ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS (CE-2102)
CHAPTER 6: METAL
May 2012
METAL
Metal
• Ferrous metal
(Iron as main constituent)
- e.g. cast iron, wrought iron, steel
• Non ferrous metal
(Iron is not the main constituent
- e.g. copper, aluminum, zinc, tin
Production of ferrous metal
Raw Iron ore
Material Coke – supplies carbon
Limestone – reduces impurities
Blast Furnace Slag
removed
Pig Iron
Cast iron Wrought iron Steel
(Commercial forms of iron)
Pig iron Production
Iron ore is reduced to pig iron in a
blast furnace. Iron ore is Iron ore,
combined with coke, and limestone,
limestone. Hot air are forced coke
through the material to ignite the
coke and melt the iron ore. The
impurities in the iron are absorbed
Chute
by the limestone and forms blast
furnace slag. The molten iron
(with an excess carbon) collects
at the bottom of the furnace.
Hot air
Pig iron content:
high carbon content : 4-5%. Hot air
silicon : 2 %, manganese: 1 %,
sulfur: 0.05 %, phosphorous: < slag Liquid
2%. Very brittle; not very useful iron
Blast furnace
directly as a material.
Cast iron
• Made by remelting pig iron &
removing impurities in a
furnace (cupola)
• Contain
- iron (92 – 95 %)
- carbon (2 – 4 %)
- silicon (1 - 3%)
- traces of manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur
• Shaped by being cast - iron is
poured into a mold while it is
liquid, allowed to solidify cupola
inside the mold.
Properties
• Brittle – due to large carbon amount,
difficult to weld.
• Low tensile strength (110 MPa) but high
compressive strength.
Types (depends on chemical composition
and cooling rate)
• Gray cast iron – commonly used
• White cast iron – harder, more resistant
• Malleable cast iron – can be malleable
Uses
Manhole covers, engine
blocks, machine tools,
cookware, hardware, fire
hydrants, pipes. (Not
subjected to tensile
strength)
Wrought iron
• Purest form of iron
• Made by refining pig iron in
a furnace
• Contain
- iron (98 %)
- carbon (0.1 – 0.25 %)
- slag (2-3%)
- traces of sulfur, silicon,
phosphorus, manganese
Properties
• Malleable, ductile, can be
easily welded & machined.
• Good resistance to corrosion
• Moderate tensile strength
(310 -380 MPa)
Uses
• Ornamental work, pipes,
vehicle components, bars,
chain.
Steel
• Invention of steel in 1856 by
Henry Bessemer
• Bessemer process was the
first inexpensive process for
the mass-production of steel
from molten pig iron.
Bessemer Converter
• Replace by basic oxygen
process.
• Contain
- iron
- carbon (0.12 –1.5 %)
- phosphorous & sulfur < 0.1 %
- manganese up to 0.5 %
- silicon up to 0.3 %
Basic oxygen furnace
Conversion to steel products
Molten steel
Continuous Casting Ingots
(poured directly into molds (6 x 2 x 2 ft)
to make basic shapes)
Primary rolling
slab billet bloom
Continuos casting of billet
slab billet bloom
Plates Sheets Wires Pipes Bar Structural
shapes –
beams,columns
Steel forming
Molten steel are cast directly into the basic
shape (slab, bloom, billets) or the ingot (once
hardened) are rolled in rolling mills and transform
into slab, bloom, billet.
- a slab (For making plates, sheets, strip and
other flat-rolled steel products)
- a bloom (For making beams and columns)
- a billet (Use to make bars, pipes, wire and
wire products)
Hot rolling
Ingots
(6 x 2 x 2 ft)
Mechanical operation
Steel properties are greatly
influenced by the mechanical
operation that change ingot,
bloom, billets or slabs into useful
shape.
The operations are rolling,
extruding and drawing.
The operations can be done while
the steel is in plastic condition
(1090 oC) – hot working or at
room temperature (cold working).
• Rolling - The shaping of
metal by squeezing it
through a series of
rollers.
• Extrusion - Forcing a hot
billet through a die of the
desired shape.
• Drawing - Pulling steel
through a small die to
form wire or a small rod.
(e.g. round, square)
Properties of steel
A steel with a wide variety of characteristics can be
produced by
• altering the carbon content
• adding alloy (metal e.g. nickel, chromium,
tungsten etc.) to steel to improve its
characteristics e.g. corrosion resistance,
strength, ductility and machinabilty.
e.g. Stainless steel contains chromium and
nickel. Anti corrosion & acid proof.
• different heat treatment
• mechanical operation (hot or cold rolling,
drawing. extrusion etc.
Heat treatment of Steel
The heating and cooling processes are used
to change the structure of a metal and alter its
mechanical properties. (e.g. Cooling rapidly in
cold water makes it harder and more brittle)
Ductility
Steel has high ductility. Ductility is the
property of a material by which it can
withstand extensive deformation without
failure under high tensile stresses. It usually
shows large visible deflections before failure
or collapse.
Tensile Strength
Most important property. Depends on types of
steel. Tensile strength for structural steel (400 –
900 MPa)
Types of steel
• Mild steel (Low carbon steel) < 0·25% carbon);
cheap, strong and easily shaped. Main metal for
construction.
• Medium carbon steel (0·25% - 0.5 % carbon)
Rails, boilers, plates, axles, structures.
• High carbon steel (0·5% - 1.5 % carbon);
Stronger than mild steel but more brittle. Used
to make tools and cutters.
• Steel Alloy
Ni-steel (Gear, shaft, cable), Mn-steel (Rail
tracks)
• High tensile steel
e.g. as reinforcing material
(in the form of wires) in
prestressed concrete.
• Galvanized Steel
Steel that has been plated with zinc to improve
corrosion resistance.
Classification of
steel products
• Structural steel –
plates, bars, pipes,
tubes, structural shapes
– I, H beams, channel,
angle
• Fastening product used for structural
connections - bolt, nuts, washers
• Reinforcing steel -
plain / deformed bar,
wire fabric for concrete
reinforcement
• Miscellaneous
products e.g. forms,
pans
Advantages of steel in building
construction
1. High strength/weight ratio
Steel has a high strength/weight ratio.
This property makes .
steel a very
attractive structural material for high -
rise buildings & long span bridges
2. Ductility
Steel can undergo large plastic
deformation before failure, thus providing a
large reserve strength. Properly designed
steel structures can have high ductility,
which is an important characteristic for
resisting shock loading such as blasts
or earthquakes.
3. Speed of erection.
Steel structures can be erected quite
rapidly therefore reducing the cost of
construction. Structural steel framing can
be rapidly designed, purchased, fabricated
and erected without need for curing and
other delays of concrete and masonry
construction.
4. Quality of construction
Steel structures can be built with high-quality
workmanship.
5. Ease of repair, modification & change
Steel structures in general can be repaired
quickly and easily. When building uses
change or are improved, structural steel can
be easily modified and reinforced to
accommodate the new requirements.
6. Adaptation of prefabrication
Highly suitable for prefabrication and mass
production.
7. Repetitive use
Steel can be reused after a structure is
disassembled. Most steel today is a recycled
product, and nearly all structural steel from
building demolition is recycled. This provides
salvage value, reduces demolition expenses,
reduces landfill volume and helps the environment
8. Expanding existing structures
Steel buildings can be easily expanded in any
direction.
Disadvantages of steel
1. General cost
Steel structures may be more costly than
other types of structures.
2. Fireproofing
The strength of steel is reduced
substantially when heated at temperatures
commonly observed in building fires.
Consequently, steel frames in buildings
must have adequate fireproofing.
3. Maintenance
Steel structures exposed to air and water, such
as bridges, are susceptible to corrosion and
should be painted regularly. Application of
weathering and corrosion-resistant steels may
eliminate this problem.
4. Susceptibility to buckling
Due to high strength/weight ratio, steel
compression members are in general more
slender and consequently more susceptible to
buckling than reinforced concrete compression
members.
Advantages and disadvantages of steel structures
Advantages Disadvantages
• High strength to weight ratio • Energy intensive material
• Non-combustible • Susceptible to rust and
• Recyclable corrosion
• Consistent material quality • Requires fire proofing
• Safety: offers greater • Highly conductive
protection • Emission of gases during
• Flexibility production
• Inorganic: will not warp, split, • Extra cost for protective
creep, crack coating
• Dimensional stability
• Straight walls, corners
• Speedy construction
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Non ferrous metal
- use as original metal or as alloy
Aluminum
• Lightweight - 1/3 weight steel and cooper; excellent
corrosion resistance; low strength
Uses
• Roofing, window & door frames, door & window
handles, protective covering
Copper
• High electrical conductivity; readily bent & cut;
good corrosion resistance
Uses
• Electrical conductor, heating vessels
Zinc
• Good conductor of heat; high corrosion resistance,
Uses
• Roofing material, batteries, protective covering
Tin
• Resistance to acid corrosion, good conductor of
heat & electricity
Uses
• Protective covering, alloy, household purpose,
coating for food containers
