CULINARY CHEMISTRY

What does the term culinary mean?

Culinary means "related to cooking". These are the cuisine arts

of food preparation, cooking, and presentation of food, usually in the form

of meals. People working in this field – especially in establishments such

as restaurants – are commonly called "chefs" or "cooks", although, at its most

general, the terms "culinary artist" and "culinarian" are also used. Table

manners ("the table arts") are sometimes referred to as a culinary art.

What then is culinary chemistry?

Culinary chemistry also referred to as Food Chemistry: As the name implies, food

chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry behind the

biochemical nature of food, their properties and how they are processed in the

body. It involves the study of chemical components from proteins to carbohydrates

and more. In food chemistry, we learn how different processing techniques affect a

certain type of food and also for ways to enhance the quality of [Link]

chemicals are added to food for a variety of technical reasons, including to make

them taste better, last longer or be more nutritional.

Food additives
Food enzymes

Food flavourings

Nutrient sources

Food supplements

Botanicals

History of food chemistry

The scientific approach to food and nutrition arose with attention to agricultural chemistry in the

works of J. G. Wallerius, Humphry Davy, and others. For example, Davy published Elements of

Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture (1813) in the United

Kingdom which would serve as a foundation for the profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition.

Earlier work included that by Carl Wilhelm Scheele who isolated malic acid from apples in 1785.

Some of the findings of Liebig on food chemistry were translated and published by EbenHorsford in

Lowell Massachusetts in 1848.[3]

In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical methods to the

benefit of the public.[4] Its early experiments were based on bread, milk and wine.

It was also out of concern for the quality of the food supply, mainly food adulteration and

contamination issues that would first stem from intentional contamination to later with chemical food

additives by the 1950s. The development of colleges and universities worldwide, most notably in the

United States, would expand food chemistry as well with research of the dietary substances, most

notably the Single-grain experiment during 1907-11. Additional research by Harvey W. Wiley at

the United States Department of Agriculture during the late 19th century would play a key factor in

the creation of the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1906. The American Chemical
Society would establish their Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division in 1908 while the Institute of

Food Technologists would establish their Food Chemistry Division in 1995.

Food chemistry concepts are often drawn from rheology, theories of transport

phenomena, physical and chemical thermodynamics, chemical bonds and interaction

forces, quantum mechanics and reaction kinetics, biopolymer science, colloidal

interactions, nucleation, glass transitions and freezing/disordered or noncrystalline solids, and thus

has Food Physical Chemistry as a foundation area.[5][6]

Water in food systems

A major component of food is water, which can encompass anywhere from 50% in meat products to

95% in lettuce, cabbage, and tomato products. It is also an excellent place for bacterial growth and

food spoilage if it is not properly processed. One way this is measured in food is by water

activity which is very important in the shelf life of many foods during processing. One of the keys

to food preservation in most instances is reduce the amount of water or alter the water's

characteristics to enhance shelf-life. Such methods include dehydration, freezing,

and refrigeration[7][8][9][10] This field encompasses the "physiochemical principles of the reactions and

conversions that occur during the manufacture, handling, and storage of foods".[11] .

Carbohydrates

Comprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most

common known human carbohydrate is Sucrose[citation needed]. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is

a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a [Link] ratio under a general

formula of CnH2nOn where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide as

is fructose. When combined in the way that the image to the right depicts, sucrose, one of the more

common sugar products found in plants, is formed.

A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide. Such polysaccharides

include pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan.

Sugar content is commonly measured in degrees brix.

Lipids

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively

water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty

acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and

terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others

have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are

rigid.

Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of

their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with

polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and

will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having

both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH

(hydroxyl or alcohol).

Lipids in food include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are parts of

many foods such as milk, cheese, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers.

Food proteins

Proteins compose over 50% of the dry weight of an average living cell[citation needed][clarification needed] and are

very complex macromolecules. They also play a fundamental role in the structure and function of

cells.[12] Consisting mainly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and some sulfur, they also may

contain iron, copper, phosphorus, or zinc.

In food, proteins are essential for growth and survival, and requirements vary depending upon a

person's age and physiology (e.g., pregnancy). Protein is commonly obtained from animal

sources: eggs, milk, and meat. Nuts, grains and legumes provide vegetable sources of protein,

and protein combining of vegetable sources is used to achieve complete protein nutritional quotas

from vegetables.

Protein sensitivity as food allergy is detected with the ELISA test.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to another.

They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to complete a chemical

process. Many aspects of the food industry use catalysts, including baking, brewing, dairy, and fruit

juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread.

Vitamins

Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These

are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble (Vitamin C) or fat-soluble (Vitamin E). An

adequate supply of vitamins can prevent diseases such as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an

overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.

Minerals

Dietary minerals in foods are large and diverse with many required to function while other trace

elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts. Bulk minerals with a Reference

Daily Intake (RDI, formerly Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)) of more than 200 mg/day

are calcium, magnesium, and potassium while important trace minerals (RDI less than 200 mg/day)

are copper, iron, and zinc. These are found in many foods, but can also be taken in dietary

supplements.
Colour

Food colouring is added to change the colour of any food substance. It is mainly for sensory analysis

purposes. It can be used to simulate the natural colour of a product as perceived by the customer,

such as red dye (like FD&C Red No.40 Allura Red AC) to ketchup or to add unnatural colours to a

product like Kellogg's Froot Loops. Caramel is a natural food dye; the industrial form, caramel

colouring, is the most widely used food colouring and is found in foods from soft drinks to soya

sauce, bread, and pickles.

Flavours

Flavour in food is important in how food smells and tastes to the consumer, especially in sensory

analysis. Some of these products occur naturally like salt and sugar, but flavour chemists (called a

"flavourist") develop many of these flavours for food products. Such artificial flavours include methyl

salicylate which creates the wintergreen odor and lactic acid which gives milk a tart taste.

Food additives

Food additives are substances added to food for preserving flavours, or improving taste or

appearance. The processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as

an emulsifier for emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. These are generally listed by "E number" in

the European Union or GRAS ("generally recognized as safe") by the United States Food and Drug

Administration.

Chemistry is important to food in various ways as stated below. Chemical

substances can play an important role in food production and preservation. Food

additives can, for example, prolong the shelf life of foods; others, such as colours,
can make food more attractive. Flavourings are used to make food tastier. Food

supplements are used as sources of nutrition.

Food packaging materials and containers such as bottles, cups and plates, used to

improve food handling and transport, can contain chemical substances such as

plastic, elements of which can migrate into food. Other chemicals can be used to

fight diseases in farm animals or crops, or can sometimes be found in food as a

result of a production process such as heating/cooking or decontamination

treatment.

Some plants and fungi naturally produce toxins that can contaminate crops and be

a concern for human and animal health. People can also be exposed to both

naturally occurring and man-made chemical compounds present at various

levels in the environment, e.g. in soil, water and the atmosphere. Examples

include industrial pollutants such as dioxins and PCBs. A variety of metals can be

present naturally in the environment or as a result of human activity.

How does food relate to Chemistry?

Food as Chemicals

Chefs think of cooking in terms of the art of putting ingredients together to

form a new recipe. Food scientists think of cooking in terms of the combination of
food chemicals and the reactions they undergo to form a new food product. Our

food is made up of chemicals. Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are particular types

of molecules and amino acids that combine in predictable ways to make up a food.

Taste, texture, and appearance can be altered by the addition or substitution of

chemical food components.

Food scientists work with food chemistry to develop new ways to use and

combine ingredients. They study the chemistry of the food to determine the

properties of each food component and how it functions in the final food product.

Working with natural and artificial ingredients, they develop stabilizers, flavorings,

and new ways to combine and present foods. Food scientists spend a lot of time on

research. They study the chemical properties of the food components, how they

combine and deteriorate, how to improve their nutrition, flavor, and storage

qualities. This research encompasses a number of science disciplines, but most of

the work involves chemistry.

Food scientists spend a lot of time on research. They study the chemical properties

of the food components, how they combine and deteriorate, how to improve their

nutrition, flavor, and storage qualities. This research encompasses a number of

science disciplines, but most of the work involves chemistry.

Flavoring Chemistry

One branch of food science that involves a lot of analytical chemistry is the

area of flavoring. Food scientists study the molecules responsible for flavor. They

conduct chemical analysis of flavors and study the chemistry of altering and

combining flavors to create new flavor profiles. Food scientists who work in the

area of flavorings must have knowledge of the chemistry of flavoring ingredients

and how they react and combine.

Applications Chemistry

Food scientists work with the chemistry of ingredients in food to improve

the quality and stability of the food. They study the use of chemical flavors,

thickening agents, stabilizers and preservatives and apply their knowledge to

improve existing food products and develop new ones. Current emphasis on low

fat and low calorie products has prompted food scientists to study the chemistry of

improving foods in this area and developing new foods to fill the demand for these

products.
Process Chemistry

Once a food product has been developed, process chemistry is used to

determine the best way to manufacture the food. Baking one cake is a much

different process than baking thousands. Formulations for ingredients may not be

scaled up exactly to form the new large scale recipe. Process chemistry is used to

produce the new recipe on a larger scale

Food science is mostly food chemistry. Analytical chemistry is used to determine

the properties of food components and determine how they interact. Applications

chemistry is used to develop new ingredients and improve existing ones. Process

chemistry is used to determine the best procedures for manufacturing food

products.

Examples of Food Chemistry

There are certain food technologies which we experience in our daily lives which

we do not know are the results of innovations in food chemistry. Some examples

are:

1. Fermentation of dairy products: Apart from natural fermentation, to speed

up the process we use microorganisms which aid the process of conversion

from lactose to lactic acid.

 2. Fat & Sugar Substitutes: We know how fat & sugar cause different

ailments, but with the help of food chemistry, chemists are coming up with

substitutes which offer the same taste without the bad effects.

Components of the Food we eat

1. Water

Water is a major component of almost every type of food we eat. But water also

provides a place for bacterial growth which leads to food spoilage. Thus measuring

the amount of water in a food item can be used to measure the shell life of an

object.

The shelf life can be altered by different methods such as:

• Refrigeration\Freezing

• Dehydration

Percentage of water in food:

• Meat – 50%

• Eggs – 75%

• Watermelon – 92%

• Lettuce – 95%
 • Cucumber – 96%

2. Carbohydrates

A carbohydrate is a biomolecule which is responsible for providing energy for

most organisms. They are also known as saccharides. They are found in white

bread, sugars, candies, fruits, vegetables, pulses, and wholemeal pasta.

Some examples of Carbohydrates are:

Glucose, galactose, fructose, glucose, galactose, fructose,

General Formula – Cx(H2O)y

Carbohydrates can be classified as:

• Monosaccharides

• Disaccharides

• Polysaccharides

3. Lipids

The term lipids refer to non –polar compounds or water-insoluble compounds of

biological origin. The main functions of lipids are:

• Storing energy

• Signalling
 • As structural components of cell membranes

Types of lipids

• Fatty acids

• Glycerolipids

• Glycerophospholipids

• Sphingolipids

• Sterol lipids

• Prenol lipids

• Saccharolipids

• Polyketides

4. Proteins

Proteins play a fundamental role in the structure and functioning of a cell. Proteins

in food are important for the survival and growth of a human being. They are

essential building blocks of human tissue and in extreme cases serve as a fuel

source. Some of the common sources of proteins through food are:

• Meat

• Milk
 • Eggs

5. Vitamins

Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic

reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble

(Vitamin C) or fat-soluble (Vitamin E). An adequate supply of vitamins can

prevent diseases such as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an overdose of

vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.

6. Minerals

Dietary minerals in foods are large and diverse with many required to function

while other trace elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts.

Bulk minerals with a Reference Daily Intake (RDI, formerly Recommended Daily

Allowance (RDA)) of more than 200 mg/day are calcium, magnesium,

and potassium while important trace minerals (RDI less than 200 mg/day) are

copper, iron, and zinc. These are found in many foods, but can also be taken in

dietary supplements.1

Importance of the study of Culinary Chemistry

“Food Chemistry was propped up by the concern for Food Safety and

Quality during World War I and II. Feeding an army on the battlefield is a
logistical challenge, and one that has inspired a variety of ingenious solutions over

the last five millennia. Faced with the challenge of feeding millions of men,

scattered across the globe, the U.S. Army invested its resources into the

development of lighter, longer-lasting rations, either in the army’s own R&D labs

in Natick, Massachusetts, or in collaboration with universities.

The United States military employed more than 16 million Americans during a four

year period in World War II. Part of the strategy of winning the war was keeping

these troops properly nourished and safe from food borne illness at a low cost. The

admission of chemical preservatives such as Sodium Nitrate was first experimented

with in canning and preserving meats. Sodium Nitrates/Nitrites are used to keep us

safe from extremely deadly pathogens such as clostridium botulinum.

Fast forward to today food chemistry is the genesis of every bizarre and eccentric

product you see on the supermarket shelves from Fruit Loops to Twinkies to the

plant based Impossible Burger.

Fast forward to the future, food chemistry will play a vital role in maintaining an

exponentially growing world population. Food chemist/microbiologist have

putR&D into sustainable cultured meat. This is muscles of livestock grown in labs

without the cost of raising the animal itself. Billionaire investors like Bill Gates see

this as an imminent, invaluable technology and are funding a company called

Memphis Meats that aim to use this food technology.”Joe Sickingeron Oct 21st,

2019

The Chef and Basic Chemical Reactions

Any cooking you do involves chemistry. The use of heat, cold, and cutting changes

the composition of foods. Even simply slicing an apple sets off chemical reactions

that change the color of the apple's flesh. If you heat up sugar to turn it into syrup,

you're using a chemical reaction.

If you add corn syrup to sugar because the corn syrup provides molecules that help

form the final product of caramel, you're using a chemical reaction. You already

know a bunch of these processes by heart, even if you can't name them, just

because basic chemistry is so entwined with cooking.

How Chefs Use Chemistry, Sometimes Without Even Realizing It

Once you start learning how these specific processes work, you can use them to

your advantage, creating effects in food that make plain dishes look fantastic. If

you know that sugar browns in heat, you know that adding a sprinkle of sugar to

the top of a product will give the final cooked product a nice caramelized look. If

you change a cooking method, you will be able to tell if the final product is fine

because you'll know which reactions no longer happened.

For example, cookies baked in an oven turn golden or brown as the sugar in the

dough caramelizes, but if you bake the cookies in a car (seriously), the

caramelizing doesn't happen, and the cookies look unbaked. But if you're expecting

that, you'll know that the looks are not a problem as long as the cookies show other

signs of being done. You won't keep trying to brown the cookies because you're

aware that the chemical reactions will be different.

Knowing chemistry in food is also helpful when creating copycat dishes for people

with special dietary requirements. If you're cooking for someone who can't have

eggs, you'll know that you need to find a substitute binder for the recipe, for

example.

Molecular Gastronomy

Learning more about chemical processes in food and how one substance might

affect another helps you if you're interested in cooking in the field of molecular

gastronomy. This is a field that is dedicated to playing around with the chemical

properties of food. The more aware you are of what can be done chemically, the

more dishes you can create.

Chemistry and food also comes into play when you're trying to verify old cooking

legends and advice. For example, if you know how pasta absorbs water, you'll
know that you don't have to use tons of water to cook a little pasta. That's a very

simple example, but it shows you how you can cut experimentation and cooking

time if you already know the basic chemical reactions behind what's happening

when food cooks.

Summarically, we can say that the importance of culinary skills or acts is not

too far from chemistry. The father of culinary acts is Auguste Escoffier. Escoffier

was the father of modern French cuisine and is universally recognized as the finest

master chef of the 20th century.

 REFERENCES

1. Fennema, O.R., Ed. (1985). Food Chemistry - Second Edition, Revised and

Expanded. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

2. Francis, F.J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and

Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food

Technologists. pp. 13–14.

3. Potter, N.N. and J.H. Hotchkiss. (1995). Food Science, Fifth Edition. New

York: Champman & Hall. pp. 24–68.

4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (1993). Everything Added to Food in the

United States. Boca Raton, Florida: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC press, Inc.).

5. Physical Chemistry Of Food Processes: Fundamental [Link]

Nostrand-Reinhold vol.1., 1st Edition,

6. Henry G. Schwartzberg, Richard W. Hartel. 1992. Physical Chemistry of

Foods. IFT Basic Symposium Series, Marcel Dekker, Inc.:New York, 793

pages

7. John M. de Man.1999. Principles of Food Chemistry (Food Science Text

Series), Springer Science, Third Edition

8. John M. de Man. 2009. Food process engineering and technology, Academic

Press, Elsevier: London and New York, 1st edn.