[578 Fluid Mechanics ] Second n-term y= d™.NE pp. Substituting the dimensions on both sides, MOLD = LT. MEY) MINT Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides, Power of M, Power of L, Power of T, 2 Substituting the values of a,b, ¢2 in ™, m=d?.Nt Third r-term m= d.N.p.0. Substituting dimensions on both sides, MLD 2 1 (TY (ML). MT Equating the powers of M,Z, Ton the sides, Power of M, O=e+l, Power of L, 0= a3 -3es, Power of 7, 0=-6,-2, Substituting the values of as, by, ¢3 im my. m=d9.N Fourth n-term y= ds, NY Substituting dimensions on both sides, MELT 2 1 (TN (ML) ML Equating the powers of M, L, Ton both sides, Power of M, Power of L, Power of T, Substituting the values of ay, by and c, in Ty, med" N72 pt we Now substituting the values of m, ta. 3s Ry in (i), (2, ow @N’ pNa® DN%p" dN"p. =@no|_# : one rae a _— > 12.5 MODEL ANALYSIS For predicting the performance of the hydraulic structures (such as dams, spillways etc.) or hhydraualic machines (such as turbines, pumps etc.), before actually constructing or manufacturing,[ Dimensional and Model Analysis _579| ‘models of the structures or machines are made and tests are performed on them to obtain the desired information, ‘The model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. The actual structure or ‘machine is called Prototype. It is not necessary that the models should be smaller than the prototypes (though in most of cases itis), they may be larger than the prototype. The study of models of actual machines is called Model analysis. Model analysis is actually an experimental method of finding solutions of complex flow problems. Exact analytical solutions are possible only for a limited number of flow problems. The followings are the advantages of the dimensional and model analysis : 1. The performance of the hydraulic structure or hydraulic machine can be easily predicted, in advance, from its model. 2. With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing a flow problem in terms of dimensionless parameters is obtained. This relationship helps in conducting tests fon the model. 3. The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help of model testing. The most economical and safe design may be, finally, adopted. 4. The tests performed on the models can be utilized for obtaining, in advance, useful information about the performance of the prototypes only if a complete similarity exists between the model and the prototype, > 12.6 SIMILITUDE-TYPES OF SIMILARITIES Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in every respect, which ‘means that the model and prototype have similar properties or model and prototype are completely similar. Three types of similarities must exist between the model and prototype. They are 1. Geometric Similarity, 2. Kinematic Similarity, and 3. Dynamic Similarity 1. Geometric Similarity. The geometric similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype. The ratio of all corresponding linear dimension in the model and prototype are equal. Let Length of model, by = Breadth of model = Diameter of model, = Area of model, Volume of model and Lys bp DpsAps Vp Conesponding values ofthe prototype. For geometric simaniy bsween model and prototype, we must have the elation, tebe Prey, (26 Ine Dy where L, is called the scale ratio. For area’s ratio and volume’s ratio the relation should be as given below : Ap _ Lp Xbp Ln X Pn = (te) 2(be) =(2e oH La bn Dy 2. Kinematle Similarity: Kinematic similarity means the similarity of motion between model and prototype. Thus kinematic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype if the ratios of the velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in the model and at the corresponding L,xL,= 1, (12.7) and A\t >[580 Fluid Mechanics ] points in the prototype are the same. Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence not only the ratio of magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points in model and. prototype should be same ; but the directions of velocity and accelerations at the corresponding points. in the model and prototype also should be parallel. Let Vp, = Velocity of fluid at point I in prototype, Vp. = Velocity of fluid at point 2 in prototype, dp, = Acceleration of fluid at point 1 in prototype, 4p, = Acceleration of fluid at point 2 in prototype, and Voy + Vay +m »4y, = Corresponding values at the corresponding points of fluid velocity and accel- eration in the model. For kinematic similarity, we must have 02.9) where V, is the velocity ratio, For acceleration, we must have “= “2 (12.10) where 4, isthe acceleration ratio. ‘Also the directions of the velocities in the model and prototype should be same. 3. Dynamic Similarity. Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between the model and prototype. Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype ifthe ratios of the corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are equal. Also the directions of the corresponding forces atthe corresponding points should be same, Let (F)p= Inertia force at a point in prototype, (F))p= Viscous force atthe point in prototype, (E,)p = Gravity force atthe point in prototype, and (Fi) (F\)yr (Fen = Corresponding values of forces at the corresponding point in model ‘Then for dynamic similarity, we have (Alp _ (Bde | (Fale Fe (Fe (Fl, Also the directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points in the model and proto- type should be same. ‘» Where F, is the force ratio, > 12.7 TYPES OF FORCES ACTING IN MOVING FLUID For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on a fluid mass may be any one, or a combination of the several of the following forces : 1. Inertia force, F 2. Viscous force, F,. 3. Gravity force, Fy. 4. Pressure force, Fy, 5. Surface tension force, F,, 6. Elastic force, F, 1. Inertia Force (F}). It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and. acts in the direction opposite to the direction of acceleration. It is always existing in the fluid flow problems.Dimensional and Model Analysis _581| 2. Viscous Force (F,). It is equal to the product of shear stress (1) due to viscosity and surface area of the flow. It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important role to play. 3. Gravity Force (F,). It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing fluid. It is present in case of open surface flow. 4. Pressure Force (F,). Itis equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross-sectional area of the flowing fluid. It is present in case of pipe-flow. 5. Surface Tension Force (F,). [tis equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid. 6. Elastic Force (F,). It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid. For a flowing fluid, the above-mentioned forces may not always be present. And also the forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal magnitude. There are always one ‘or two forces which dominate the other forces. These dominating forces govern the flow of fluid. > 12.8 DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing the inertia force by viscous force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension force or elastic force. As this is a ratio of one force to the other force, it will be a dimensionless number. These dimensionless numbers are also called non-dimensional parameters. The followings are the important dimensionless numbers 1, Reynold’s number, 2. Froude’s number, 3. Buler’s number, 4. Weber's number, 5. Mach’s number. 12.8.1 Reynold’s Number (R,). It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and the visous force ofthe fluid. The expression for Reynold’s number is obtained as Inertia force (F) = Mass x Acceleration of flowing fluid = px Volume x Velocity <5, Volume vetocity Time Time =pxAVxV [2 Volume per sec = Arca x Velocity = A x V} = pAv? 2.11) Viscous force (F,) = Shear stress x Area + Facets} atKA _VxL_VxXL = Pat sn}[582 Fluid Mechanics ] In case of pipe flow, the linear dimension L is taken as diameter, 4. Hence Reynold’s number for pipe flow, Ved ove (12.12) v H 12.8.2 Froude’s Number (F,)- ‘The Froude’s number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid to the gravity force. Mathematically, itis expressed as Feo fi i ‘where F; from equation (12.11) = paV? and F.,= Force due to gravity Mass x Acceleration due to gravity px Volume xg = px Lx g Volume = 2} =pxLxLxg=pxAxLxg = Area} F_ fav? _ [Viiv Fes ft = (12.13) ti \bis “i 12.8.3 Euler's Number (E,). _It is defined as the square root of the ratio ofthe inertia force of a flowing fluid to the pressure force. Mathematically, itis expressed as where Fp = Intensity of pressure x Area = p x A and F,=pav" [pav? : v B= PAV [eV (2.14) pxA\p/p p/p 12.8.4 Weber's Number (W,). It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the surface tension force. Mathematically, itis expressed as where F; = Inertia force = pAV? fe F and —F, = Surface tension force * = Surface tension per unit length x Length = 6 x L eaten | 2c aan {v Ask) oxL"\ oxb ian pee Vara AV aliee o o/pL Joipl” 12.8.5 Mach’s Number (M). Mach’s number is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force. Mathematically, itis defined as Weber's Number, W, (12.15)Dimensional and Model Analysis _583 | inertia force Elastic force where F,= pave and F= Elastic force = Elastic stess x Area =KxA=KxL? K = Elastic stress} [pav? _ foxexv [ve KxE KxE Kip But C= Velocity of sound inthe fuid wat (12.16) -t. > 12.9 MODEL LAWS OR SIMILARITY LAWS For the dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the ratio of the corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points in the model and prototype should be equal. The ratio of the forces are dimensionless numbers. It means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the dimensionless numbers should be same for model and the prototype. But it is quite difficult to satisfy the condition that all the dimensionless numbers (i.e. Res F,s Wor E, and M) are the same for the ‘model and prototype. Hence models are designed on the basis of ratio of the force, which is dominating in the phenomenon. The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic similarity are called ‘model laws or laws of similarity. The followings are the model laws : 1. Reynold’s model law, 2. Froude model law, 3. Euler model law, 4, Weber model law, 5. Mach model law. 12.9.1 Reynold’s Model Law. Reynold’s model law is the law in which models are based on. Reynold’s number. Models based on Reynold’s number includes : (0 Pipe flow (ii) Resistance experienced by sub-marines, airplanes, fully immersed bodies ete. As defined earlier that Reynold number is the ratio of inertia force and viscous force, and hence fluid flow problems where viscous forces alone are predominent, the models are designed for dynamic similarity on Reynolds law, which states that the Reynold number for the model must be equal to the Reynold number for the prototype. Let —_V,, = Velocity of fluid in model, = Density of fluid in model, L,,= Length or linear dimension of the model, i, = Viscosity or fluid in model, And Vp, Pp» Lp and bp re the corresponding values of velocity, density, linear dimension and viscosity of fluid in prototype. Then according to Reynold’s model law, Pavel _ PrVokp at) He Hp [Rely = Relp or[584 Fluid Mechanics ] Pp-Vp bp Pa Vn Ly And also p,, Vj, L, and H, are called the scale ratios for density, velocity, linear dimension and viscosity, ‘The scale ratios for time, acceleration, force and discharge for Reynold’s model law are obtained as F, = Force scale ratio = (Mass x Acceleration), 1m, 4,= PAV, X ay 4, =pL2V,xa, Discharge scale ratio = (pAV), =pA,V,=p,.L2.V, Problem 12.15 A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of sp. gr. 0.90 and viscosity 3 x10” poise at the rate of 3000 litre/s. Tests were conducted on a 15 em diameter pipe using water at 20°C. Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model. Viscosity of water at 20°C = 0.01 poise. Solution. Given : Dia. of prototype, Dp= 15m Viscosity of fluid, Hp = 3 x 107 poise © for protorype, Op = 3000 livs = 3.0 mis Sp. gr. of oll, Sp = 09 -. Density of oil, Sp X 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m? Dia. of the model, 15 em = 0.15 m Viscosity of water at 20°C 1 x 107 poise or 1, Density of water or For pipe flow, the dynamic similarity will be obtained if the Reynold's number in the model and prototype are equal 1 x 107 poise VnDm . PeVpDp He Me Yn 222 De Mn Vo Pm Dy He = 900. LS) 1x10) 1000 “015 “3x10 Hence using equation (12.17), (For pipe, linear dimension is D} 1 x1ox+=30 3[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 585] But Vp = Rate of ow in prototype 30 ‘Area of prototype Rasy 4 = 3084 1.697 mis nx225 Vq,= 3.0 x Vp = 3.0 1.697 = 8.091 mis. Ans. Rate of flow through model, Oy = Ay * V, A (Dy? X Vy A (0.15)? x 5.091 mis = 0.0899 m¥s = 0.0899 x 1000 lit/s = 89.9 lits. Ans. Problem 12.16 Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 30 cm at a velocity of 4 m/s. Find the velocity of oil flowing in another pipe of diameter 10 cm, if the condition of dynamic similarity is satisfied between the two pipes. The viscosity of water and oil is given as 0.01 poise and .025 poise. The sp. gr. of oil = 08. Solution. Given : ‘Two pipes having different liquids. Die one wen =030m 0.01 vic, 1, =001 poe = 921, Uns Density, Pp; = 1000 kg/m* ent, = 028 pote = 225 4, Us «. Density, P= 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m? Pi¥ich _ PrVad> Hy By = 1000, 030 800 0.10 Problem 12.17 The ratio of lengths of a sub-marine and its model is 30 : 1. The speed of sub- marine (prototype) is 10 m/s. The model is to be tested in a wind tunnel. Find the speed of air in wind tunnel. Also determine the ratio of the drag (resistance) between the model and its prototype. Take the value of kinematic viscosities for sea water and air as .O12 stokes and .016 stokes respectively. The density for sea-water and air is given as 1030 kg/m’ and 1.24 kg/m’ respectively.[586 Fluid Mechanics ] Solution. Given : Prototype (sub-marine) and its model. For prototype, Speed p= 10 mis. Fluid = Sea - water Kinematic viscosity, Vp 012 emis 012x104 mis (+: Stoke = ems} Density, p= 1030 ke/m® For model Fluid = Air Kinematic viscosity, Vy, = 0.016 stokes = 0.016 em*/s = .016 x 104 m/s Density, Py = 1.24 kg/m? Length of prototype _ Lp Length of model L,, Let the velocity of air in model = Vp For dynamic similarity between model and sub-marine, the viscous resistance isto be overcame and hence for fully submerged sub-marine, the Reynold’s number for model and prototype should be same. PrVpDp _ PaVnDw g, _VeDp _ VmnDm_, VpDp. _ VaDn Mp He (u/p)p (HP), | Ye Vn Also, = 30.0 D, Pe xy, Dy” 2 201610" 595 10m 2 _ 0016 30x 10 = 400 m/s. Ans. Ratio of drag force (resistance) : Drag force ‘= Mass x Acceleration coixtep 2 Exvap ev fe 4ev} Let Fp and Fy denote the drag force forthe prototype and for the model respectively then, Pry (tey (Ye) Pm \ Ln Vin = 1080 308 ( ug J = 467.22. Ans. 124 Fo _ pole Fn PoolinVee 400. Problem 12.18 A ship 300 m long moves in sea-water, whose density is 1030 kg/m’, AI: 100 ‘model of this ship is to be tested in a wind tunnel. The velocity of air in the wind tunnel around the ‘model is 30 m/s and the resistance of the model is 60 N. Determine the velocity of ship in sea-water and also the resistance of the ship in sea-water, The density of air is given as 1.24 kg/m’. Take the kinematic viscosity of sea-water and air as 0.012 stokes and 0.018 stokes respectively.[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 587 Solution. Given : For Prototype, Length, Lp= 300m Fluid = Sea-water Density of water 1030 ke/m* Kinematic viscosity, ‘vp =0.012 stokes = 0.012 x 10 ms Let velocity of ship Vp Resistance =F For model 1 Length, Ly = jpg 30023 m Velocity, Vp = 30 mvs Resistance, F,=60N Density of air, Pm = 1.24 kg/m? Kinematic viscosity of air, v,, = 0.018 stokes For dynamic similarity between the prototype and its model, the Reynolds number for both of them should be equal. Vex be Vuln og ypu Mex ln yy, Vp Ve Vm Lp 012x10% 3. 018x10 Resistance = Mass x Acceleration av x 1 Then But Fp _ 1030 2y Fe _ 1030, (30) Fr, 1a “\3 ; Fp = 369.17 x Fy, = 369.17 x 60 = 2180.2 N. Ans. 12.9.2 Froude Model Law. Froude model law is the law in which the models are based on Froude number which means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Froude number for both of them should be equal. Froude model law is applicable when the gravity force is only predominant force which controls the flow in addition to the force of inertia. Froude model law is applied in the following fluid flow problems : 1. Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels etc., 2. Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle, 3, Where waves are likely to be formed on surface, 4. Where fluids of different densities flow over one another.[588 Fluid Mechanics ] Lee Vaz Valocy offiid in mode, Lincar limnson or length of mol, Accretion du to pay a a place whee model ted and Vp and ge the comestnding valves of he veloc, eng and secleraton duet pay forthe pebweype Then scconing to Freade lel law, ‘Ys F model = (Fe)prototype OF == = FO matd = EOpnaae ET Teel ae ete eel eee ee cere eee eaten and equation (1218) eoomes a (12.18) (12.19) where L,= Scale ratio for length Ve Me ay, Voy Scale ratios for various physical quantities based on Froude model law are (@) Scale ratio for time (12.20) Length Velocity” then ratio of time for prototype and model is nl), AS time = sirisic (12.21) (b) Scale ratio for acceleration v Acceleration = TDimensional and Model Analysis 589 | fe Boece} (12.22) (6) Scale ratio for discharge . LPS ...(12.23) (Scale ratio for force As Ratio for force, If the Muid used in model and prototype is same, then feel OF p= Pm bey (Y, and hence F,=(42) x(% (1224) Ly Vou (6) Scale ratio for pressure intensity As Forse _ pV? _ ye Area Pressure rio, p= BE = BOVE Pn Pa¥e If fluid is same, then pp = Py ve (Ye) = Mee 1225) ox t-(4) (1225) () Seale ratio for work, energy, torque, moment ete. “Torque = Force x Distance = Fx L i (FXL)y 3 4 Torque ratio, 1 F,xL,= Lp xL,= Ly (12.26) (fxd, (g) Scale ratio for power As Power = Work per unit time[590 Fluid Mechanics ] < Power ratio, P, =F,.L, + (12.27) Problem 12.19. in in 40 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 2 m/s and 2.5 m/s. Find the corresponding velocity and discharge in the prototype. Solution. Given : Scale ratio of length, 1,240 Velocity in model, Vy = 2 mils, Discharge in model, On = 24 mis Let Vp and Qp are the velocity and discharge in prototype. Using equation (12.20) for velocity ati ee {n=O ‘ =Vq ie 2x J40 = 12.65 mis. Ans. Using equation (12.23) for discharge ratio, Be 135 (40)*8 Op = Op x 40°5 = 2.5 x 40S = 2298.2 mss. Ans. Problem 12.20 A ship model ofscale 2 is towed through sea water ata speed of I mis. A force of 2 Nis required to tow the model. Determine the speed of ship and the propulsive force on the ship, if prototype is subjected to wave resistance only. Solution. Given Scale ratio of length, 1,250 Speed of model, Vy, = 1 mis Force required for model, F,, =2.N Let the speed of ship Vp and the propulsive force for ship = Fp. As prototype is subjected to wave resistance only for dynamic similarity, the Froude number should bbe same for model and prototype. Hence for velocity ratio, for Froude model law using equation (12.20), we have ae 50 Vp= 950 x V,= V50%1 =7.071 ms. Ans. Force scale ratio is given by equation (12.24), Froys feeb F p= Fy XL,’ = 2 x (50)° = 250000 N. Ans.[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 591 | Problem 12.21 In the model test of a spillway the discharge and velocity of flow over the model were 2 m’/s and 1.5 m/s respectively. Calculate the velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times the model size. Solution. Given : Discharge over model, Velocity over model, Linear scale ratio, Vp = Velocity over prototype = Vx 6.0 = 1.5 x 6.0 = 9 mls. Ans. For discharge, using equation (12.23), we get Or 1252 (36), = 125 = 36) Qn = Op x (36)?5 = 2.x 36% = 15552 m'/s. Ans. Problem 12.22 Ina scone ‘similar model of spillway the discharge per metre length is ms the scale of the model is Z,find the discharge per metre length ofthe protrype Solution. Given Discharge per metre length for model, dy Linear scale ratio, L, Discharge per metre length for prototype, 4p Op ‘The discharge ratio for spillway is given by equation (12.23), <" = L,°*. But discharge ratio per metre length is given as Gp Orly _ Op Gm Qu thm — Om P= eX be else = 36 m’/s per metre length. Ans. 1 Problem 12.23 A spillway model isto be built 0 a geometrically similar scale of across a flume of 600 mm width. The prototype is 15 m high and maximum head on it is expected 10 be 1.5 m. (i) What height of model and what head on the model should be used ? (ii) If the flow over the model ata particular head is 12 litres per second, what flow per metre length of the prototype is expected ? (iti) Ifthe negative pressure in the model is 200 mm, what is the negative pressure in prototype ? Is it practicable ? Solution. Given Scale ratio for length, L,=50 Width of model, B,, = 600 mm = 0.6 m[592 Fluid Mechanics Flow over model, Pressure in model, Height of prototype, Head on prototype, (Let the height of modet and head on model = 12 lies/s = 200 mm of water = 0.2m Linear scale ratio, Height of model, ‘And head on model, Width of prototype, Bp=L,X By = 50 X0.6 = 30 m. (i Discharge ratio is given by equation (12.23) as, Be. 21,25 = (50)? = 1767767 a = Op X 17677.67 = 12 « 1767761 = 212132.04 ts Discharge per metre length of prototype ———_ Sp __212152.04_ Length of prototype Width of prototype = Beis2oe = 7071.078 litres/s. Ans. (ili) Negative pressure head in prototype, ip =L, X ln = 50% (- 0.2) =~ 10.0 m. Ans. This negative pressure is not practicable. Maximum practicable negative pressure head is ~ 7.50 m of water, Problem 12.24 Ina in 20 model of stilling basin, the height of the hydraulic jump in the model is observed to be 0.20 metre. What is the height of the hydraulic jump in the prototype ? If the energy dissipated inthe model is AW, what isthe corresponding value in prototype ? Solution. Given Linear scale ratio, 1,=20 Height of hydraulic jump in model, fy, = 0.20 m Energy dissipated in model, P,, = 4 kw, (@ Let the height of hydraulic jump in the prototype = hip 4 Then Me a1, = 2 me bre? Tip = lg X 20 = 0.20 X20 = 4 m. Ans. (ii) Let the energy dissipated in prototype Using equation (12.27) for power ratio, 20° = 357.088, es Py t7i7088 = 8777088 = 387.7004 Ans[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 593 | Problem 12.25 The characteristics of the spillway are to be studied by means of a geometrically similar model constructed to the scale ratio of 1: 10. (i) If the maximum rate of flow in the prototype is 28.3 cumecs, what will be the corresponding flow in model ? (ii) If the measured velocity in the model at a point on the spillway is 2.4 m/s, what will be the corresponding velocity in prototype ? (ili) If the hydraulic jump at the foot of the model is 50 mm high, what will be the height of jump in prototype ? (iv) Ifthe energy dissipated per second in the model is 3.5 Nm, what energy is dissipated per second in the prototype ? Solution. Given : Linear dimension of model Linear dimension of prototype 10 + Scale ratio, L,= 10. (0 Discharge in prototype, Qp = 283m Let Og Discharge in mode For discharge using equation (12.23), we get Oe 2135 Qu : n= 26, = 783. = 0.0895 ms. Ans. 0 (ip Velocity in the model, v= 24 m/s Let Vp Velocity inthe prototype For velocity using equation (12.20), we get . Vp= Vg ally =24 x VIO = 7.589 mis. Ans. Gy Hydrautic jump in model, Hy = 50 mm Let Hp = Hydraulic jump in prototype Now scale ratio ate 4, = Hy x Scale ratio = 50 x 10 = 500 mm. Ans. Civ) Energy dissipated in model, E, = 3.5 N mis Let Ep = Energy dissipated/s in prototype = Ey XL; = 3.5 x 10° = 1067.9 N mis. Ans.[594 Fluid Mechanics Problem 12.26 A J : 64 model is constructed of an open channel in concrete which has Man- ning’s N = 0.014, Find the value of N for the model. Solution. Given : Linear scale ratio, Value of NV for prototype, Let = Value of N for model. ‘The Manning’s formula* is given by, V in which, Hydraulic mean depth in m Slope of the bed of the channel Now for the model, the Manning's formula becomes as 1 2a yi2 Vg = «gy? «(i me ye? ad and for the prototype, the Manning's formula is written as 1 20 Gi oe Dividing equation (i) by equation (i), we get (mp)? Cin) ia) (zy (ey Thy in For dynamic similarity, Froude model law is used. Using equation (12.20), we have tea Ja =8 My) ;,and ® = | asi, and i, are dimensionless. Substituting these values in equation (iii), we get b= Ne (1x12 Ne x 642? ¢ Np 0014 Ny = 8X0.014 _ 8X0014 9.007, ans. or 16 Ai) Ai) Np=0.014) Problem 12.27 A 7.2m height and 15 m long spillway discharges 94 m’/s discharge under a head of 2.0m. Ifa 1 :9 scale model of this spillway is to be constructed, determine model dimensions, head over spillway model and the model discharge. If model experiences a force of 7500 N (764.53 kgf), determine force on the prototype. Solution. Given : For prototype : Height ftp = 7.2m Length, Lp= 15m Discharge, Qp=94 mss "See chapter 16 where Manning's formula for velocity through an open channel flow is given.[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 595] Head, Hp= 2.0m 1 Size of model = 5 of the size of prototype. Linear scale ratio, -L, = 9 Force experienced by model, Fp = 7500 N Find ; (i) Model dimensions ie. height and length of model (i, and L,) (ii) Head over model ie. Hy (iii) Discharge through model ie., Oy (iv) Force on prototype (ie., F,) (8 Model dimensions (hy and Ly) hp ‘And (ii) Head over model (Hy,) th tno Ay y= He =? = 0222 m. Ans. 3 (it) Discharge through model (Qy) Using equation (12.23), we get om =L, as Qn 0.387 m/s. Ans. (iv) Force on the Prototype (Fp) Using equation (12.24), we get F, = 7 : F p= Fy X Lj = 7500 x 9° = 5467500 N. Ans. 12.9.3 Euler's Model Law. Euler's model law is the law in which the models are designed on Euler’s number which means for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, the Euler number for model and prototype should be equal. Euler's model law is applicable when the pressure forces are alone predominant in addition to the inertia force. According to this law : ED modet= Ex peop (12.28) t V,= Velocity of fluid in model, Pm = Pressure of fluid in model, Pm = Density of fluid in model, and Vp» Pp» Pp = Corresponding values in prototype, then[596 Fluid Mechanics ] Substituting these values in equation (12.28), we get y, ¥, —_— L (12.29), nln Pole If fluid is same in model and prototype, then equation (12.28) becomes as Vp (12.30), V, Pn Pe Euler's model law is applied for fluid flow problems where flow is taking place in a closed pipe in Which case turbulence is fully developed s0 that viscous forces are negligible and gravity force and surface tension force is absent. This law is also used where the phenomenon of cavitation takes place. 12.9.4 Weber Model Law. Weber model law isthe law in which models are based on Weber's number, which is the ratio of the square root of inertia force to surface tension force. Hence where surface tension effects predominate in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity between the model and prototype is obtained by equating the Weber number of the model and its prototype. Hence according to this law : v W pote = Wp, where W, is Weber number and it V,,= Velocity of fluid in model, Surface tensile force in model, Density of fluid in model, Ly, = Length of surface in model, and Vp Ops Pps Lp = Corresponding values of fluid in prototype. ‘Then according to Weber law, we have Y, v Gm IP nln Yor Ppl or Weber model law is applied in following cases : 1. Capillary rise in narrow passages, 2. Capitlary movement of water in soil, 3. Capillary waves in channels, 4. Flow over weirs for small heads. 12.9.5 Mach Model Law. Mach model law is the law in which models are designed on Mach number, which is the ratio of the square root of inertia force to elastic force ofa fluid. Hence where the forces due to clastic compression predominate in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype is obtained by equating the Mach number of the model and its prototype. Hence according to this law : (1231) pede = MD prorryps where M = Mach number It Velocity of fluid in model, Elastic stress for model, ,, = Density of fluid in model, and. Vp, Kp and pp = Corresponding values for prototype. Then according to Mach law, (12.32)[ Dimensional and Model Analysis _597| ‘Mach model law is applied in the following cases : I. Flow of aeroplane and projectile through air at supersonic speed, i.e.,at a velocity more than the velocity of sound, 2. Aerodynamic testing, 3. Under water testing of torpedoes, 4, Water-hammer problems. Problem 12.28 The pressure drop in an aeroplane model ofsice 77 ofits prototype is 80 Nem’. The model is tested in water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in ra prototype. Take density of air = 1.24 kg/m". The viscosity of water is 0.01 poise while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise. Solution. Given : Pressure drop in model, Linear seale ratio, Fluid in model Viscosity of water, = 80 N/em? = 80 x 10* Nim? 40 ‘Water, while in prototype = Air 0.01 poise Density of water, 1000 kg/m? Viscosity of air, 0018 poise Density of air, p= 124 kgim? Let the corresponding pressure drop in prototype = pp. As the problem involves pressure force and viscous force and hence for dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, Euler's number and Reynold's number should be considered. Making first of all, Reynold’s number equal, we get from equation (12.17) Pavan _ PrVolr o, Va Pr Le Mn Mn Mp Vr Pn bm Her Dp _ 124 Bu Pee ‘ Py 1000 fe e149, Hn - 001 Tn up 00018 Ye 5 I a9 PL as, Vp 1000 0018 Now making Euler's number equal, we get from equation (12.28) as Va Ve VPniPm _ [Pm ,. [Pe [Pn [Pr Vp VPr Pr VPr VPn Pm Pp But fp 22785 na Be rs 1000 2.755 = [Pm Tat [Pm x 0352 Ver “Vi000 “Ver 2.755 = 2255 _ 78.267 0352 ae Pa = (78.267)? or pp= —Pa__ = 80 __ Pr (78267)" (782677 = 0.01306 Niem®, Ans.[598 Fluid Mechanics ] > 12.10 MODEL TESTING OF PARTIALLY SUB-MERGED BODIES Let us consider the testing of a ship model (ship is a partially sub-merged body) in a water-tunnel in order to find the drag force F or resistance experienced by a ship. The drag experienced by a ship ‘consists of : 1, The wave resistance, which is the resistance offered by the waves on the free sea-surface, and. 2. The frictional or viscous resistance, which is offered by the water on the surface of contact of the ship with water. ‘Thus in this case three forces namely inertia, gravity and viscous forces are present. Then for dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype, the Reynold’s number (which is ratio of inertia force to viscous force) and the Froude number (which is the ratio of inertia force to gravity force) should be taken into account. This means that in this case, the Reynold model law and Froude model law should be applied. But for Reynold model law, the condition is Reynold number of model= Reynold number of prototype or PrVole Mr Ie id is same forthe model and prototype, then Py = Pp ANd ty = Hp Valin = Volp Vq2 EEE = Lp [: =4} (1233) For Froude model law, have from equation (12.18) as V8mlin — V8rLp If Muid is same for model and prototype and test is conducted at the same place where prototype is to operate, then gq = 8p Me £ Vas ff aie weg ste ge fe ish} unso From equations (12.33) and (12.34), we observe that the velocity of fluid in model for Reynold model law and Froude model law is different. Thus itis quite impossible to satisfy both the laws together, which means the dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype will not exist. To ‘overcome this difficulty, the method suggested by William Froude is adopted for testing the ship ‘model (or partially sub-merged bodies) a8: Step 1. The total resistance experienced by a ship is equal to the wave resistance plus frictional or cous resistance. Let (R)p = Total resistance experienced by prototype, (R, jp = Wave resistance experienced by prototype, (R))p = Frictional resistance experienced by prototype, and[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 599 | (Rye (Ryd (Ryn = Corresponding values for model Then, we have for prototype, (R)p = (R,)p + (Rp (12.35) and for model, ®Bn= Ron + Rn (12,36) Step 2. The frictional resistances for the model and the ship [i¢.. (Rj)y and (Rj)p] are calculated from the expressions given below : (Rp = foAnVot (1237) and (Rp m= fn (12.38) Where fp = Frictional resistance per unt afca per unit velocity of prototype, Ap = Wetted surface area ofthe prototype, V, = Velocity of prototype, Constant, and Sus Ams Vn = Corresponding values of frictional resistance, wetted area and velocity of model. ‘The Values of fp and f,, are determined from experiments. Step 3. The model is tested by towing it in water contained in a towing tank such that the dynamic similarity for Froude number is satisfied i.e., (F,)y = (F,)p. The total resistance of the model (R,,) is ‘measured for this condition. Step 4. The total resistance (R,,) for the model is known from step 3 and frictional resistance of the model (Rj)q i8 calculated from equation (12.37). Then the wave resistance for the model is known from equation (12.36) as Rm = Rp Be (12.39) Step 5. The resistance experienced by a ship of length L, flowing with velocity V in fluid of viscosity HH, density p depends upon g, the acceleration due to gravity. By dimensional analysis, the expression for resistance is given by R__ love v’ F oer [ee “| IR FA ‘Thus resistance is a function of Reynold number (R,) and Froude number (F,) For dynamic similarity for model and prototype for wave resistance only, we have (Rup (Reda PrLaVe — PnlinVn or wave resistance for prototype is given as p= OE X (Re (12.40) But from Step 3 (Fody = (Fp ot ue = . ON Tun Thre If the model and ship are atthe same place, g ve Mey [En Vin lp fe Substituting the value of V,, in equation (12.40), we have[600 Fluid Mechanics ] Pe Lp =e Rye 241) Pn Ew Step 6. The total resistance of the ship is given by adding (R,)p from equation (12.41) to (Rp given by equation (12.37) as Rp fex(i2) X (Rn t SA ee 12.42) Pa \L, Problem 12.29 A / in 20 model of a naval ship having a sub-merged surface area of $m? and length 8 m has a total drag of 20 N when towed through water ata velocity of 1-5 m/s. Caleulae the fora i ren rene Te ae en = Re, Take kinematic viscosity of water (or sea-water) as 0.01 stoke and density of water (or sea-water) as 1000 kg/m. Solution, Given Linear scale ratio, L,=20 Sub-merged area of model, A,, = 5.0 m* Length of model, 80m Total drag of model, 20N Velocity of model, V,,= 1.5 mis Let ‘Ap Lx Rp» Vp = Corresponding values for prototype. Fluid in model is the same as in prototype and is sea-water. Kinematic viscosity of sea-water, Vy = Vp = 0.01 stokes = 01 em?/s = .01 x 10 mis Density of water, Pm = 1000 kg/m? ‘The skin (frictional) resistance of model is given by 1 n= CPA O 0.0735 where (R,)q = Reynold’s number for model where Gi, = ii) = PaVnln og Ve Haw Vo 15x80 19x 107, Dix10 Substituting this value in equation (i), we get 0073s __.0735 ie = = 282 x 107 wwii) (2x10) 260517 “[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 601 | Substituting the value of C,_ in equation (i), we get (Fpn= 1 2.810? x 100 x 503 (15)"= 15617 = 15862 N Using equation (12.36), we get Ru = (Run + pn whore (Rj)q = Fi)y = 15.862 oF 20 = (Ry), + 15.862 Wave resistance for model, (Ry) = 20 ~ 15.862 = 4.138 N ‘The wave resistance experienced by the ship is given by equation (12.41) as iv) 2 Pry (te) x thay Pex ( He) = 1KE2x4138N B= orsame vival = 1x 20° x 4.138 = 33104 N an skin (fictional) resistance of prototype is given by (Rpp= (Fp = 5 Cy X PpX Ap Ver wl) where Vp is the velocity of prototype and is given by Froude model law, v ie, (Fon= (Fp or Ye = 0 lng Thre Vp= [LE x Vas YE, XV In = V20 x 1.5 = 6.708 mis Now : Ap= Ag X20? = 5 x 400 = 2000 m? = patent, =8%20= 160m In equation (the vale of Cs en by C, = 2075. [(®),] ter (Bp = Reyools number for protipe 6.208 «160 vp 01x10 .073 x 10° 0735 0735 G, = 1486 x 10° (73x10 6399[602 Fluid Mechanics ] Substituting this value of C,, in equation (v), we get (pp = (Epp = 5 X 11486 x 10" x 1000 x 2000 x (6.708) = 1683.8 N <, Total drag on prototype is obtained by using equation (12.35). Rp= (Ry)p + (R)p = 33104 + 51683.8 = $4787.8 N. Ans. Problem 12.30 A 1:15 ‘model ofa fying boat is towed through water. The protorype is moving in sea-water of density 1024 kg/m’ at a velocity of 20 m/s. Find the corresponding speed of the model. Also determine the resistance due to waves on model if the resistance due to waves of prototype is 600 N. Solution. Given : Linear scale ratio, 1,215 Velocity of prototype, _-V, = 20 m/s Fluid in prototype is sea-water while in model itis water Density of sea-water, Pp= 1024 kg/m? Density of water, Pm = 1000 kg/m? Resistance due to waves for prototype is, (Ry.)p = 600 N. Find Vp and (Ry. (The velocity, Vp, from model is given by Froude model law, Vp Yo Ving lex: v< [Ee xv,e Ye 20 "Np 8 lp lly VIS 20 = 5gry 7 S65 ms. Ans. (i For dynamic similarity between model and its prototype for wave resistance only, we have equation (12.41) as p= be,( te) Xan 1024 ay 1024 Substituting the known values, 600 = F595 XL, x (Ren = 4999 1S KR {6001000 1024 x15" Problem 12.31 A / : 40 model of an ocean tanker is dragged through fresh water at 2 m/s with a total measured drag of 12 N. The skin (frictional) drag co-efficient ‘f for model and prototype are 0.03 and 0.002 respectively in the equation Ry = f. AV. The weed surface area ofthe model is 25 m*. Determine the total drag on the prototype and the power required to drive the prototype. Take pp = 1030 kg/m’ and Py = 1000 ke/m' Solution. Given : Linear seal ratio, 1,=40 Rom= = 0.1736 N. Ans.Dimensional and Model Analysis 603 | Velocity of model, V,,=2 mis Total drag of model, Wetted area of model, Co-efficient of friction for model, for prototype, Let the total drag on prototype ‘And power required to drive the prototype Frictional drag on model, (Rn = SwAnVoo= 03 X 25 x 2? . Wave drag on model, Ryn = Ry (Ry = 12-3 = 9 N. ‘The waves drag on prototype is obtained from equation (12.41) as _ Pp ral 1030 3 f Rp= PE x{ 2) x Rdg = OO KLE x9 ( n 1000 1030 403 = 1030 9 = 593291.8 N i Topp, * 409 = 593291.8 “@ ‘The frictional drag on prototype is given by (R)p=fpXAp% Ver Mi, where the velocity of prototype Vp is obtained from Froude model law as Ye Mate Text" Ir Myo Eta Ve = VD 2 = 12.65 mis and Ae 212 = 40x40 or Ap= 40x40 x Ay = 40 x 40 x 25 = 40000 m’, Substituting these values in (ii), we get (Rj)p = -002 x 40000 x (12.65)? = 12801.8 N Aili) Total drag on the prototype is obtained by adding equations (i) and (i) as Rp=(Rydp + Rp = 593291.8 + 12801.8 = 606093.6 N. Ans. Power required to drive the prototype, (Total drag on prototype) x Velocity of prototype 1000 6060936 x 12.65 “ 1000 Problem 12.32 Resistance R, to the motion of a completely sub-merged body is given by n=pve o(“4), where pand vare density and kinematic viscosity of the fluid while | is the length of the body and V is the velocity of flow. If the resistance of a one-eight scale air-ship model when tested in water at = 7667 kW. Ans.[604 Fluid Mechanics ] 12 mis is 22 N, what will be the resistance in air of the air-ship at the corresponding speed ? Kinematic viscosity of air is 13 times that of water and density of water is 810 times of air. Solution. Given : Linear scale ratio, L,=8 Velocity of model, V,= 12 mis Resistance to model, «Ry, =22.N ‘The fluid for model is water and for prototype the fluid is air. Kinematic viscosity of air 13 x Kinematic viscosity of water 5 13 X Vp, 810 x Density of air 810 pp Velocity of the air-ship (Prototype) Rp = Resistance of the ait-ship Density of water Let The estance, Rin gen by = pv? (4) k_yyM ‘The non-dimensional tems <2 ant should be same forthe pope an its ml one me pry (ewan ” a VJ prototype oy Vn Rp Also ae Pep lp? Pan = 4.59N. Ans. > 12.11 CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS The hydraulic models are classified as : 1. Undistorted models, and -2.Distorted models. 12.111 Undistorted Models. Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically similar to their prototypes or in other words ifthe scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is same, the model is called undistorted model. The behaviour of the prototype can be easily predicted from the results of undistorted model.[ Dimensional and Model Analysis 605] 12.11.2 Distorted Models. A model is said to be distorted if itis not geometrically similar to its prototype. For a distorted model different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted. For example, in case of rivers, harbours, reservoirs etc., two different scale ratios, one for horizontal dimensions and other for vertical dimensions are taken. Thus the models of rivers, harbours and reser- voirs will become as distorted models. If forthe river, the horizontal and vertical scale ratios are taken to be same 0 that the model is undistorted, then the depth of water in the model of the river will be very-very sinall which may not be measured accurately. The following are the advantage of distorted models : 1. The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately 2. ‘The cost of the model can be reduced. 3. Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained. Though there are some advantages of the distorted model, yet the results of the distorted model ‘cannot be directly transferred to its prototype. But sometimes from the distorted models very useful information can be obtained. 12.1.3. Scale Ratios for Distorted Models. As mentioned above, two different scale ratios, cone for horizontal dimensions and other for vertical dimensions, are taken for distorted models. Let (L,)y = Scale ratio for horizontal dimension Lp _ Bp _ Linear horizontal dimension of prototype T, By Linear horizontal dimension of model (L))y= Scale ratio for vertical dimension __ Linear vertical dimension of prototype _ ip. ~ "Linear vertical dimension of model fy ‘Then the scale ratios of velocity, area of flow, discharge ete., in terms of (L;)y and (L,)y ean be ‘obtained for distorted models as given below : 1. Seale ratio for velocity Let Vp= Velocity in prototype Vy, = Velocity in model Vu thn 2. Seale ratio for area of flow Let ‘Ap= Area of flow in prototype = BX hp Ay = Area of flow in model = By, * hy Ae = Bp Xp _ Be yt An BaXhn By Po 3. Scale ratio for discharge Let Qp= Discharge through prototype = Ap x Vp Q,,= Discharge through model = A, x Vj, Op MMe ry weeny x ete On FV = EXE % [lay = Cd % UL oP of 1249) Then LyX Ldy[606 Fluid Mechanics ] Problem 12.33 The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m'ss. Find the discharge through the model of Ihnen dineson ofthe motel = =the hrkanaldmenon ft prong and 1 vertical dimension of the model = 7 the vertical dimension of the prototype. Solution. Given : Discharge through weir (prototype), Qp= 1.5 m'/s 1 Horizontal dimension of model 2. x Horizontal dimension of prototy ea prototype Horizontal dimension of prototype Horizontal dimension of model 50 oF (L,)y= 50 Vertical dimension of model J vee dimension of pray Vertical dimension of prototype Vertical dimension of model (Ly = 10. Vang eqeton nan, wege — Send isa Or 3 2 Ot a 15 ant ns On 158114 1581.14 eS es revs As HIGHLIGHTS 1, Dimensional analysis is the method of dimensions, in which fundamental dimensions are M, Land T. 2. Dimensional analysis is performed by two methods namely Rayleigh’s Method and Buckingham's theorem, 13. Rayleigh's method is used for finding an expression for a variable which depends on maximum three ‘or four variables while there is no restriction on the number of variables for Buckingham's r-theorem, 4. Model analysis is an experimental method of finding solutions of complex flow problems. A model is small seal replica of the actual machine or structure. The actual machine or structure is ealled prototype. 5. Three types of similarities must exist between the model and prototype. They are : (?) Geometric Similarity, (@) Kinematic Similarity, and (if) Dynamic Simiari 6. For geometric similarity, the ratio ofall linear dimensions of the model and of the prototype should be ‘equal 7. Kinematic simitarity means the similarity of motion between model and prototype. 8. Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between the model and prototype. 9. Reynold’s number is defined asthe ratio of inertia force and viscous force of a flowing fluid. Its given by. R= PME EVE toc pine tow wy