninsula.

Setting
The ecoregion covers an area of 86,900 square kilometers (33,600 square miles), lying above 2000 meters elevations in the Asir Mountains of southwestern Saudi Arabia and the Western Highlands of Yemen.

Flora
The flora changes with elevation. Evergreen woodland and scrub lies between 2000 and 2500 meters elevation, with Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Tarchonanthus camphoratus the predominant trees. Above 2500 meters elevation, cloud forests, composed of large shrubs and small trees, can be found on wetter north-facing slopes, mostly made up of Juniperus procera and Euryops arabicus, covered with the lichen Usnea articulata. On the drier south-facing slopes dwarf-shrub forests of Rubus petitianus, Rosa abyssinica, Alchemilla crytantha, Senecio spp., Helichrysum abyssinicum, Aloe sabae, and Euphorbia ssp. are common.

Fauna
The Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus ssp. nimr) and Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus ssp. Arabs) are critically endangered. Other mammals include the Hamadryas Baboon (Papio hamadryas), Caracal (Caracal caracal ssp. schmitzi), Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis ssp. jayakari), and Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena).

External links
Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands (World Wildlife Fund) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1321_full. html

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Succulent Karoo
The Succulent Karoo is a desert ecoregion of South Africa and Namibia.

Setting
The Succulent Karoo stretches along the coastal strip of southwestern Namibia and South Africa's Northern Cape Province, where the cold Benguela Current offshore creates frequent fogs. The ecoregion extends inland into the uplands of South Africa's Western Cape Province. It is bounded on the south by the Mediterranean climate fynbos, on the east by the Nama Karoo, which has more extreme temperatures and variable rainfall, and on the north by the Namib Desert.

Map of the two Karoo ecoregions as delineated by the WWF. Satellite image from NASA. The yellow line encloses the two ecoregions. The green line separates the Succulent Karoo, on the west, from the Nama Karoo, on the east. National boundaries are shown in black.

Flora
The Succulent Karoo is notable for the world's richest flora of succulent plants, and harbors about one-third of the worlds approximately 10,000 succulent species. The region is also extraordinarily rich in geophytes, harboring approximately 630 species.

Fauna
The ecoregion is a center of diversity and endemism for reptiles and many invertebrate. Of the ecoregions 50 scorpion species, 22 are endemic. Monkey beetles, largely endemic to southern Africa, are concentrated in the Succulent Karoo and are important pollinators of the flora. So, too, are the Hymenoptera and masarine wasps, and colletid, fideliid, and melittid bees. Approximately 15 amphibians are found in this ecoregion, including three endemics; among the regions 115 reptile species, 48 are endemic and 15 are strict endemics. The Sperregebiet region is a hotspot for an unusual tortoise, the Namba padloper. Endemism is present, but less pronounced, among the Succulent Karoos bird and mammal populations.[1]

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Conservation
The ecoregion has been designated a biodiversity hotspot by Conservation International.

External links
Succulent Karoo (World Wildlife Fund) [2] Succulent Karoo biodiversity hotspot (Conservation International) [3] Succulent Karoo (PlantZAfrica.com) [4]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1322_full. html http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ at/ at1322_full. html http:/ / www. biodiversityhotspots. org/ xp/ Hotspots/ karoo/ http:/ / www. plantzafrica. com/ vegetation/ succkaroo. htm

Taklamakan Desert
For the novelette by Bruce Sterling see Taklamakan (story). The Taklamakan Desert (Chinese: ; pinyin: Tklmgn Shm; Uyghur: , ULY: Tklimakan qumluqi), also known as Taklimakan, and Teklimakan, is a desert in Central Asia, in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. It is the world's 17th largest desert. It is bounded by the Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the desert Pamir Mountains and Tian Shan (ancient Mount Imeon) to the west and north. The Taklamakan Desert Ecoregion is a Chinese ecoregion of the Deserts and xeric shrublands Biome.
View of the Taklamakan desert

The name is probably an Uyghur borrowing of Arabic tark, "to leave alone/out/behind, relinquish, abandon" + makan, "place".[1] [2] Another plausible explanation is that it is derived from Turki taqlar makan, which means "the place of ruins".[3] Popular accounts wrongly claim that Takla Makan means "go in and you will never come out". It may also mean "The point of no return" or "The Desert of Death".[4]

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Size
Taklamakan is one of the largest sandy deserts in the world,[5] ranking 18th in size in a ranking of the world's largest non-polar deserts.[6] It covers an area of 270000 km2 ( sqmi) of the Tarim Basin, 1000kilometres (620mi) long and 400kilometres (250mi) wide. It is crossed at its northern and at its southern edge by two branches of the Silk Road as travelers sought to avoid the arid wasteland.[7] In recent years, the People's Republic of China has constructed a cross-desert highway that links the cities of Hotan (on the southern edge) and Luntai (on the northern edge). In recent years, the desert has expanded in some areas, its sands enveloping farms and villages as a result of desertification.

Taklamakan Desert and Tarim Basin

Taklamakan by NASA World Wind

Sand Dunes in Taklamakan Desert, as seen by NASA Landsat-7

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Climate
Taklamakan is a paradigmatic cold desert climate. Given its relative proximity with the cold to frigid air masses in Siberia, extreme lows are recorded in wintertime, sometimes well below 20 C (4F). During the 2008 Chinese winter storms episode, the Taklamakan was reported to be covered for the first time in its entirety with a thin layer of snow reaching 4centimetres (1.6in), with a temperature of 26.1 C (15F) in some observatories.[8]
Desert life near Yarkand

Its extreme inland position, virtually in the very heartland of Asia and thousands of kilometres from any open body of water, accounts for the cold character of its nights even during summertime.

A Dust Storm Sweeping the Taklamakan Desert

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Oases
There is very little water in the desert and it is hazardous to cross. Merchant caravans on the Silk Road would stop for relief at the thriving oasis towns.[10] The key oasis towns, watered by rainfall from the mountains, were Kashgar, Marin, Niya, Yarkand, and Khotan (Hetian) to the south, Kuqa and Turpan in the north, and Loulan and Dunhuang in the east.[7] Now many, such as Marin and Gaochang, are ruined cities in sparsely inhabited areas in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China.[11] The archeological treasures found in its sand-buried ruins point to Tocharian, early Hellenistic, Indian, and Buddhist influences. Its treasures and dangers have been vividly described by Aurel Stein, Sven The Molcha (Moleqie) River forms a vast alluvial Hedin, Albert von Le Coq, and Paul Pelliot.[7] Mummies, some 4000 fan at the southern border of the Taklamakan years old, have been found in the region. They show the wide range of Desert, as it leaves the Altyn-Tagh mountains and enters the desert in the western part of the Qiemo peoples who have passed through. Some of the mummies appear [12] County. The left side appears blue from water European. Later, the Taklamakan was inhabited by Turkic peoples. flowing in many streams. The picture is taken in Starting with the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese periodically extended May, when the river is full with the snow/glacier their control to the oasis cities of the Taklamakan in order to control meltwater. [9] the important silk route trade across Central Asia. Periods of Chinese rule were interspersed with rule by Turkic, Mongol and Tibetan peoples. The present population consists largely of Turkic Uyghur people.

Notes
[1] E.M. Pospelov, Geograficheskiye nazvaniya mira (Moscow, 1998), p. 408. [2] Gunnar Jarring,'The Toponym Takla-makan', Turkic Languages vol 1, 1997, pp 227-40. [3] Tamm (2011), p. 139. [4] "Takla Makan Desert at TravelChinaGuide.com" (http:/ / www. travelchinaguide. com/ attraction/ xinjiang/ korla/ taklamakan. htm). . Retrieved 2008-11-24.But see Christian Tyler, Wild West China, John Murray 2003, p.17 [5] "Taklamakan Desert" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9110530/ Takla-Makan-Desert). Encyclopedia Britannica. . Retrieved 2007-08-11. [6] "The World's Largest Desert" (http:/ / geology. com/ records/ largest-desert. shtml). geology.com. . Retrieved 2007-08-22. [7] Bahn, Paul G. (2001). The Atlas of World Archeology. New York: Checkmark Books. pp.134 135. ISBN0-8160-4051-6. [8] "China's biggest desert Taklamakan experiences record snow" (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2008-02/ 01/ content_7544946. htm). Xinhuanet.com. February 1, 2008. . [9] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps?f=q& hl=en& geocode=& q=38%C2%B053%E2%80%B228%E2%80%B3N,+ 82%C2%B010%E2%80%B240%E2%80%B3E& ie=UTF8& ll=37. 301914,84. 340668& spn=0. 805076,1. 203003& t=h& z=10 [10] "Spies Along the Silk Road" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1_41VGoCYU8C& pg=PA321& ots=6bGfMuoFKr& dq=Taklamakan+ Desert& output=html& sig=b-bEdFh2_ZioH8JZ1_6QL74UC4A). . Retrieved 2007-08-07. [11] "The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C& pg=PA189& lpg=PA189& dq=miran+ china& source=web& ots=egCocMOmcJ& sig=EOvmfCuso4710WGlfZLDhwRZSvA). . Retrieved 2007-08-25. [12] "Mysterious Mummies of China" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ transcripts/ 2502chinamum. html). pbs.org. . Retrieved 2007-08-11.

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References
Jarring, Gunnar (1997). "The toponym Takla-makan", Turkic Languages, Vol. 1, pp. 227-240. Hopkirk, Peter (1980). Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 0-87023-435-8. Hopkirk, Peter (1994). The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia. ISBN 1-56836-022-3. Tamm, Eric, Enno (2010). The Horse that Leaps Through Clouds. Douglas & McIntyre, Vancouver/ Toronto/Berkeley. ISBN 978-1-55365-2694-4 (cloth); ISBN 978-1-55365-638-8 (ebook). Warner, Thomas T. (2004). Desert Meteorology. Cambridge University Press, 612 pages. ISBN 0521817986.

External links
Photos of area in China (http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/geography/china/china.html) Satellite Images from China (http://www.china-profile.com/maps/map_overview_2.htm) Personal experiences (http://www.escapeartist.com/efam/50/Taklamakan_Desert.html) Photos of mummies (http://www.meshrep.com/PicOfDay/mummies/mummies.htm) TravelChinaGuide (http://www.travelchinaguide.com/attraction/xinjiang/korla/taklamakan.htm)

Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15. (http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/ 1741-7007-8-15.pdf)
Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Afghan Mountains semi-desert Alashan Plateau semi-desert Afghanistan China, Mongolia

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Egypt, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Atlantic coastal desert Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe Badkhiz-Karabil semi-desert Baluchistan xeric woodlands Caspian lowland desert Central Afghan Mountains xeric woodlands Central Asian northern desert Central Asian riparian woodlands Central Asian southern desert Central Persian desert basins Eastern Gobi desert steppe Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe Great Lakes Basin desert steppe Junggar Basin semi-desert Kazakh semi-desert Kopet Dag semi-desert Mesopotamian shrub desert North Saharan steppe and woodlands Paropamisus xeric woodlands Mauritania, Western Sahara Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran Afghanistan, Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Pakistan Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan Afghanistan Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Iran China, Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia, Russia China, Mongolia Kazakhstan Iran, Turkmenistan Iraq, Jordan, Syria Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara Afghanistan

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Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates China Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan Iran, Iraq, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan China Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger

Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert Qaidam Basin semi-desert Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert Rigestan-North Pakistan sandy desert Sahara desert South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert South Saharan steppe and woodlands Taklimakan desert Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands West Saharan montane xeric woodlands

Tamaulipan matorral
The Tamaulipan matorral ecoregion, in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome, is of northern Mexico.

Setting
The Tamaulipan matorral extends along the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental range in northeastern Mexico, extending from central Tamaulipas state across central Nuevo Len. The ecoregion covers an area of 16300km2 (6300sqmi). The humid Veracruz moist forests lie to the southeast, on the Gulf Coastal Plain of southern Tamaulipas and Veracruz states; the Tamaulipan mezquital lies in the Rio Grande lowlands to the east and northeast. The Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests occupy higher elevations of the Sierra Madre Oriental range to the west.

Flora
The ecoregion is predominantly a desert shrubland made up of woody shrubs, small trees, cacti, and succulents. Dominant plant species include Cylindropuntia leptocaulis, Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri, Prosopis juliflora, P. laevigata, Yucca treculeana, Salvia ballotiflora, Jatropha dioica, cenizo (Leucophyllum frutescens), Mammillaria heyderi hemisphaerica, tepeguaje (Leucaena pulverulenta) and Mimosa aculeaticarpa var. biuncifera. Piedmont scrub is found in shallow soils derived from sedimentary rocks at the base of the Sierra Madre (below 2000m/6600ft) and receives 450900 mm (1835 in) of annual rainfall. It is composed of relatively short plants (3 to 5 m/9.8 to 16 ft in height) such as Helietta parvifolia, Neopringlea integrifolia and Acacia spp. Montane chaparral is a distinct plant community found above 1700m (5600ft) in the Sierra Madre Oriental, composed of oaks (Quercus spp.), Arbutus, Yucca, Cercocarpus, and Bauhinia.[1]

Fauna
Mammals present in this ecoregion include the Mexican prairie dog (Cynomys mexicanus), Saussure's Shrew (Sorex saussurei), Yellow-faced Pocket Gopher (Pappogeomys castanops), Allen's squirrel (Sciurus alleni), Collared Peccary (Pecari tajacu) and coyote (Canis latrans). Birds such as the Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia), Hooded Oriole (Icterus cucullates), Eastern Meadowlark (Sturnella magna), Long-billed Thrasher (Toxostoma longirostre), Hooded Yellowthroat (Geothlypis nelsoni), Blue Bunting (Cyanocompsa parellina) and Olive Sparrow (Arremonops rufivirgatus) are resident.[1]

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References
[1] "Tamaulipan matorral (NA1311)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1311_full. html). WWF Full Reports. World Wide Fund for Nature. . Retrieved 2010-08-21.

External links
Tamaulipan matorral (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/na/ na1311_full.html) Tamaulipan matorral (National Geographic) (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/ terrestrial/na/na1311.html)

Tamaulipan mezquital
The Tamaulipan mezquital ecoregion, in the deserts and xeric shrublands biome, is located in the southern United States and northeastern Mexico. It covers an area of 141500 km2 (54600 sqmi),[1] encompassing a portion of the Gulf Coastal Plain in southern Texas, northern Tamaulipas, northeastern Coahuila, and part of Nuevo Len.

Distribution
The Sierra Madre Oriental range to the west separates the Tamaulipan mezquital from the drier Chihuahuan Desert. The Tamaulipan matorral is a transitional ecoregion between the mezquital and the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests to the west and the Veracruz moist forests to the south. The Western Gulf coastal grasslands, known as the Tamaulipan pastizal south of the border, fringe the Gulf of Mexico. The Edwards Plateau savannas lie to the north, and the East Central Texas forests and Texas blackland prairies to the northeast.[1]

Flora
Mezquital is characterized by Honey Mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) and Curly Mesquite Grass (Hilaria belangeri). Prior to disturbance, the most common shrubs were probably Lotebush (Ziziphus obtusifolia) and Whitebrush (Aloysia gratissima). Parts of this region consisted of open woods of mesquite, with a pronounced understory of grasses. The grasses in this community contained a layer of taller species such as Hooded Windmill Grass (Chloris cucullata), and a layer of shorter species such as Grama (Bouteloua spp.). In some places dense stands of Texas Prickly Pear (Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri) occurred instead of shrubs and grasses. Brushy species include Huisache (Vachellia farnesiana var. farnesiana), Desert Hackberry (Celtis pallida), Cenizo (Leucophyllum frutescens), Whitebrush, Texas Prickly Pear, and Tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis). Mexican Palmettos (Sabal mexicana) and Montezuma Cypresses (Taxodium mucronatum) grow in riparian zones, such as along the Rio Grande.[1]

Fauna
Mammals of the Tamaulipan mezquital include the Mexican prairie dog (Cynomys mexicanus), Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), Gulf Coast Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi cacomitli) Southern Plains Woodrat (Neotoma micropus), and Mexican Spiny Pocket Mouse (Liomys irroratus).[1] Mexican Black Bears (Ursus americanus eremicus) and Cougars inhabit the Sierra de Picachos.[2] The southern part of the ecoregion is an Endemic Bird Area and is home to the Red-crowned Amazon (Amazona viridigenalis), Crimson-collared Grosbeak (Rhodothraupis celaeno), Altamira Yellowthroat (Geothlypis flavovelata), and Tamaulipas Crow (Corvus imparatus).[1]

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References
[1] "Tamaulipan mezquital (NA1312)" (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1312_full. html). WWF Full Reports. World Wide Fund for Nature. . Retrieved 2010-11-25. [2] "Tamaulipan mezquital (NA1312)" (http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ na/ na1312. html). WildWorld Ecoregion Profiles. National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 2010-11-25.

External links
Tamaulipan mezquital (World Wildlife Fund) (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/ na/na1312_full.html) Tamaulipan mezquital (National Geographic) (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/ terrestrial/na/na1312.html)

Tehuacn Valley matorral

The Tehuacn Valley matorral is a xeric shrubland ecoregion, within the Deserts and xeric shrublands Biome, in central Mexico.

Setting
The ecoregion occupies the Tehuacn and Cuicatln valleys, covering parts of Puebla and Oaxaca states. The valleys lie in the rain shadow of the surrounding mountain ranges, and is drier than the surrounding ecoregions. The Tehuacn Valley matorral is bounded by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests to the northwest, north, and northeast, the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca pine-oak forests to the east, and by the Balsas dry forests to the southeast, south, and southwest.

Flora
The Tehuacn Valley matorral is a center of plant diversity, with over 2700 species, of which approximately 30% are endemic. It is a center of diversity for species of Agave, Hechtia, Salvia, and cactus. The ecoregion has a number of distinct plant communities.

Fauna
The ecoregion is notable for its diversity of birds and bats. Of the 90 species of birds present, 10 are endemic, including the Ocellated Thrasher (Toxostoma ocellatum), and Bridled Sparrow (Aimorphilla mystacalis). 34 species of bats inhabit the ecoregion, of which 18 are endangered, vulnerable, or rare.

References and external links

Tehuacn Valley matorral (World Wildlife Fund) [1] Tehuacn Valley matorral (National Geographic) [2] Tehuacn-Cuicatln Biosphere Reserve (ParksWatch) [PDF] [3]

References
Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso, Noe Flores-Hernandez, Miguel Verdu, Patricia Davila. "The chaparral vegetation in Mexico under nonmediterranean climate: the convergence and Madrean-Tethyan hypotheses reconsidered". American Journal of Botany, 1998 85: 1398-1408. [4]

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt1316_full. html http:/ / www. nationalgeographic. com/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ nt/ nt1316. html http:/ / www. parkswatch. org/ parkprofiles/ pdf/ tcbr_eng. pdf http:/ / www. amjbot. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 85/ 10/ 1398

Thar Desert
The Thar Desert (Rajasthani: ), Urdu (Urdu: , also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a large, arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent and forms a natural boundary running along the border between India and Pakistan. With an area of more than unknown operator: u','unknown operator: u','unknown operator: u',' (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u','sqmi),[1] it is the world's 9th largest subtropical desert.[2] It lies mostly in the Indian State of Rajasthan, and extends into the southern portion of Haryana and Punjab states and into northern Gujarat state. In Pakistan, the desert covers eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. The Cholistan Desert adjoins the Thar desert spreading into Pakistani Punjab province.

Location and description

A NASA satellite image of the Thar Desert, with the India-Pakistan border superimposed.

In India the Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) extends from the Sutlej River, surrounded by the Aravalli Range on the east, on the south by the salt marsh known as the Rann of Kutch (parts of which are sometimes included in the Thar), and on the west by the Indus River. Its boundary to the large thorny steppe to the north is ill-defined, about 3/5th of the total geographical area of the State. In Pakistan, the desert covers the eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. The Tharparkar District is one of the major parts of the desert area. Tharparkar consists of two words: Thar means desert while Parkar stands for the other View of Thar desert side. Years back, it was known as Thar and Parkar but subsequently became just one word Tharparkar for the two distinct parts of Sindh province. On the western side, Parkar is the irrigated area whereas Thar, the eastern part, is known as the largest desert of Pakistan. Rainfall in the area is very low, from 100-500mm per year, all falling between July and September, and the climate is harsh with temperatures ranging from near freezing up to 50C.

Thar Desert

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Physiography and geology

There are three principal landforms in the desert region the predominantly sand covered Thar, the plains with hills including the central dune free country and the semi-arid area surrounding the Aravalli range. On the whole the Thar Desert slopes imperceptibly towards the Indus Plain and surface unevenness is mainly due to sand dunes. The dunes in the south are higher, rising sometimes to 152 m whereas in the north they are lower and rise to 16 m above the ground level.

The region surrounding Aravalli hills near

The Aravalli forms the main landmark to the south-east of Thar Desert. Ranthambore, Rajasthan, India. Desert soil - The soils of the Arid Zone are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan. Some of these soils contain a high percentage of soluble salts in the lower horizons, turning water in the wells poisonous.

Origin
The origin of the Thar Desert is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be 4000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier. Another theory states that area turned to desert relatively recently: perhaps around 2000 - 1500 BC. Around this time the Ghaggar ceased to be a major river. It now terminates in the desert but at one time was a watersource for the Indus Valley Civilization centre of Mohenjo-daro. It has been observed through remote sensing techniques that Late Quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a significant role in modifying the drainage courses in this part and a large number of palaeochannels exist. Most of the studies did not share the opinion that the palaeochannels of the Sarasvati coincide with the bed of present day Ghaggar and believe that the Sutlej along with the Yamuna once flowed into the present Ghaggar riverbed. It has been postulated that the Sutlej was the main tributary of the Ghaggar and that subsequently the tectonic movements might have forced the Sutlej westwards, the Yamuna eastwards and thus dried up the Ghaggar. The studies about Kalibanga in the desert region by Robert Raikes[3] indicate that Kalibangan was abandoned because the river dried up. Prof. B. B. Lal (retd. Director General of Archaeological Survey of India) supports this view by asserting: "Radiocarbon dating indicates that the Mature Harappan settlement at Kalibangan had to be abandoned around 2000-1900 BCE. And, as the hydrological evidence indicates, this abandonment took place on account of the drying up of the Sarasvati (Ghaggar). This latter part is duly established by the work of Raikes, an Italian hydrologist, and of his Indian collaborators".[4]

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Thar in ancient literature

The Indian epics describe this region as Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean). Ramayana mentions about Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean) when Rama goes to attack Lanka with the army of vanaras. Rama uses his agneyashtra-amogha to dry up the sea named drumakulya situated on north of Lavanasagara. A fresh water source named Pushkar surrounded by Marukantara was created.[5] According to Jain cosmology, Jambdvpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambdvpaprajapti or the treatise on the island of Roseapple tree contains a description of Jambdvpa and life biographies of abha and King Bharata. Jambdvpa continent is surrounded by ocean Lavanoda (Salt-ocean). The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert. Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Helmand River is often quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place, either from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra, or conversely from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Helmand, is a matter of dispute.

The position of Thar desert (orange colour) in Iron Age Vedic India.

Course of Sarasvati river through Thar desert

There is also a small present-day Sarasvati River (Sarsuti) that joins the Ghaggar river. Mahabharata mentions about Kamyaka Forest situated on the western boundary of the Kuru Kingdom (Kuru Proper + Kurujangala), on the banks of the Saraswati River. It lay to the west of the Kurukshetra plain. It contained within it a lake called the Kamyaka lake (2,51). Kamyaka forest is mentioned as being situated at the head of the Thar desert,[6] near the lake Trinavindu (3,256). The Pandavas on their way to exile in the woods, left Pramanakoti on the banks of the Ganga and went towards Kurukshetra, travelling in a western direction, crossing the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati. They finally reached the banks of the Saraswati River. There they saw the forest of Kamyaka, the favourite haunt of ascetics, situated on a level and wild plain on the banks of the Saraswati (3-5,36) abounding in birds and deer (3,5). There the Pandavas lived in an ascetic asylum (3,10). It took 3 days for Pandavas to reach the Kamyaka forest, setting out from Hastinapura, on their chariots (3,11). In Rigveda we also find mention of a River named Avanvat along with river Drishadvati.[7] Some scholars consider both Saraswati and Avanvat same river.[6] The human habitations on the banks of rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati had shifted to the east and south directions prior to Mahabharata period. During those days The present day Bikaner and Jodhpur areas were known as Kurujangala and Madrajangala provinces.[8] The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer has a collection of fossils of animals and plants of 180 million years old. Some fossils of Dinosaurs of 6 million years old have also been found in the area.[5]

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Biodiversity
Stretches of sand in the desert are interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. Due to the diversified habitat and ecosystem, the vegetation, human culture and animal life in this arid region is very rich in contrast to the other deserts of the world. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.

Indian Gazelle or Chinkara

Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennettii) and the Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch. They have evolved excellent survival strategies, their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal. There are certain other factors responsible for the survival of these animals in the desert. Due to the lack of water in this region, transformation of the Peacock bird on Khejri tree grasslands into cropland has been very slow. The protection provided to them by a local community, the Bishnois, is also a factor. Other mammals of the Thar area include a subspecies of Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and a wild cat, the caracal. The region is a haven for 141 species of migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. Short-toed Eagles (Circaetus gallicus), Tawny Eagles (Aquila rapax), Spotted Eagles (Aquila clanga), Laggar Falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels. There are also a number of reptiles. The Indian Peafowl is a resident breeder in the Indian subcontinent particularly Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the Punjab (Pakistan). It can be seen sitting on Khejri or Pipal trees in villages or Deblina.

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Natural vegetation
The natural vegetation of this dry area is classed as Northern Desert Thorn Forest [9] occurring in small clumps scattered more or less openly. Density and size of patches increase from west to east following the increase in rainfall. Natural vegetation of Thar Desert is composed of following tree, shrub and herb species.[10] Tree species Acacia jacquemontii, Acacia leucophloea, Acacia senegal, Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta indica, Anogeissus rotundifolia, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oleoides, Tecomella undulata, Tamarix articulata Small trees and shrubs Calligonum polygonoides, Acacia jacquemontii, Balanites roxburghii, Ziziphus zizyphus, Ziziphus nummularia, Calotropis procera, Suaeda fruticosa, Crotalaria burhia, Aerva tomentosa, Clerodendrum Prosopis cineraria or Khejri multiflorum, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Lycium barbarum, Grewia populifolia, Commiphora mukul, Euphorbia neriifolia, Cordia rothii, Maytenus emarginata, Capparis decidua. Mimosa hamata Herbs and grasses Eleusine compressa, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Cenchrus biflorus, Cenchrus setigerus, Lasiurus hirsutus, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum turgidum, Panicum antidotale, Dichanthium annulatum, Sporobolus marginatus, Saccharum spontaneum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Desmostachya bipinnata, Erogrostis species, Ergamopagan species, Phragmitis species, Tribulus terrestris, Typha species, Sorghum halepense, Citrullus colocynthis

Threats and preservation

There are eleven national parks in the Thar desert area, the largest of which are the Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary and the Rann of Kutch. Others include: the Desert National Park, Jaisalmer (3162km) is an excellent example of the ecosystem of the Thar Desert, and its diverse fauna. The endangered Great Indian Bustard (Chirotis nigricaps), Blackbuck, chinkara, fox, Bengal fox, wolf, and caracal can be seen here. Seashells and massive fossilized tree trunks in this park record the geological history of the desert; Tal Chhapar Sanctuary a very small sanctuary in Churu District, 210km from Jaipur, in the Blackbuck male and female Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of Blackbuck while fox and caracal can also be spotted along with typical avifauna such as partridge and sand grouse; Jalore Wildlife Sanctuary (130km from Jodhpur) is another small sanctuary that is privately owned where a sizeable population of rare and endangered wildlife is present including the Asian-Steppe Wildcat([Ornata]), Leopard, Zird, Desert Fox and herds of Indian Gazelle.

Thar Desert Greening desert The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year and is prone to wind erosion. High velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some on neighboring fertile lands, and causing shifting sand dunes within the desert, which bury fences and block roads and railway tracks. Permanent solution to this problem of shifting sand dunes can be provided by fixation of the shifting sand dunes with suitable plant species and planting windbreaks and shelterbelts. They also provide protection from hot or cold and desiccating winds and the invasion of sand.

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Greening desert with plantations of jojoba at Fatehpur, Shekhawati

Checking of shifting sand dunes through plantations of Acacia tortilis near Laxmangarh town

There are few local tree species suitable for planting in the desert region and these are slow growing. The introduction of exotic tree species in the desert for plantation has become necessary. Many species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cassia and other genera from Israel, Australia, USA, Russia, Southern Rhodesia, Chile, Peru and Sudan have been tried in Thar Desert. Acacia tortilis has proved to be the most promising species for desert afforestation and the jojoba is another promising species of economic value found suitable for planting in these areas. The Rajasthan Canal system is the major irrigation scheme of the Thar Desert and is conceived to reclaim it and also to check spreading of the

desert to fertile areas.

Desert economy
Agriculture
The Thar is one of most heavily-populated desert areas in the world and the main occupations of people living here are agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture is not a dependable proposition in this areaafter the rainy season, at least 33% of crops fail. Animal husbandry, trees and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable model for arid, drought-prone regions. The region faces frequent droughts. Overgrazing due to high animal populations, wind and water erosion, mining and other industries result in serious land degradation.

Due to severe weather conditions, there are few highways in the Thar desert. Shown here is a road in Tharparkar District of Sindh, Pakistan.

Thar Desert

147 The agricultural production is mainly from the Kharif crops. The Kharif crops are the crops that are grown in the summer season and are seeded in the months of June and July. These crops are harvested in the months of September and October and include bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum), pulses, jowar (Sorghum vulgare), maize (zea mays), sesame and groundnuts. In past few decades the development of canals, tube wells etc. has changed crop pattern. Now the desert districts in Rajasthan have started producing rabi crops like wheat, mustard, cumin seed etc. cash crops also.[11]
Bajra is the main kharif crop in Thar

Thar region of Rajasthan is the main opium producer and consumer area. There are mainly two crop seasons. The water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan. The Government of India has started a centrally sponsored scheme under the title of Desert Development Programme based on watershed management with the objective to check spreading of desert and improve the living condition of people in desert.[12]

Mustard fields in a village of Shri Ganganagar district(Rajasthan,India).

Livestock
In the last 1520 years, the Rajasthan desert has seen many changes, including a manifold increase of both the human and animal population. Animal husbandry has become popular due to the difficult farming conditions. At present, there are ten times more animals per person in Rajasthan than the national average, and overgrazing is also a factor affecting climatic and drought conditions.

Camel ride in the Thar desert near Jaisalmer, India.

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A large number of farmers in Thar desert depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood. Cow, buffalo, sheep, goats, camel, and ox consists of major cattle population. Barmer district has the highest cattle population out of which sheep and goats are in majority. Some of the best breeds of bullocks such as Kankrej (Sanchori) and Nagauri are from desert region. Thar region of Rajasthan is the biggest wool-producing area in India. Chokla, Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra, Malpuri, Sonadi, Nali and Pungal breeds of sheep are found in the region. Of the total wool production in India, 40-50% comes from Rajasthan. The sheep-wool from Rajasthan is considered best for carpet making industry in the world. The wool of Chokla breed of sheep is considered of superior quality. The breeding centres have been developed for Karakul and Merino sheep at Suratgarh, Jaitsar and Bikaner. Some important mills for making Woolen thread established in desert area are:Jodhpur Woolen Mill, Jodhpur; Rajasthan Woolen Mill , Bikaner and India Woolen Mill, Bikaner. Bikaner is the biggest mandi of wool in Asia.[13]

Cows in Thar Desert

The live stock depends for grazing on common lands in villages. During famine years in the desert the nomadic rebari people move with large herds of sheep and camel to the forested areas of south Rajasthan or nearby states like Madhya Pradesh for grazing the cattle. The importance of animal husbandry can be understood from the organization of large number of cattle fairs in the region. Cattle fairs are normally named after the folk-deities. Some of major cattle fairs held are Ramdevji cattle fair at Manasar in Nagaur district, Tejaji cattle fair at Parbatsar in Nagaur district, Baldeo cattle fair at Merta city in Nagaur district, Mallinath cattle fair at Tilwara in barmer district.

Agro-forestry
Forestry has an important part to play in the amelioration of the conditions in semi-arid and arid lands. If properly planned forestry can make an important contribution to the general welfare of the people living in desert areas. The living standard of the people in the desert is low. They can not afford other fuels like gas, kerosene etc. Fire wood is their main fuel, of the total consumption of wood about 75 percent is firewood. The forest cover in desert is low. Rajasthan has a forest area of 31150km2. which is about 9% of the geographical area. The forest area is mainly in southern districts of Rajasthan like Udaipur and Chittorgarh. The minimum forest area is in Churu district only 80km2. Thus the forest is insufficient to fulfill the needs of firewood and grazing in desert districts. This diverts the much needed cattledung from the field to the hearth. This in turn results into the decrease in agricultural production. Agro-forestry model is best suited to the people of desert. Some Institutes have done good work in Agro-forestry.

Lopping of Khejri tree for fodder and fuel in Harsawa village

Thar Desert The scientists of Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), have successfully developed and improved dozens of traditional and non-traditional crops/fruits, such as Ber trees (like plums) that produce much larger fruits than before (lemon-size) and can thrive with minimal rainfall. These trees have become a profitable option for farmers. One example from a case study of horticulture showed that in situation of budding in 35 plants of Ber and Guar (Gola, Seb & Mundia variety developed in CAZRI), using only one hectare of land, yielded 10,000kg. of Ber and 250kg. of Guar, which translates into double or even triple profit.[14] Arid Forest Research Institute, situated at Jodhpur is another national level institute in the region. It is one of the institutes of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education ( ICFRE ) working under the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. The Objective of the Institute is to carry out scientific research in forestry in order to provide technologies to increase the vegetative cover and to conserve the biodiversity in the hot arid and semi arid region of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Dadara & Nagar Haveli union territory. The most important tree species in terms of providing a livelihood in Thar desert communities is Prosopis cineraria. Prosopis cineraria provides wood of construction class. It is used for house-building, chiefly as rafters, posts scantlings, doors and windows, and for well construction water pipes, upright posts of Persian wheels, agricultural implements and shafts, spokes, fellows and yoke of carts. It can also be used for small turning work and tool-handles. Container manufacturing is another important wood-based industry, which depends heavily on desert-grown trees. Prosopis cineraria is much valued as a fodder tree. The trees are heavily lopped particularly during winter months when no other green fodder is available in the dry tracts. There is a popular saying that death will not visit a man, even at the time of a famine, if he has a Prosopis cineraria, a goat and a camel, since the three together are some what said to sustain a man even under the most trying condition. The forage yield per tree varies a great deal. On an average, the yield of green forage from a full grown tree is expected to be about 60kg with complete lopping having only the central leading shoot, 30kg when the lower two third crown is lopped and 20kg when the lower one third crown is lopped. The leaves are of high nutritive value. Feeding of the leaves during winter when no other green fodder is generally available in rain-fed areas is thus profitable. The pods have a sweetish pulp and are also used as fodder for livestock. Prosopis cineraria is most important top feed species providing nutritious and highly palatable green as well as dry fodder, which is readily eaten by camels, cattle, sheep and goats, constituting a major feed requirement of desert livestock. Locally it is called Loong. Pods are locally called sangar or sangri. The dried pods locally called Kho-Kha are eaten. Dried pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by all livestock. Green pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by drying the young boiled pods. They are also used as famine food and known even to prehistoric man. Even the bark, having an astringent bitter taste, was reportedly eaten during the severe famine of 1899 and 1939. Pod yield is nearly 1.4 quintals of pods/ha with a variation of 10.7% in dry locations. Prosopis cineraria wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Its roots also encourage nitrogen fixation, which produces higher crop yields.

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Tecomella undulata is tree species, locally known as Rohida, found in Thar Desert regions of northwest and western India, is another important medium sized tree of great use in Agro-forestry, that produces quality timber and is the main source of timber amongst the indigenous tree species of desert regions. The trade name of the tree species is Desert teak or Marwar teak. Tecomella undulata is mainly used as a source of timber. Its wood is strong, tough and durable. It takes a fine finish. Heartwood contains quinoid. The wood is excellent for firewood and charcoal. Cattle and goats eat leaves of the tree. Camels, goats and sheep consume flowers and pods. Tecomella undulata plays an important role in the ecology. It acts as a soil-binding tree by spreading a network of lateral roots on the top surface of the soil. It also acts as a windbreak and helps in stabilizing shifting sand dunes. It is considered as the home of birds and provides shelter for other desert wildlife. Shade of tree crown is shelter for the cattle, goats and sheep during summer days.

Tecomella undulata tree in the village of Harsawa

Tecomella undulata has medicinal properties as well. The bark obtained from the stem is used as a remedy for syphilis. It is also used in curing urinary disorders, enlargement of spleen, gonorrhoea, leucoderma and liver diseases. Seeds are used against abscess.

Ecotourism
Desert safaris on camels have become increasingly popular around Jaisalmer. Domestic and international tourists frequent the desert seeking adventure on camels for anything from a day to several days. This industry ranges from cheaper backpacker treks to plush Arabian night style campsites replete with banquets and cultural performances. During the treks tourists are able to view the fragile and beautiful ecosystem of the Thar desert. This form of tourism provides income to many operators and camel owners in Jaisalmer as well as employment for many camel trekers in the desert villages nearby. Ecotourism is when tourists visit a place without permanently harming the environment.

Industry
Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj Mahal was built with white marble mined from Makrana in Nagaur district. The state is the second largest source of cement in India. It has rich salt deposits at Sambhar. Jodhpur sandstone is mostly used in monuments, important buildings, residential buildings, and such. This stone is termed "chittar patthar". Jodhpur has lso got mines of red stone locally known as ghatu patthar used in construction. Sand stone is found in Jodhpur and Naguar districts. Jalore is biggest centre of granite processing units.[13] Lignite coal deposits are there at places Giral, Kapuradi, Jalipa, Bhadka in Barmer district; Plana, Gudha, Bithnok, Barsinghpur, Mandla Charan, Raneri Hadla in Bikaner district and Kasnau, Merta, Lunsar etc., in Nagaur district. Lignite based Thermal power plant has been established at Giral in Barmer district. Jindal group is working on 1080 Megawatt power project in private sector at village Bhadaresh in Barmer district. "Neweli Lignite Barsinghpur Project" is under progress to establish two thermal power units of capacity 125 megawatts each at Barsinghpur in Bikaner district. Reliance Energy is working on establishing power generation through underground gasification technique in Barmer district with an outlay of about 3000 crore rupees.[15]

Thar Desert There is large storage of good quality petroleum in Jaisalmer and Barmer districts. The main places with depsits of petroleum are Baghewal, Kalrewal, and Tawariwal in Jaisalmer district and Gudha Malani area in Barmer district. Barmer district has started petroleum production on commercial scale.[16] Barmer district is in the news due to its large oil basin. The British exploration company Cairn Energy is going to start the production soon in the year 2009 on large scale. Mangala, Bhagyam and Aishwariya are the major oil fields in the district. This is India's biggest oil discovery in 22 years. This promises to transform the local economy, which has long suffered from the harshness of the desert. The Government of India initiated departmental exploration for oil in 1955-56 in the Jaisalmer area,[17] Oil India Limited's discovered natural gas in 1988 in the Jaisalmer basin.[18] Also known for their fine leather messenger bags made from wild camels native to the area. The Thar desert seems an ideal place for generation of electricity from wind power. According to an estimate Rajasthan state has got a potential of 5500 Megawatt wind power generation as such it is in the priority of the state govt. Rajasthan State Power Corporation has established its first wind power based power plant at Amarsagar in Jaisalmer district. Some leading companies in the field are working on establishing wind mills in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts. Solar energy also has a great potential in this region as most of the days during a year are cloud free. Solar energy based plant has been established at Bhaleri in Churu district to convert hard water into drinking water.[19]

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Salt water lakes

There are a number of salt water lakes in Thar desert. These are Sambhar, Pachpadra, Tal Chhapar, Falaudi and Lunkaransar where Sodium chloride salt is produced from salt water. The Didwana lake produces Sodium Sulphate salt. Ancient Archaeological evidences of habitations have been recovered from Sambhar and Didwana lakes which shows their antiquity and historical importance.[20]

People
The Thar Desert is mainly inhabited by Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. The portion in Pakistan is inhabited by primarily by Sindhis and Kolhis. A colourful culture rich in tradition prevails in the desert. The people have a great passion for folk music and folk poetry. About 40% of the total population of Rajasthan state live in the Thar desert.[2]
Huts in the Thar desert

The main occupation of the people in desert is agriculture and animal husbandry. In past years there has been a tremendous increase in human population as well as animal population. This has led to improper control of grazing and extensive cultivation resulting into the deterioration of vegetation resources. The increase of human and livestock population in the desert has led to deterioration in the ecosystem resulting in degradation of soil fertility. The living standard of the people in the desert is low. The Thar Desert is the most densely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km2. vs 7 in other deserts.[21] Jodhpur, the largest city in the region, lies in the scrub forest zone. Bikaner and Jaisalmer are located in the desert proper.

Young muslim woman in the Thar desert

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A large irrigation and power project has reclaimed areas of the northern and western desert for agriculture. The small population is mostly pastoral, and hide and wool industries are prominent. In Pakistan part of Thar also has a rich multifaceted culture, heritage, traditions, folk tales, dances and music due to its inhabitants who belong to different religions, sects and castes.
The great Derawar Fort located within Bahawalpur, Pakistan

A girl from the Gadia Lohars nomadic tribe of Marwar, cooking her food

Water and housing in the desert

Water scarcity plays an important role in shaping life in all parts of Thar. Natural (tobas) or man-made (johads), both types of small, intermittent ponds, are often the only source of water for animals and humans in the true desert areas. The lack of a constant water supply causes much of the local population to live as nomads.[22] Most human settlements are found near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills.[22] Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar desert. Supplies are often sour due to dissolved minerals, and are only available deep underground.[22] Wells that successfully bear sweet water attract nearby settlement, but are difficult to dig, possibly claiming the lives of the well-diggers.[22]

Johads are common water sources

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According to 1980 housing census in Pakistan, there were 241,326 housing units of one or two very small rooms. The degree of crowding was six persons per housing unit and three persons per room.[22] For most of the housing units (approximately 76 per cent), the main construction material of outer walls is unbaked bricks whereas wood is used in 10 per cent and baked bricks or stones with mud bonding in 8 per cent housing units. A large number of families still live in jhugis or huts which are housing units formed with straws and thin wood-sticks. The wind storm proves these jhugis unsustainable all the times. But the poverty leaves no other option to these jhugiwalas (people living in jhugis).[22] The river Luni is the only natural water source that drains inside a lake in the desert. It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, after travelling a distance of 530km. The Luni flows through part of Tanks for drinking water Ajmer, Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, and Sirohi districts and Mithavirana Vav Radhanpur region of Banaskantha North Gujarat. Its major tributaries are the Sukri, Mithri, Bandi, Khari, Jawai, Guhiya and Sagi from the left, and the Jojari River from the right. The Ghaggar is another intermittent river in India, flowing during the monsoon rains. It originates in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through Punjab and Haryana to Rajasthan; just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of talwara jheel in Rajasthan, this seasonal river feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan. It terminates in Hanumangarh district.[23] The Rajasthan Canal system is the major irrigation scheme of the Thar Desert and is conceived to reclaim it and also to check spreading of the desert to fertile areas. It is world's largest irrigation which is being extended in an attempt to make the desert arable.[24] It runs south-southwest in Punjab and Haryana but mainly in Rajasthan for a total of 650 kilometers and ends near Jaisalmer, in Rajasthan. After the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, irrigation facilities were available over an area of 6770km in Jaisalmer district and 37km in Barmer district. Irrigation had already been provided in an area of 3670km in Jaisalmer district. The canal has transformed the barren deserts of this district into rich and lush fields. Crops of mustard, cotton, and wheat now flourish in this semi-arid western region replacing the sand there previously. Besides providing water for agriculture, the canal will supply drinking water to hundreds of people in far-flung areas. As the second stage of work on the canal progresses rapidly, there is hope that it will enhance the living standards of the people of the state.

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Desert for recreation

Thar Desert provides the recreational value in terms of desert festivals organized every year. Rajasthan desert festivals are celebrated with great zest and zeal. This festival is held once a year during winters. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing haunting ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. The fair has snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels, of course, play a stellar role in this festival, where the rich and colorful folk culture of Rajasthan can be seen.
Desert tribes near Jaisalmer, India

Camels are an integral part of the desert life and the camel events during the Desert Festival confirm this fact. Special efforts go into dressing the animal for entering the spectacular competition of the best-dressed camel. Other interesting competitions on the fringes are the moustache and turban tying competitions, which not only demonstrate a glorious tradition but also inspire its preservation. Both the turban and the moustache have been centuries old symbols of honor in Rajasthan. Evenings are meant for the main shows of music and dance. Continuing till late into the night, the number of spectators swells up each night and the grand finale, on the full moon night, takes place by silvery sand dunes.

Gallery of plants of Thar desert

Prosopis cineraria (Khejri tree)

Azadirachta indica (Neem)

Tecomella undulata (Rohida tree)

Salvadora oleoides (Pilu tree)

Albizia lebbeck (Siris tree)

Balanites roxburghii (Inguda tree)

Capparis decidua (Kair tree)

Acacia tortilis (Vilayatibabul tree)

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Acacia leucophloea (Remjha tree)

Acacia senegal (Gum-arabic Tree)

Calligonum polygonoides (Phog shrub)

Acacia nilotica (Babul tree)

Ziziphus zizyphus (Ber tree)

Carissa carandus (Karonda shrub)

Calotropis procera (Aak shrub)

Kankeda (Rajasthani) shrub or small tree

Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Khimp shrub)

Lycium barbarum

Simmondsia chinensis (Jojoba shrub)

Clerodendrum multiflorum (Arana shrub)

Murayla (Rajasthani) shrub

Mimosa hamata (Aly shrub)

Tribulus terrestris (Gokharu herb)

Aerva tomentosa (Bui herb)

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Crotalaria burhia (Sania herb)

Saccharum munja (Munja grass)

Saccharum spontaneum (Kans grass)

Sorghum halepense (Barru grass)

Masa (Rajasthani) herb

Cenchrus biflorus (Bharut grass)

Cenchrus ciliaris

Citrullus colocynthis (Gadtumba climber)

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Sahara Desert - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9071941/ Thar-Desert) Dr Mohan La Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.69 Kalibangan: Death from Natural Causes, by Raikes cf. The Homeland of Indo-European Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.216 Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.219 amanvat ryate sa rabhadhvamut tihata pra taratsakhya | atr jahma ye asannaev ivn vayamuttarembhi vjn || (RV:10.53.8) Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.222

[9] Champion 1936 [10] Kaul, R.N. (1970). Afforestation in Arid zones (edited): Dr. W. JUNK N.V. Publishers The Hague. [11] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.153 [12] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.162 [13] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.125 [14] Arid Agriculture: State-of-the-Art Agro-Forestry vs. Deserts on the March By Brook & Gaurav Bhagat August 14, 2003 (http:/ / www. ecoworld. com/ Home/ Articles2. cfm?TID=341) [15] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.136-137 [16] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.121 [17] PlanningCommission.NIC.in (http:/ / planningcommission. nic. in/ plans/ planrel/ fiveyr/ 2nd/ 2planch18. html) [18] OilIndia.NIC.in (http:/ / oilindia. nic. in/ ourcomp_spread_rajasthan. htm) [19] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.139-140 [20] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.81 [21] Grasslands and Deserts (http:/ / planningcommission. nic. in/ aboutus/ committee/ wrkgrp11/ tf11_grass. pdf) [22] Thar -- Pakistans largest desert of living traditions (http:/ / www. travel-culture. com/ pakistan/ thar_desert. shtml) [23] Dr Mohan Lal Gupta: Rajasthan Jyankosh, Rajasthani Granthagar, Jodhpur, 2008, ISBN 81-86103-05-8, p.74 [24] Guide to Places of the World, The Reader's Digest Association Ltd, London, 1987, p. 540

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Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the New World Encyclopedia:Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats. The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here at Thar Desert (April 28, 2007) history Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Further reading
Rajendra Kumar. Gravis Jodhpur Govt. of India. Ministry of Food & Agriculture booklet (1965)soil conservation in the Rajasthan DesertWork of the Desert Afforestation Research station, Jodhpur. Kaul, R.N. (1970). Afforestation in Arid zones (edited): Dr. W. JUNK N.V. Publishers The Hague. Gupta, R.K. & Prakash Ishwar (1975). Environmental analysis of the Thar Desert. English Book Depot., Dehra Dun. Kaul, R.N. (1967). Trees or grass lands in the Rajasthan: Old problems and New approaches. Indian Forester, 93: 434-435. Burdak, L.R. (1982). Recent Advances in Desert Afforestation. Dissertation submitted to Shri R.N. Kaul, Director, Forestry Research, F.R.I., Dehra dun. Yashpal, Sahai Baldev, Sood, R.K., and Agarwal, D.P. (1980). "Remote sensing of the 'lost' Saraswati river". Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences (Earth and Planet Science), V. 89, No. 3, pp.317331. Bakliwal , P.C. and Sharma, S.B. (1980). "On the migration of the river Yamuna". Journal of the Geological Society of India, Vol. 21, Sept. 1980, pp.461463. Bakliwal, P.C. and Grover, A.K. (1988). "Signature and migration of Sarasvati river in Thar desert, Western India". Record of the Geological Survey of India V 116, Pts. 38, pp.7786. Rajawat, A.S., Sastry, C.V.S. and Narain, A. (1999-a). Application of pyramidal processing on high resolution IRS-1C data for tracing the migration of the Saraswati river in parts of the Thar desert. in "Vedic Sarasvati, Evolutionary History of a Lost River of Northwestern India", Memoir Geological Society of India, Bangalore, No. 42, pp.259272. Ramasamy, S.M. (1999). Neotectonic controls on the migration of Sarasvati river of the Great Indian desert. in "Vedic Sarasvati, Evolutionary History of a Lost River of Northwestern India", Memoir Geological Society of India, Bangalore, No. 42, pp.153162. Rajesh Kumar, M., Rajawat, A.S. and Singh, T.N. (2005). Applications of remote sensing for educidate the Palaeochannels in an extended Thar desert, Western Rajasthan, 8th annual International conference, Map India 2005, New Delhi.

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External links
Thar Desert travel guide from Wikitravel WorldWildLife.org (http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im1304_full.html), Thar Desert (World Wildlife Fund) Dharssi.org.uk (http://www.dharssi.org.uk/travel/india/jaisalmer.html), Photos of the Thar desert Avgustin.net (http://avgustin.net/gallery.php?id=44), Photos of the Thar desert in Pakistan side Travel-Culture.com (http://www.travel-culture.com/pakistan/thar_desert.shtml), Information about Thar desert In Pakistan MIT.gov (http://www.mit.gov.in/tdil/E_TOURISM_CDAC/desert visions/html/hjaisal.htm),

Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands

The Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands ecoregion, in the deserts and xeric shrublands Biome, is located in the Maghreb of North Africa. The woodlands ecoregion occupies two separate highland regions in the eastern Sahara, covering portions of Chad, Egypt, Libya, and Sudan.

Setting
The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometers (31,700 square miles) in the volcanic Tibesti Mountains of Chad and Libya, and volcanic peak of Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. The climate is arid and subtropical. The Tibesti and Jebel Uweinat highlands foster higher, more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures than the surrounding Sahara. This supports woodlands and shrublands of palms (Date palm - Phoenix dactylifera), acacias, Saharan myrtle - Myrtus nivellei, oleander - Nerium oleander, tamarix, and several endemic and rare plant species. [1]

The Tamarix tree occurs in this ecoregion

References
[1] "Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands" WWF Scientific Report (http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1331_full. html). Accessed December 29, 2007.

External links
WWF Scientific Report: Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands Ecoregion (http://www. worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/pa/pa1331_full.html)

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Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Afghan Mountains semi-desert Alashan Plateau semi-desert Afghanistan China, Mongolia

Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands Egypt, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, Yemen Atlantic coastal desert Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe Badkhiz-Karabil semi-desert Baluchistan xeric woodlands Caspian lowland desert Central Afghan Mountains xeric woodlands Central Asian northern desert Central Asian riparian woodlands Central Asian southern desert Central Persian desert basins Eastern Gobi desert steppe Gobi Lakes Valley desert steppe Great Lakes Basin desert steppe Junggar Basin semi-desert Kazakh semi-desert Kopet Dag semi-desert Mesopotamian shrub desert North Saharan steppe and woodlands Paropamisus xeric woodlands Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert Qaidam Basin semi-desert Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert Rigestan-North Pakistan sandy desert Sahara desert South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert South Saharan steppe and woodlands Taklimakan desert Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands West Saharan montane xeric woodlands Mauritania, Western Sahara Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran Afghanistan, Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Pakistan Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan Afghanistan Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Afghanistan, Iran China, Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia, Russia China, Mongolia Kazakhstan Iran, Turkmenistan Iraq, Jordan, Syria Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Western Sahara Afghanistan Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates China Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan Iran, Iraq, Pakistan Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sudan China Chad, Egypt, Libya, Sudan Algeria, Mali, Mauritania, Niger

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West Saharan montane xeric woodlands

West Saharan montane xeric woodlands

Ecology Ecozone Biome Palearctic Deserts and xeric shrublands Geography Climate type extreme in the dry and hot climate Conservation Conservation status relatively intact

The West Saharan montane xeric woodlands is an ecoregion that extends across several highland regions in the Sahara. Surrounded at lower elevations by the largely barren Sahara, the West Saharan montane xeric woodlands are isolated refuges of plants and animals that can survive in the higher humidity and lower temperatures of the highlands.

Setting
The Sahara is a vast desert, stretching across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Some mountains (Ahaggar, Tassili n'Ajjer, Tibesti, Ar) rise up from the desert and receive more rainfall and mostly present slightly cooler summer temperatures. These highlands support dry woodlands and shrublands distinct from the hot dry desert lowlands. This ecoregion has an area of 258,100 km (99,700 square miles). The boundaries for the largest part of this ecoregion, which includes the Tassili n'Ajjer Ahaggar and Ar (or Azbine) massifs, follow the 'regs,' 'hamadas' and 'wadis' above the 1000 m contour. This covers a good part of southeast Algeria. These areas reach almost 3000 meters in altitude. Additional areas further south were included within this ecoregion, including the Ar ou Azbine in northern Niger, Dhar Adrar in Mauritania, and Adrar des Iforas in Mali and Algeria, using the 500 m-elevation contour. The mountains of the West Saharan Montane Xeric Woodland ecoregion are found within the Sahara Desert and are predominantly of volcanic origin. They rise from the surrounding flat desert landscape or sand dunes and create islands of moister habitat (guelta) which support flora and fauna. The most important area is the Tassili n'Ajjer Plateau, an outlier of the Ahaggar Mountains in Algeria which supports some near-endemic species and some globally threatened antelopes. The highest point of these mountains is 3003 meters (Mount Tahat). Winters are quite rigorous, with amplitude in temperature over 20C. Day temperatures may be over 20C while nights are freezing. In summer, days are very hot, though less than in central Sahara. Rainfall is rare and sporadic.

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Flora and fauna

Vegetation varies greatly depending on altitude and landscape (in particular wind protection). It is often relict of mediterranean vegetation. In gueltas, vegetation is very diverse and hosts many animals. Trees may be found at lower elevations, while higher mostly host bushes. It is however possible to find olive trees (the olive tree on the right hand picture was found at 2300 m). Endemic and rare species includes Saharan Cypress (tarout) (Cupressus dupreziana), wild olive (Olea lapperrini) and Saharan Myrtle (Myrtus nivellei), all of which are relict Saharan-Mediterranean species. Olive and myrtle trees grow at the bottom of wadis, intermittent stream valleys, or beside gueltas, permanent or temporary waterholes. Other species with a preference for moist habitats are Trianthema pentandra, Lupinus pilosus, and Convolvulus fatmensis. Silene kiliani, Acacia laeta, A. scorpiodes, and Cordia rochii grow in wadis. Other representatives of the 28 national Algerian plant rarities found on Tassili n'Ajjer include Ficus ingens and Anticharis glandulosa.

Population and conservation

The human population of the ecoregion is very small, with less than 5 persons per km. Many people are nomadic though some small cities also exist (ideles). The vegetation remains fairly intact.

References and external links

West Saharan montane xeric woodlands (World Wildlife Fund) [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ pa/ pa1332_full. html

Western Australian Mulga shrublands

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Western Australian Mulga shrublands

The Western Australian Mulga shrublands is a large dry World Wildlife Fund ecoregion of inland Western Australia [1] .

Location and description

This is a hot, dry area with little rainfall. The region consists of the Gascoyne, and Murchison bioregions of the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA).[2] [3]

Flora and fauna

The predominant vegetation is mulga trees, a type of acacia adapted to the hot, dry climate by means of long tap roots. In some areas the mulga trees are surrounded by Eriachne grassland. Wildlife of the region includes birds such as emus, Australian Bustards and honeyeaters. Most of the area is uninhabited but there is some mining activity and some sheep grazing, both of which cause damage to native habitats.

The IBRA regions, with Gascoyne in red

References
[1] http:/ / www. worldwildlife. org/ wildworld/ profiles/ terrestrial/ aa/ aa1310_full. html The IBRA regions, with Murchison in red

[2] Environment Australia. Revision of the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) and Development of Version 5.1 Summary Report (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060905215218/ http:/ / www. deh. gov. au/ parks/ nrs/ ibra/ version5-1/ summary-report/ index. html). Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Australian Government. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. deh. gov. au/ parks/ nrs/ ibra/ version5-1/ summary-report/ index. html) on 2006-09-05. . Retrieved 2007-01-31. [3] IBRA Version 6.1 (http:/ / www. deh. gov. au/ parks/ nrs/ ibra/ version6-1/ index. html) data

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Xerophyte
A xerophyte or xerophytic organism (xero meaning dry, phyte meaning plant) is a plant which is able to survive in an environment with little available water or moisture, such as a desert. Xerophytic plants may have adaptations of their shape and form (morphology) or internal functions (physiology) that reduce their water loss or store water during periods of dryness. Plants with such morphological adaptations are called xeromorphic.[1] Plants absorb water from the soil, which then evaporates from the surface of the plant; this process is known as evapotranspiration. In dry environments, a typical (mesophytic) plant would evaporate water faster than the rate at which water was replaced in the soil, leading to wilting. By contrast, xerophytic plants may exhibit a variety of specialized adaptations to survive in these conditions. Xerophytes may absorb water from their own storage, allocate water specifically to sites of new tissue growth, or lose less water to the atmosphere and so convert a greater proportion of water in the soil to growth, or have other adaptations to manage water supply and enable them to survive. The morphological consequences of these adaptations are collectively called xeromorphisms. [1]

The Joshua tree is an example of a xerophyte.

Plants like the cactus (plural - "cacti", family - Cactaceae) and other succulents are typically found in deserts where low rainfall amounts are the norm. Other xerophytes, such as the bromeliads, can survive both extremely wet and extremely dry periods and can be found in seasonally moist habitats such as tropical forests, exploiting niches where water supplies are limited or too intermittent for mesophytic plants. Similarly, chaparral plants are adapted to Mediterranean climates with wet winters and dry summers. Plants that live under arctic conditions also have a need for xerophytic adaptations, since water is unavailable for uptake when the ground is frozen. Plants that survive lack of water during times of freezing by going dormant, with no other adaptations for times of low water, are not usually referred to as xerophytic.

Types of xerophytic plants

Succulent plants - typically store water in stems or leaves. They include the Cactaceae family which typically have stems that are round and store a lot of water. Often, as in cacti where the leaves are reduced to spines, their leaves are vestigial, or they do not have leaves. Bulbs - water is stored in their bulbs, at or below ground level. They may spend a period of dormancy during drought conditions underground, and are therefore known as drought evaders.

Importance of water conservation

If the water potential inside the leaf is higher than outside the leaf, the water vapour will diffuse out of the leaf down this gradient. This loss of water vapour from the leaves is called transpiration, and the water vapour diffuses through open stomata in the leaf. Although this is a normal and important process in all plants, it is vital that plants living in dry conditions have adaptations that decrease this water potential gradient, and decrease the size of open stomata, in order to reduce water loss from the plant. It is important for a plant living in these conditions to conserve water

Xerophyte because without enough water, plant cells lose turgor and the plant tissue wilts. If the plant loses too much water, it will pass its permanent wilting point, where the plant will die.

164

Morphological adaptations

Cereus peruvianus

Euphorbia virosa

Xerophytic plants may have similar shapes, forms, and structures, and look very similar, even if the plants are not very closely related, through a process called convergent evolution. For example, some species of cacti (members of the family Cactaceae), which evolved only in the Americas, may appear similar to Euphorbias, which are distributed worldwide. Unrelated species of caudiciforms, plants with swollen bases used to store water, may also display such similarities.

Reduction of surface area

Xerophytic plants may have less surface area than other plants. This reduces the area exposed to the air, which reduces water loss by evaporation. Xerophytes may have smaller leaves and/or fewer branches than other plants. An example of leaf surface reduction are the spines of a cactus, which are modified leaves. An example of compaction and reduction of branching are the barrel cacti. Other xerophytes may have their leaves compacted at the base, as in a basal rosette, which may be smaller than the plant's flower. This adaptation is exhibited by some Agaves and Eriogonums growing near Death Valley.

Reduction in air flow

Some xerophytes have tiny hairs on their surface to provide a wind break and reduce air flow, thereby reducing the rate of evaporation. When a plant surface is covered with tiny hairs, it is called tomentose.

Reflectivity
The color of a plant, or of the waxes or hairs on its surface, may reflect sunlight and reduce evaporation. An extreme example is the white chalky wax (epicuticular wax) coating of Dudleya brittonii, which has the highest ultraviolet light (UV) reflectivity of any known naturally occurring biological substance.

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Physiological adaptations
Water storage
Plants may store water in root structures, trunk structures, stems, and leaves. Water storage in swollen parts of the plant is called succulence. A swollen trunk or root at the ground level of a plant is called a caudex, and plants with swollen bases are called caudiciforms.

Stomata
Tiny pores on the surface of a xerophytic plant called stomata may open only at night so as to reduce evaporation.

Surface Resins and waxes

Plants may secrete resins and waxes (epicuticular wax) on their surface which reduce evaporation. Examples are the heavily scented and flammable resins (volatile organic compounds) of some chaparral plants, such as Malosma laurina, or the chalky wax of Dudleya pulverulenta.

Dropping leaves
Plants may drop their leaves in times of dryness (drought deciduous), or modify the leaves produced during such times such that the leaves are smaller.

Dormancy, change of photosynthetic mechanism, change of allocation of sugars produced

During dry times, xerophytic plants may stop growing and go dormant, change the kind of photosynthesis, or change the allocation of the products of photosynthesis from growing new leaves to strengthening the roots.

Seed modification
Seeds may be modified to require an excessive amount of water before germinating, so as to ensure a sufficient water supply for the seedling's survival. An example of this is the California poppy whose seeds lie dormant during drought and then germinate, grow, flower, and form seeds within four weeks of rainfall.

Modification of environment
Plant material on the ground around a plant (leaf litter) may provide an evaporative barrier to prevent water loss. Waxes shed from the plant may coat the ground reducing evaporation from the ground in the immediate vicinity of the plant, as in the case of Dudleya pulverulenta. A plants root mass itself may also hold organic material which retains water, as in the case of the arrow weed (Pluchea sericea) corn stalks in Devils cornfield of Death Valley.

Mechanism table

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Mechanism Limit water loss waxy stomata few stomata sunken stomata stomata open at night CAM photosynthesis large hairs on surface curled leaves Storage of water succulent leaves succulent stems fleshy tuber Water uptake deep root system below water table

Adaptation

Example prickly pear

pine tea plant cactus Bromeliads esparto grass Kalanchoe Euphorbia Raphionacme Acacia,"prosopis" Nerium oleander Tillandsia

absorbing surface moisture from leaf hairs or trichomes

External links
Drought Smart Plants [2] Cactus and Succulent Society of America [3]

References
[1] Xeromorphic, The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms, Michael Hickey, Clive King, Cambridge University Press, 2001 [2] http:/ / www. drought-smart-plants. com/ [3] http:/ / www. cssainc. org/

Further Reading
D. J. Taylor, N. P. O. Green, G. W. Stout (2001). Biological Science 1 & 2, third edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56178-7.

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Yucca brevifolia
Yucca brevifolia

Scientific classification Kingdom: clade: clade: Order: Family: Subfamily: Genus: Species: Plantae Angiosperms Monocots Asparagales Asparagaceae Agavoideae Yucca . Binomial name Yucca Engelm. Yucca brevifolia is a plant species belonging to the genus Yucca. It is tree-like in habit, which is reflected in its common names: Joshua tree, Yucca palm, Tree yucca, and Palm tree yucca.[1] [2] [3] This monocotyledonous tree is native to southwestern North America in the states of California, Arizona, Utah and Nevada, where it is confined mostly to the Mojave Desert between 400 and 1,800 meters (1,300 and 5,900ft) elevation. It thrives in the open grasslands of Queen Valley and Lost Horse Valley in Joshua Tree National Park. Two subspecies have been described:[4] Yucca brevifolia ssp. jaegeriana (the Jaeger Joshua tree or Jaeger's Joshua tree or pygmae yucca) and Yucca brevifolia ssp. herbertii (Webber's Yucca or Herbert Joshua Tree), though both are sometimes treated as varieties[5] [6] [7] or forms.[8]

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Etymology
The name Joshua tree was given by a group of Mormon settlers who crossed the Mojave Desert in the mid-19th century. The tree's unique shape reminded them of a Biblical story in which Joshua reaches his hands up to the sky in prayer. Ranchers and miners who were contemporary with the Mormon immigrants also took advantage of the Joshua tree, using the trunks and branches as fencing and for fuel for ore-processing steam engines. It is also called Izote de desierto.[9] It was first formally described in the botanical literature as Yucca brevifolia by George Engelmann in 1871 as part of the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel.[10]

Growth and development

Joshua trees are fast growers for the desert; new seedlings may grow at an average rate of 7.6cm (3.0in) per year in their first ten years, then only grow about 3.8cm (1.5in) per year thereafter.[11] The trunk of a Joshua tree is made of thousands of small fibers and lacks annual growth rings, making it difficult to determine the tree's age. This tree has a top-heavy branch system, but also has what has been described as a "deep and extensive" root system, with roots possibly reaching up to 11m (36ft) away.[1] If it survives the rigors of the desert it can live for hundreds of years with some specimens surviving up to a thousand years. The tallest trees reach about 15 m tall. New plants can grow from seed, but in some populations, new stems grow from underground rhizomes that spread out around the Joshua tree. The evergreen leaves are dark green, linear, bayonet-shaped, 1535cm long and 715mm broad at the base, tapering to a sharp point; they are borne in a dense spiral arrangement at the apex of the stems. The leaf margins are white and serrate. The flowers are produced in spring from February to late April, in panicles 3055cm tall and 3038cm broad, the individual flowers erect, 47cm tall, with six creamy white to green tepals. The tepals are lanceolate and are fused to the middle. The fused pistils are 3cm tall and the stigma cavity is surrounded by lobes. The semi-fleshy fruit that is produced is green-brown, elliptical, and contains many flat seeds. Joshua trees usually do not branch until after they bloom (though branching may also occur if the growing tip is destroyed by the yucca-boring weevil), and they do not bloom every year. Like most desert plants, their blooming is dependent on rainfall at the proper time. They also need a winter freeze before they will bloom.
Panicle

Joshua Tree in Arizona

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Joshua tree in Nevada

Once they bloom, the trees are pollinated by the yucca moth, which spreads pollen while laying her eggs inside the flower. The moth larvae feed on the seeds of the tree, but enough seeds are left behind to produce more trees. The Joshua tree is also able to actively abort ovaries in which too many eggs have been laid.

Ethnobotany
The Cahuilla Native Americans who have lived in the southwestern Fruit United States for generations still identify with this plant as a valuable resource and call it "hunuvat chiya" or "humwichawa". Their ancestors used the leaves of Y. brevifolia to weave sandals and baskets in addition to harvesting the seeds and flower buds for nutritious meals. Yucca tree roots have saponin glycosides.[12]

Distribution
Yucca brevifolia is endemic to the Southwestern United States with populations in western Arizona, southeastern California, southern Nevada, and southwestern Utah. This range mostly coincides with the geographical reach of the Mojave Desert,[1] where it is considered one of the major indicator species for the desert. It occurs at altitudes between 400 and 1,800 m (1,300 and 5,900 feet).[13]

Conservation status
There is some concern[14] from modeling that Joshua trees will be eliminated from Joshua Tree National Park due to climate change, and that this will damage and fundamentally transform the ecosystem of the park. There is also concern about the ability of the trees to migrate to favorable climates due to the extinction of the giant Shasta ground sloth (Nothrotheriops shastensi) 13,000 years ago; ground sloth dung has been found to contain Joshua tree leaves, fruits, and seeds, suggesting that the sloths might have been key to the tree's dispersal.

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Cultivation
Different forms of the species are cultivated, including smaller plants native from the eastern part of the species range. These smaller plants grow 2.5 meters tall and branch when about a meter tall.[15]

References
[1] Gucker, Corey L. (2006). Yucca brevifolia (http:/ / www. fs. fed. us/ database/ feis/ plants/ tree/ yucbre/ all. html). In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Accessed online: 2008, December 20. [2] CAS.vanderbilt.edu (http:/ / www. cas. vanderbilt. edu/ bioimages/ species/ yubr. htm) [3] Delange.org (http:/ / www. delange. org/ JoshuaTree/ JoshuaTree. htm) [4] Yuccaagavaceae.com (http:/ / www. yuccaagavaceae. com/ species. html) [5] Itis.gov (http:/ / www. itis. gov/ servlet/ SingleRpt/ SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN& search_value=565605) [6] Grandtner, Compiled by Miroslav M. (2005), Elsevier's Dictionary of Trees - North America (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=yjc5ZYWtkNAC& pg=PA973& dq=Yucca+ brevifolia), Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp.973, ISBN0444517847, [7] CNPSCI.org (http:/ / www. cnpsci. org/ html/ PlantInfo/ ChecklistofVenturaCountyRarePlants-19Sep2005. pdf) [8] Ed, Urs Eggli (2001), Monocotyledonsadd, Berlin: Springer, pp.9091, 100, ISBN9783540416920 [9] Itis.gov (http:/ / www. itis. gov/ servlet/ SingleRpt/ SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN& search_value=43116) [10] International Plant Names Index. Yucca brevifolia Engelm. (http:/ / www. ipni. org/ ipni/ idPlantNameSearch. do?id=543655-1& back_page=/ ipni/ editSimplePlantNameSearch. do?find_wholeName=Yucca+ brevifolia& output_format=normal) Accessed online: 2008, December 20. [11] Keith, Sandra L. (1982). A tree named Joshua. American Forests, 88(7): 40-42. [12] Burdock, George A. (2005), Fenaroli's handbook of flavor ingredients, Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, pp.1913, ISBN0849330343 [13] Gossard, G. (1992). The Joshua Tree, a Controversial, Contradictory Desert Centurion. Yellow Rose Publications. [14] Outlook Bleak for Joshua Trees (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=17628032) [15] Harlow, Nora; Kristin Jakob, Editors (2003), Wild lilies, irises, and grasses : gardening with California monocots, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp.215, ISBN9780520238497

External links
Flora of North America: Yucca brevifolia; (http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1& taxon_id=220014441) RangeMap (http://www.efloras.org/object_page.aspx?object_id=8799&flora_id=1) Jepson Flora Project (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?Yucca+brevifolia) Joshua Tree National Park- Main Park Page (http://www.nps.gov/jotr/) Joshua Tree National Park- joshua tree page (http://www.nps.gov/jotr/nature/plants/trees/jtrees.html) Cal Flora (http://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=8375)

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Article Sources and Contributors

Desert ecology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=420109245 Contributors: Antandrus, Antarticstargate, Bcou, Calton, Chedda 88, Delldot, DerHexer, Duja, Elbbom, Faradayplank, FayssalF, Gaff, Gilliam, Gurch, Jalbert86, Keegan, Killervogel5, Longhair, Look2See1, Natalya, NodnarbLlad, Quintote, RobertG, Scientizzle, Specialkay985, Spencer, Tempodivalse, 34 anonymous edits Deserts and xeric shrublands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=411297591 Contributors: 1brettsnyder, Abrahami, Alfio, Andrew Moylan, Andrewjlockley, Anthere, Barek, Baskaufs, Bornintheguz, Chamberlian, Chefyingi, Discospinster, Duk, Elkman, Emily Jensen, Epolk, Excirial, Fieldday-sunday, Fred Bauder, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, Guettarda, HJ Mitchell, Hike395, Hmains, Jerkstar36933, Lelouch.Angelo., Look2See1, MPF, Marek69, Max Naylor, Miwasatoshi, Mmcannis, Mxn, NHRHS2010, Olivier, Open2universe, Patrick, Philip Trueman, Phthoggos, Poiklo, Quuxplusone, Raysonho, Rich Farmbrough, Schzmo, Tellyaddict, Tom Radulovich, Tvpm, WLU, Wetman, Wimt, Yuje, 50 anonymous edits List of deserts Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=431890455 Contributors: Academic Challenger, Ahmad.ghamdi.24, Ahoerstemeier, Airborne84, Alansohn, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Beefyt, Beetstra, Bkell, Boing! said Zebedee, Bold Clone, Bongwarrior, Brambleshire, Brob, Brute Commander, Calabraxthis, Capricorn42, Christian75, Constantzeanu, Dale Arnett, Darkdamsel13, Darth Panda, Dennis Bratland, Dentren, DocWatson42, Doczilla, Download, Drbreznjev, Drilnoth, Durova, EOZyo, Elonka, Emijrp, Ender3989, Enigmaman, Epbr123, Eu.stefan, Excirial, Farjad0322, Fastilysock, Feedmecereal, Felipeh, Feydey, Fieldday-sunday, Floris V, FrancescoA, FrancisTyers, Frozenevolution, Gawain Bolton, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Giraffedata, Grafen, Gkhan, HYDE1235, HexaChord, Hmains, Icey, Immunize, Ivarercool, JeffW, Jennica, John Hill, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jwinius, Keith D, Keithh, Klaus Bertow, L Kensington, La Pianista, Leszek Jaczuk, LibLord, Lights, LizardJr8, Look2See1, MER-C, Magreb, Malekhanif, Mandarax, MapKing, McSly, Meganmccarty, Mikenorton, Miss Madeline, Mmcannis, Mohsenadib, Moonriddengirl, PajaBG, Pejmare, Petrb, Pflatau, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pinethicket, Protonxp, Quintote, RIMOLA, RJASE1, Rational23, RazielZero, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, Riki, Roentgenium111, Saebjorn, Samw, Seaphoto, Skomorokh, Skrod, Slightsmile, Sluzzelin, Spontaneous Symmetry, Srich32977, Stan Shebs, Stephenb, Technopat, Teek196, The Font, The great kawa, The wub, Tillman, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tomdobb, Totglas5, Trusilver, Turgan, Ukexpat, Vanished user 03, Vanka5, Vegaswikian, Versageek, Vicenarian, Vidioman, Vipinhari, Visor, Voxpuppet, Wayne Slam, Wikipelli, WizardOfOz, Wtmitchell, Zero Gravity, Zidonuke, le flottante, 436 anonymous edits List of deserts by area Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=430287592 Contributors: 2sc945, AI009, AKM, Ahmad.ghamdi.24, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Andy, Chipmunkdavis, CommonsDelinker, Crohnie, Crystallina, Dentren, DocWatson42, Dricherby, Emilfaro, Engineman, Eu.stefan, Gary King, Gawain Bolton, Hmains, Kmusser, Kubigula, Larry V, Lightmouse, Look2See1, MER-C, Magioladitis, Malekhanif, Mikenorton, Neutrality, Night w, Nika 243, PMR-Tyras, Pflatau, Pietersz, Planeti, Prometheusg, Seric2, Sionnach1, Smenjas, Soiducked, Spudtater, Ste900R, Sunny316, Sunray, Supervht, Tillman, Tliuska, Useight, Wilberth, William M. Connolley, YellowPops, 16 ,42..anonymous edits Desert climate Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433424226 Contributors: 1brettsnyder, AVVargas, ActivExpression, Aeonx, AgentOrange23, Ankimai, Anthony Appleyard, Bkell, BobM3, Calliopejen1, Chevymontecarlo, Claimd, Dale Arnett, Duhdok, Elockid, EncMstr, Fanatix, Footwarrior, Fox816, G. Capo, Ginkgo100, Giornorosso, Gnowor, HXL49, Heegoop, Holy0cow, HunterZone, JMBZ-12, Jaume87, Jeroen, Jncraton, Killtheniggur, Koppenlady, Lambiam, Look2See1, Luokehao, M 1132, Mathpianist93, Mato, Me ne frego, Minimanpro, Monty845, NawlinWiki, Off2riorob, Piast93, Qfl247, R'n'B, RazielZero, Recognizance, Rkr1991, Rrburke, Scheridon, Schom, Seaphoto, Selket, Someone35, South Bay, SteveMX, Sunray, The Real Jean-Luc, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thegreatdr, ThrillerFilmFan, Xezbeth, 163 anonymous edits Afromontane Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433633203 Contributors: Abu Shawka, Gouro Diallo, Look2See1, Malkinann, Mountolive, S Molteno, Soap, Tom Radulovich, 4 anonymous edits Arabian Desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=432964308 Contributors: 1brettsnyder, Acroterion, Ahoerstemeier, Al Ameer son, Alansohn, Andres, Andrewpmk, Angela, Antandrus, Anthere, Arthena, Arzachel, Benne, Bigdan201, BillC, Bluerasberry, Bped1985, CIreland, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Courcelles, Cpl Syx, D6, DabMachine, Dale Arnett, Daniel HK, Danwhite2010, Davidjusu, Davidovic, Dawn Bard, DerHexer, Discospinster, Dolfy, Dylan Lake, Edward, Emilfaro, Emo muzik sux, Epolk, Erik Zachte, Everyking, Flightx52, Fraggle81, Frank101, Froggydarb, Gaius Cornelius, Ghewgill, Good Olfactory, GorillaWarfare, Gregory Shantz, Grondemar, Gurch, HGB, Hmains, Hmwith, Hu12, Imasleepviking, JD79, Javidan, Karol007, Keegan, Khoikhoi, Kkailas, Klaus Bertow, Kmusser, L Kensington, LeaveSleaves, Leuko, Lightmouse, Ludde23, Mar4d, Matthewc, Mehansen0825, Michael Hardy, Mikheil88, Minna Sora no Shita, Mkpowers, Molerat, Monterey Bay, Mr Stephen, Neilc, NerdyScienceDude, Nick, Nopira, Nvray, Originalbigj, Patrick, Pfly, Pietersz, Pigman, Prometheusg, Qmwne235, Rettetast, Rjwilmsi, Rory096, Rowan.is.cool, Rowan747, Rydia, S3000, SPNic, Seglea, Sin-man, Slackerlawstudent, Sluzzelin, Sprinter77, Stemonitis, Steve2011, Steveozone, Suffusion of Yellow, Sweetcorn, Tajik24, Tannin, Teledildonix314, The Vindictive, Thedjatclubrock, Thryduulf, Tide rolls, Tobias Conradi, Tom Morris, Tom Radulovich, Triquelito, Tronno, Ukexpat, Vegaswikian, Weirdy, WikiDao, WookieInHeat, Zaharous, , 237 anonymous edits Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406135396 Contributors: CommonsDelinker, Darwinek, Istanbuljohnm, Jakebail25, Supertouch, SuzanneKn Atacama Desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433004443 Contributors: 2D, 52 Pickup, AVM, Abanima, Absolutadam802, Ace ETP, After Midnight, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, AlexiusHoratius, Alfie66, Allstarecho, Anakin101, Andonic, Andreworkney, Antarcticwik, Anthere, Arafael, Art LaPella, AshbyJnr, Astinus, Attilios, Baloo rch, Bazonka, Big55e, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boliviainfoforum, Bryan Derksen, Builderman, Burzmali, Calton, Cantus, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Chiton magnificus, Chmouel, Chrislk02, Christina Silverman, Cobaltcigs, Coemgenus, Cogniac, Colonies Chris, Conversion script, Courcelles, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DKalkin, Daarznieks, DanielBeaver, Danno uk, Dano312, Darwinek, DavidJ710, DcBadger, DeadEyeArrow, Del91, Denisarona, Dentren, Dhartung, Diderot's Ghost, Dieubussy, Dingox, Dino, Dittaeva, Dogosaurus, Drilnoth, Eastmain, Ed Fitzgerald, Edward, Eeekster, El C, Emilfaro, Enigmaman, EoGuy, Epbr123, Epolk, Eraserhead1, Erielhonan, EugeneZelenko, Everyking, Fabiform, Fireworks, FocalPoint, Fpga, Frokor, Frozenevolution, Fullobeans, Fyyer, Gazilion, Gdarin, Gert7, Gianfranco, Golbez, Goldfishbutt, Grebaldar, Guoguo12, HamburgerRadio, Hammer1980, Harthacnut, Hfastedge, Hmains, Howcheng, Htwaynef, Hu12, Hugo999, I dream of horses, Iain99, Imasleepviking, IoanC, J.delanoy, JD79, JaGa, Jackol, Java7837, Jeff G., Jeffery Gentry, JeffreyN, Jespinos, Jmencisom, Jobe6, Jonathan.s.kt, Jorunn, Jrdioko, Jusdafax, K, Kajasudhakarababu, Karimarie, Katieh5584, Kevinfromhk, Kidburla, Kingmundi, Klaus Bertow, Kribbeh, Ladiosadeldesierto, Likeminas, Llort, Lord of the Pit, Luna Santin, Lzur, MacedonianBoy, Madhero88, Madkayaker, Mandavi, Mani1, Marcelo1229, Marcus22, Mathew5000, Mattisse, Merovingian, MichaelTinkler, Mimihitam, Misterx2000, Mmcannis, Mr.Z-man, MrPMonday, Mtruch, Mwanner, Mwilso24, Nagy, Narvalo, Nattfodd, Nazroon, Ndkl, NellieBly, Netizen, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Nickybutt, Novangelis, Obradovic Goran, Originalwana, Paris1127, Parkwells, Pawsable, Pgan002, Philip Trueman, Piellas Athena, PierreAbbat, Pinethicket, Pristino, Prometheusg, QmunkE, R'n'B, Raedance, Reach Out to the Truth, Red King, Red Thrush, RedWolf, Renato Caniatti, Revth, RexNL, Rigadoun, Rling, Rnbc, Ronebofh, Ruodyssey, SJP, Sam Korn, SchfiftyThree, Seaphoto, Seth Ilys, Simulcra, Sluzzelin, Some jerk on the Internet, Spike, Sssmaniam, Steven Zhang, SuPERLman, Sykko, TMC1982, Tainter, Takemybooksaway, Tannin, Tataryn77, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheDJ, TheRanger, Theda, Thewayofthegunn, Thingg, Thorwald, Tide rolls, Tjunier, Tobias Conradi, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom, Tom Radulovich, Tommyt, Travellatin, Trevor MacInnis, Tuwile, Ultrarob, Urco, Van helsing, Voyagerfan5761, Vsmith, Vzb83, Vsk, Wbfergus, Wetman, Whiner01, Wikipelli, Willscrlt, Wwoods, Xezbeth, Xihr, Yill577, Youssefsan, Zelse81, Zinc2005, Zsinj, , 585 anonymous edits Atlantic coastal desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405947516 Contributors: BCLH, Darwinek, Grutness, Look2See1, Tom Radulovich Baja California Desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422047633 Contributors: Burntsauce, CfcKyleM, Courcelles, Epbr123, Farjad0322, First Light, FuzzyBunny, Gkhan, Jcmenal, Kelvin Samuel, Klaus Bertow, Lofor, Look2See1, Macy, Mikheil88, Mmcannis, Monterey Bay, Sbrockway, ScottMainwaring, Sionnach1, The Celestial City, Tobias Conradi, Tom Radulovich, Tremella, Ulisesr, 30 anonymous edits Caatinga Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=431364007 Contributors: Aliotra, Angenhariaus, Anthere, Asfarer, BD2412, Basilicofresco, Biruitorul, Charles Matthews, D6, Excirial, Feydey, Ft1, Gene Nygaard, Gurch, GusV, Guslacerda, Hu12, Inter, Iridescent, Island Monkey, Jaume87, Joao Xavier, Joey80, Lawilkin, LodeRunner, Luizdl, Lupin, Magnus Manske, Mmcannis, Nlu, Rabo3, Ribamar, Ricardo Carneiro Pires, Rosarinagazo, Sam Hocevar, Sik0fewl, SingingEye, Tangent747, Textor, Thiseye, Tom Radulovich, Topbanana, Umburana, Vogensen, WolfmanSF, Woohookitty, Xufanc, Xyzzyva, 53 anonymous edits Carnarvon Xeric Shrublands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=393520682 Contributors: Crusoe8181, Hesperian, Istanbuljohnm, MPF, SatuSuro, Tom Radulovich, Xezbeth Central Asian northern desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418743521 Contributors: 1brettsnyder, Look2See1 Central Mexican matorral Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396409162 Contributors: Look2See1, Mmcannis, Tom Radulovich Central Ranges xeric scrub Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407162087 Contributors: Istanbuljohnm, Rocketrod1960, Ser Amantio di Nicolao Chihuahuan Desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=420304467 Contributors: Addshore, Aff123a, Aille, Aladdin Sane, AlexiusHoratius, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Angela26, Anthere, Baskaufs, Bob Palin, Calimo, CarolGray, Courcelles, Cristinagil, Ctirado, Curtis Clark, D6, DanielJL, Daranz, Darwinek, David Jordan, Decumanus, Dennis Brown, Dgies, Dthomsen8, E leonard, Eliyak, Epolk, Evlekis, Fratrep, Gene Nygaard, GeneralAtrocity, Gilliam, Hajor, Hike395, Hjr, Hmains, IceCreamAntisocial, JamesReyes, John of Reading, Jumacdon, Klaus Bertow, Leaflet, Look2See1, MJCdetroit, Mario 181193, Mario eduardo93, McSly, Miguel.v, Mmcannis, Moverton, Oboylej, Pascal666, Paxsimius, Pietersz, Prometheusg, Pusher, Qsw, SD Martin61, Saperaud, Sbisolo, Senator Palpatine, Sfan00 IMG, Sopranosmob781, Spencer, Stan Shebs, Steinsky, Stepheng3, TDogg310, Tide rolls, Tobias Conradi, Tom Radulovich, Tomwithanh, Tristanb,

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Vegaswikian, Vikiizer, Vsmith, Wars, WikHead, Woohookitty, Wrathchild, 721 ,42..anonymous edits Cuban cactus scrub Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418452370 Contributors: Andrewa, Bobblewik, CalJW, Epolk, Flauto Dolce, IceCreamAntisocial, JRM, Joyous!, K1Bond007, Krash, Lemuel Gulliver, Lexor, Look2See1, Magioladitis, Maurreen, Meredyth, MisterHand, Mkgene, Neil916, Nono64, Passw0rd, Password, Paul August, Retired username, Ricardo Carneiro Pires, Rich Farmbrough, RickK, ShelfSkewed, Smallweed, Sortior, Stemonitis, Stephan Leeds, Struhs, Sukiari, TDogg310, UtherSRG, Wandering Raleighite, Zazaban, 7 anonymous edits Deccan thorn scrub forests Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425438885 Contributors: Anthere, Autoerrant, Chaosdruid, Istanbuljohnm, Miguel.v, TDogg310, Tom Radulovich, Vineet p reddy, 10 anonymous edits Dzungaria Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427715620 Contributors: Abstrakt, AjaxSmack, Altenmann, Apcbg, Attilios, Babbage, Barefact, Bathrobe, Benjamin Trovato, Bogomolov.PL, Briangotts, Buzava, CanadianLinuxUser, Chadsnook, Chris the speller, Dadofsam, Davecrosby uk, Dcabrilo, Doctorevil64, Dracontes, Dzhuo, Dzung01, Erud, Ezhiki, Fastifex, Fertejol, Firsfron, Gantuya eng, Geoffg, Gr8opinionater, Green Giant, Howcheng, IceKarma, J04n, Jaraalbe, Jncraton, Jose77, KentJR, Lao Wai, Look2See1, Luokehao, Luwilt, Mary*wu, Mattisse, Mimihitam, NorbuGG, Olivier, Phillip J, Podzemnik, Ran, Rayshade, Renebeto, Rick W, Rickard Vogelberg, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Seabhcan, TheLeopard, Tiyoringo, Tom Radulovich, TrueColour, Variable, Vedran12, Vmenkov, Woohookitty, Yaan, , 36 anonymous edits East Saharan montane xeric woodlands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433779726 Contributors: Colonies Chris, Darwinek, IronGargoyle, Istanbuljohnm, Kozuch, Martpol, Stan Shebs, Tom Radulovich, 1 anonymous edits Eritrean coastal desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427267229 Contributors: Istanbuljohnm, JamesAM, Jncraton, RN1970, Traveler100, 2 anonymous edits Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=414258334 Contributors: Forstbirdo, Gene Nygaard, Istanbuljohnm, LadyofShalott, Look2See1, 1 anonymous edits Geography of Somalia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=431626229 Contributors: AfricanThunder99, Alfanje, Byrial, CALR, Causteau, Chipmunkdavis, Conversion script, Cuaxdon, Cwolfsheep, D6, Darwinek, Djuneyt tr, Doorvery far, FAH1223, Ford, Gailtb, Gene Nygaard, Graham87, Grayshi, Grendelkhan, Hadden, Hdt83, Hmains, Ingoman, Istanbuljohnm, Jiang, John of Reading, JonnybrotherJr, JuJube, Kingpin13, KoyaanisQatsi, LA2, Llywrch, Markussep, Middayexpress, Mitsukai, Ms. 45, Olivier, OwenX, Pekinensis, Peter Horn, PoccilScript, Rjwilmsi, Rory096, Sadalmelik, ScottSteiner, Sdrawkcab, Seedless Maple, Soomaali3000, Stan Shebs, Warofdreams, WikiZorro, 52 anonymous edits Gobi Desert Source: 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Squids and Chips, Stpal001, Sweetcorn, TDogg310, TheKMan, Vsmith, Waacstats, 3 anonymous edits Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=409454016 Contributors: Charles Matthews, Koven.rm, Look2See1, Rjwilmsi, 1 anonymous edits Gulf of California xeric scrub Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386347162 Contributors: Look2See1, Mmcannis, Tom Radulovich Gulf of Oman desert and semi-desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418727356 Contributors: DennisIsMe, Emirati Icon, Gene Nygaard, Istanbuljohnm, Kamran the Great, Look2See1, SunCreator, 1 anonymous edits Haloxylon recurvum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=415370985 Contributors: Chaosdruid, De728631, Fyrael, Innotata, Vyas1975 Hamada Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429020864 Contributors: A Jalil, Allstarecho, Arre, Awickert, Aziz1005, Brilliant Pebble, Cometstyles, Epbr123, Francis Tyers, Haruth, Hazel77, Hmains, Hugo.arg, JanSuchy, Kintetsubuffalo, Lameen Souag, Leaflet, LordAmeth, Mineralogy, Movses, Ninly, Nurg, Oxymoron83, Parerga, Pietersz, Seaphoto, Sluzzelin, TakuyaMurata, The Anome, TheKMan, Tillman, Voidvector, WLU, 33 , anonymous edits Indus Valley Desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428095793 Contributors: Acather96, Inmate20, Istanbuljohnm, Mikheil88, Pietersz, Sionnach1, Tobias Conradi, Tom Radulovich, Vidioman, 1 anonymous edits Kaokoveld Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=350843236 Contributors: Acntx, Darwinek, Sdcoates1978, Tom Radulovich, 2 anonymous edits Kazakh semi-desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418744249 Contributors: 1brettsnyder, Look2See1, Woohookitty List of flora of the LCRV (birdwatching) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387934307 Contributors: Alansohn, Dysmorodrepanis, Look2See1, Mmcannis, SP-KP, 1 anonymous edits List of North American Deserts Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429200920 Contributors: Ajuk, Avoided, Bantman, Hike395, Hugo999, Kmusser, Look2See1, Nono64, Retired username, Vegaswikian, Vsmith, 14 anonymous edits Madagascar spiny thickets Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=412767240 Contributors: 2D, Cicilkight7, Epolk, JMK, Jarrod Delport, Mattisse, Mr Accountable, Mrwojo, SP-KP, Tom Radulovich, Visionholder, 1 anonymous edits Matorral Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390433137 Contributors: Bejnar, DeadEyeArrow, Filos96, GeorgeLouis, Hike395, Look2See1, Mattisse, Pipiltzin, The Ogre, Tom Radulovich, Umbertoumm, 1 anonymous edits Mojave Desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=433948651 Contributors: 1brettsnyder, A. B., Academic Challenger, Akerbeltz, Aladdin Sane, Altenmann, Alyluvesu456, Amerique, Amonet, Andy Christ, AnimAlu, Anthere, Antmusic, Argus555, Athene cunicularia, Austinrichardfoster, Avnative, BTLizard, Bahamut0013, Baskaufs, BenZin, Bender235, Bennist, Blair Golson, BlaiseFEgan, Blehfu, Bluegriffin8, Boing! said Zebedee, BozMo, BradBeattie, Bradrules, BrianGV, Bunthorne, Caim, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ceranthor, ChrisCork, Cocytus, CommonsDelinker, Coneslayer, Courcelles, Crabworld, Crazyjae, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DRTllbrg, Dailyindependent, DanielCD, Danny, Darth Panda, Darwinek, Davewho2, Davewild, Decumanus, Deflective, DesertSteve, Didi is so kool, Diego Grez, Dmottl, Dondegroovily, Doug Dolde, Dralwik, Drmies, Droll, Drunkenmonkey, Dube21, Dwight666, Ed Fitzgerald, Eeekster, Ehamburg, Eliyak, EmergentProperty, Epbr123, Falcon8765, Feedle, Figureground, Finngall, Fnlayson, Fraggle81, Fratrep, Frecklefoot, Frehley, Gatherton, Gawain Bolton,

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Capo, Graham87, Head, Heron, Hike395, Imhungry, Iridescent, J Milburn, J.delanoy, Koavf, Kuru, LA2, Look2See1, Mav, Modernist, Modster, Niaz, Ojigiri, Oliver202, Olivier, Patrick, Pennywisdom2099, Philg88, Phoenix-wiki, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, QuackGuru, Renato Caniatti, Res2216firestar, Rich Farmbrough, Robertbowerman, Rrburke, Rubendenunes, SD5, Sam Hocevar, Schmiteye, ScottyBerg, Shenme, Some jerk on the Internet, Spellcast, Stevey7788, Stewartadcock, Stickee, Storm Rider, Sycthos, Tannin, Tchoutoye, TenOfAllTrades, The Cunctator, Tiddly Tom, Tom Radulovich, Tommy2010, Traveler100, Tristanb, TubularWorld, Ufwuct, Ultraexactzz, Uncle Milty, Vystrix Nexoth, Whkoh, Wikipelli, Woohookitty, 160 anonymous edits Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428394118 Contributors: Aadavalus, Affleck, Agricolae, 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Turkonaut, Unyoyega, Vmenkov, Vzb83, Warrington, Wawny, Wbfergus, WoodenTaco, ZZyXx, Zeimusu, , , 185 anonymous edits Tamaulipan matorral Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390453847 Contributors: Look2See1, Mmcannis, TDogg310, Tillman, Tom Radulovich, Treditor200 Tamaulipan mezquital Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=402250247 Contributors: Aldaron, Billy Hathorn, Look2See1, Miguel.v, TDogg310, Tom Radulovich, 1 anonymous edits Tehuacn Valley matorral Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426501609 Contributors: Look2See1, Tom Radulovich, 2 anonymous edits 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Image:Silversword_Haleakala.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silversword_Haleakala.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was w:en:User:ArnejohsArnejohs at en.wikipedia File:deserts.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deserts.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Emilfaro at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Spudtater at en.wikipedia. File:Antarctica 6400px from Blue Marble.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antarctica_6400px_from_Blue_Marble.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dave Pape File:Sahara satellite hires.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sahara_satellite_hires.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:Arctica surface.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arctica_surface.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Maximaximax, Red devil 666, Rex, Xhienne File:Arabian Desert.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arabian_Desert.png License: Public domain Contributors: Magog the Ogre, TFCforever File:Gobi.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gobi.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Emilfaro File:Kalahari.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kalahari.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Emilfaro File:Patagonian.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Patagonian.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Emilfaro File:IBRA 6.1 Great Victoria Desert.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IBRA_6.1_Great_Victoria_Desert.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Hesperian File:Syrian Desert.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Syrian_Desert.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Emilfaro File:greatbasinmap.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greatbasinmap.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Kmusser File:Chihuahua desert.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chihuahua_desert.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pfly File:Australia deserts.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Australia_deserts.PNG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Moondyne, PM, Roke, 1 anonymous edits File:Karakum.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karakum.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Emilfaro File:four corners.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Four_corners.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team (NASA) File:Mojave-sonoran deserts.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mojave-sonoran_deserts.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Rsduhamel at en.wikipedia. 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File:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Africa_satellite_orthographic.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Flamarande, Ghalas, Sven-steffen arndt File:Hoggar8.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hoggar8.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bertrand Devouard ou Florence Devouard (User:Anthere) File:Saharan Dust off West Africa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saharan_Dust_off_West_Africa.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA GSFC File:Saharan topographic elements map.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saharan_topographic_elements_map.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: T L Miles File:GueltaCamels.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GueltaCamels.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dario Menasce, I.N.F.N. 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File:Hoggar caravane2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hoggar_caravane2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: W. 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