COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the 

coronavirus pandemic, is a
global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was first identified from an outbreak
in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. Attempts to contain it there failed, allowing the virus to spread
worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern on 30 January 2020 and a pandemic on 11 March 2020. As of 2 July 2022,
the pandemic had caused more than 548 million cases and 6.33 million confirmed deaths, making it
one of the deadliest in history.
COVID-19 symptoms range from undetectable to deadly, but most commonly include fever, dry
cough, and fatigue. Severe illness is more likely in elderly patients and those with certain underlying
medical conditions. COVID-19 transmits when people breathe in air contaminated by droplets and
small airborne particles containing the virus. The risk of breathing these in is highest when people
are in close proximity, but they can be inhaled over longer distances, particularly indoors.
Transmission can also occur if contaminated fluids reach the eyes, nose or mouth, and, rarely, via
contaminated surfaces. Infected persons are typically contagious for 10 days, and can spread the
virus even if they do not develop symptoms. Mutations have produced many strains (variants) with
varying degrees of infectivity and virulence.[5][6]
COVID-19 vaccines have been approved and widely distributed in various countries since December
2020. Other recommended preventive measures include social distancing, wearing masks,
improving ventilation and air filtration, and quarantining those who have been exposed or are
symptomatic. Treatments include monoclonal antibodies,[7] novel antiviral drugs, and symptom
control. Governmental interventions include travel restrictions, lockdowns, business restrictions and
closures, workplace hazard controls, quarantines, testing systems, and tracing contacts of the
infected.
The pandemic triggered severe social and economic disruption around the world, including the
largest global recession since the Great Depression.[8] Widespread supply shortages, including food
shortages, were caused by supply chain disruption. The resultant near-global lockdowns saw
an unprecedented pollution decrease. Educational institutions and public areas were partially or fully
closed in many jurisdictions, and many events were cancelled or postponed. Misinformation
circulated through social media and mass media, and political tensions intensified. The pandemic
raised issues of racial and geographic discrimination, health equity, and the balance between public
health imperatives and individual rights.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2Epidemiology
o 2.1Background
o 2.2Cases
o 2.3Deaths
 3Disease
o 3.1Signs and symptoms
o 3.2Transmission
o 3.3Cause
o 3.4Diagnosis
o 3.5Prevention
o 3.6Vaccines
o 3.7Treatment
 o 3.8Variants
o 3.9Prognosis
 4Strategies
o 4.1Containment
o 4.2Mitigation
o 4.3Health care
o 4.4Herd immunity
o 4.5Living with COVID-19
 5History
o 5.12019
o 5.22020
o 5.32021
o 5.42022
 6National responses
o 6.1Asia
o 6.2Europe
o 6.3North America
o 6.4South America
o 6.5Africa
o 6.6Oceania
o 6.7Antarctica
 7Other responses
o 7.1Travel restrictions
o 7.2Repatriation of foreign citizens
o 7.3United Nations
o 7.4Protests against governmental measures
 8Impact
o 8.1Economics
o 8.2Culture
o 8.3Politics
o 8.4Food systems
o 8.5Education
o 8.6Health
o 8.7Environment
o 8.8Discrimination and prejudice
o 8.9Lifestyle changes
 9Information dissemination
o 9.1Misinformation
 10Transition to endemic phase
 11See also
 12Notes
 13References
 14Further reading
 15External links
o 15.1Health agencies
o 15.2Directories
o 15.3Data and graphs
 o 15.4Medical journals

Etymology
Chinese medics in Huanggang, Hubei, in 2020.

The pandemic is known by several names. It is often referred to in news media as the "coronavirus
pandemic"[9] despite the existence of other human coronaviruses that have caused epidemics and
outbreaks (e.g. SARS).[10]
During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, the virus and disease were commonly referred to as
"coronavirus", "Wuhan coronavirus", [11] "the coronavirus outbreak" and the "Wuhan coronavirus
outbreak",[12] with the disease sometimes called "Wuhan pneumonia".[13][14] In January 2020, the WHO
recommended 2019-nCoV[15] and 2019-nCoV acute respiratory disease[16] as interim names for the
virus and disease per 2015 international guidelines against using geographical locations (e.g.
Wuhan, China), animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names in part to
prevent social stigma.[17] WHO finalized the official names COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 on 11
February 2020.[18] Tedros Adhanom explained: CO for corona, VI for virus, D for disease and 19 for
when the outbreak was first identified (31 December 2019). [19] WHO additionally uses "the COVID-19
virus" and "the virus responsible for COVID-19" in public communications. [18]
WHO names variants of concern and variants of interest using Greek letters. The initial practice of
naming them according to where the variants were identified (e.g. Delta began as the "Indian
variant") is no longer common.[20] A more systematic naming scheme reflects the variant's PANGO
lineage (e.g., Omicron's lineage is B.1.1.529) and is used for other variants. [21][22][23]

Epidemiology
For country-level data, see:

COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory

Cases
548,257,877

Deaths
6,337,563

As of 2 July 2022[3]

 Africa

 Asia
  Europe

 North America

 Oceania

 South America

 Antarctica

Background
Main articles: Investigations into the origin of COVID-19 and COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei
SARS-CoV-2 is a newly discovered virus that is closely related to bat coronaviruses,
[24]
 pangolin coronaviruses,[25][26] and SARS-CoV.[27] The first known outbreak started in Wuhan, Hubei,
China, in November 2019. Many early cases were linked to people who had visited the Huanan
Seafood Wholesale Market there,[28][29][30] but it is possible that human-to-human transmission began
earlier.[31][32]
The scientific consensus is that the virus is most likely of zoonotic origin, from bats or another
closely-related mammal.[31][33][34] Despite this, the subject has generated extensive speculation about
alternative origins.[35][32][36] The origin controversy heightened geopolitical divisions, notably between
the United States and China.[37]
The earliest known infected person fell ill on 1 December 2019. That individual did not have a
connection with the later wet market cluster.[38][39] However, an earlier case may have occurred on 17
November.[40] Two-thirds of the initial case cluster were linked with the market. [41][42][43] Molecular
clock analysis suggests that the index case is likely to have been infected between mid-October and
mid-November 2019.[44][45]

Cases
Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory and COVID-19 pandemic cases

Cumulative confirmed cases by country, as of 24 May 2022

   10,000,000+
   1,000,000–9,999,999
   100,000–999,999
   10,000–99,999
   1,000–9,999
   100–999
   1–99
   0

Official "case" counts refer to the number of people who have been tested for COVID-19 and whose
test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols whether or not they experienced
symptomatic disease.[46][47] Due to the effect of sampling bias, studies which obtain a more accurate
number by extrapolating from a random sample have consistently found that total infections
considerably exceed the reported case counts.[48][49] Many countries, early on, had official policies to
not test those with only mild symptoms.[50][51] The strongest risk factors for severe illness are
obesity, complications of diabetes, anxiety disorders, and the total number of conditions. [52]
In early 2020, a meta-analysis of self-reported cases in China by age indicated that a relatively low
proportion of cases occurred in individuals under 20. [53] It was not clear whether this was because
young people were less likely to be infected, or less likely to develop symptoms and be tested. [54] A
retrospective cohort study in China found that children and adults were just as likely to be infected. [55]
Among more thorough studies, preliminary results from 9 April 2020 found that in Gangelt, the centre
of a major infection cluster in Germany, 15 per cent of a population sample tested positive
for antibodies.[56] Screening for COVID-19 in pregnant women in New York City, and blood donors in
the Netherlands, found rates of positive antibody tests that indicated more infections than reported. [57]
[58]
 Seroprevalence-based estimates are conservative as some studies show that persons with mild
symptoms do not have detectable antibodies.[59]
Initial estimates of the basic reproduction number (R0) for COVID-19 in January were between 1.4
and 2.5,[60] but a subsequent analysis claimed that it may be about 5.7 (with a 95 per cent confidence
interval of 3.8 to 8.9).[61]
In December 2021, the number of cases continued to climb due to several factors, including new
COVID-19 variants. As of that 28 December, 282,790,822 individuals worldwide had been confirmed
as infected.[62] As of 14 April 2022, over 500 million cases were confirmed globally.[63] Most cases are
unconfirmed, with the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation estimating the true number of cases
as of early 2022 to be in the billions.[64][65]

Semi-log plot of weekly new cases of COVID-19 in the world and the current top six countries (mean
with deaths)
 
 

Total COVID-19 cases per 100,000 people from selected countries [66]
 

Active COVID-19 cases per 100,000 people from selected countries [66]

Deaths

Deceased in a refrigerated "mobile morgue" outside a hospital in Hackensack, New Jersey, U.S., in April 2020.

Gravediggers wearing protection against contamination bury the body of a man suspected of having died of
COVID-19 in the cemetery of Vila Alpina, east side of São Paulo, in April 2020.
Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic deaths and COVID-19 pandemic death rates by country
Further information: List of deaths due to COVID-19
As of 2 July 2022, more than 6.33 million[3] deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. The first
confirmed death was in Wuhan on 9 January 2020. [67] These numbers vary by region and over time,
influenced by testing volume, healthcare system quality, treatment options, government response,
[68]
 time since the initial outbreak, and population characteristics, such as age, sex, and overall health.
[69]

Multiple measures are used to quantify mortality.[70] Official death counts typically include people who
died after testing positive. Such counts exclude deaths without a test. [71] Conversely, deaths of
people who died from underlying conditions following a positive test may be included. [72] Countries
such as Belgium include deaths from suspected cases, including those without a test, thereby
increasing counts.[73]
Official death counts have been claimed to underreport the actual death toll, because excess
mortality (the number of deaths in a period compared to a long-term average) data show an increase
in deaths that is not explained by COVID-19 deaths alone. [74] Using such data, estimates of the true
number of deaths from COVID-19 worldwide have included a range from 9.5 to 18.6 million by The
Economist,[74] as well as over 10.3 million by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation[75] and
~18.2 million (earlier) deaths between 1 January 2020, and 31 December 2021 by a comprehensive
international study.[76] Such deaths include deaths due to healthcare capacity constraints and
priorities, as well as reluctance to seek care (to avoid possible infection). [77] Further research may
help distinguish the proportions directly caused by COVID-19 from those caused by indirect
consequences of the pandemic.[76] In May 2022, the WHO estimated the number of excess deaths to
be 14.9 million compared to 5.4 million reported COVID-19 deaths, with the majority of the
unreported 9.5 million deaths believed to be direct deaths due the virus, rather than indirect deaths.
Some deaths were because people with other conditions could not access medical services. [78]
The time between symptom onset and death ranges from 6 to 41 days, typically about 14 days.
[79]
 Mortality rates increase as a function of age. People at the greatest mortality risk are the elderly
and those with underlying conditions. [80][81]

Semi-log plot of weekly deaths due to COVID-19 in the world and top six current countries (mean
with cases)
 
 

COVID-19 deaths per 100 000 population from selected countries [66]
In May 2022 the World Health Organization estimated that COVID has caused just under 15 million
excess deaths worldwide. The virus directly caused most of these deaths but some were because
people with other conditions could not access medical services.[82]
Infection fatality ratio (IFR)
IFR estimate per age group[83]

Age group IFR

0–34 0.004%

35–44 0.068%

45–54 0.23%

55–64 0.75%

65–74 2.5%

75–84 8.5%

85 + 28.3%

The infection fatality ratio (IFR) is the cumulative number of deaths attributed to the disease divided
by the cumulative number of infected individuals (including asymptomatic and undiagnosed
infections and excluding vaccinated infected individuals). [84][85][86] It is expressed in percentage points
(not as a decimal).[87] Other studies refer to this metric as the 'infection fatality risk'.[88][89]
In November 2020, a review article in Nature reported estimates of population-weighted IFRs for
various countries, excluding deaths in elderly care facilities, and found a median range of 0.24% to
1.49%.[90]
IFRs rise as a function of age (from 0.002% at age 10 and 0.01% at age 25, to 0.4% at age 55, 1.4%
at age 65, 4.6% at age 75, and 15% at age 85). These rates vary by a factor of ~10,000 across the
age groups.[83] For comparison, the IFR for middle-aged adults is two orders of magnitude more likely
than the annualised risk of a fatal automobile accident and far more dangerous than seasonal
influenza.[83]
In December 2020, a systematic review and meta-analysis estimated that population-weighted IFR
was 0.5% to 1% in some countries (France, Netherlands, New Zealand, and Portugal), 1% to 2% in
other countries (Australia, England, Lithuania, and Spain), and about 2.5% in Italy. This study
reported that most of the differences reflected corresponding differences in the population's age
structure and the age-specific pattern of infections. [83]
Case fatality ratio (CFR)
Another metric in assessing death rate is the case fatality ratio (CFR),[a] which is the ratio of deaths to
diagnoses. This metric can be misleading because of the delay between symptom onset and death
and because testing focuses on symptomatic individuals. [91]
Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global CFR is 1.16 percent (6,337,563 deaths for
548,257,877 cases) as of 2 July 2022.[3] The number varies by region and has generally declined
over time.[92]

Disease
Main article: COVID-19

Signs and symptoms

Main article: Symptoms of COVID-19

Symptoms of COVID-19

Symptoms of COVID-19 are variable, ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness. [93][94] Common
symptoms include headache, loss of smell and taste, nasal congestion and runny nose,
cough, muscle pain, sore throat, fever, diarrhoea, and breathing difficulties.[95] People with the same
infection may have different symptoms, and their symptoms may change over time. Three common
clusters of symptoms have been identified: one respiratory symptom cluster with cough, sputum,
shortness of breath, and fever; a musculoskeletal symptom cluster with muscle and joint pain,
headache, and fatigue; a cluster of digestive symptoms with abdominal pain, vomiting, and
diarrhoea.[66] In people without prior ear, nose, and throat disorders, loss of taste combined with loss
of smell is associated with COVID-19 and is reported in as many as 88% of cases.[96][97][98]

Transmission
Main article: Transmission of COVID-19
The disease is mainly transmitted via the respiratory route when people inhale droplets and small
airborne particles (that form an aerosol) that infected people exhale as they breathe, talk, cough,
sneeze, or sing.[99][100][101][102] Infected people are more likely to transmit COVID-19 when they are
physically close. However, infection can occur over longer distances, particularly indoors. [99][103]

Cause
Main article: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
Illustration of SARS-CoV-2 virion

SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the broad family of viruses known as coronaviruses.[104] It is a positive-sense

single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus, with a single linear RNA segment. Coronaviruses infect
humans, other mammals, including livestock and companion animals, and avian species. [105] Human
coronaviruses are capable of causing illnesses ranging from the common cold to more severe
diseases such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS, fatality rate ~34%). SARS-CoV-2 is the
seventh known coronavirus to infect people, after 229E, NL63, OC43, HKU1, MERS-CoV, and the
original SARS-CoV.[106]

Diagnosis
Main article: COVID-19 §  Diagnosis

A nurse at McMurdo Station sets up the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing equipment, in September
2020.

The standard methods of testing for presence of SARS-CoV-2 are nucleic acid tests,[107] which
detects the presence of viral RNA fragments.[108] As these tests detect RNA but not infectious virus,
its "ability to determine duration of infectivity of patients is limited." [109] The test is typically done on
respiratory samples obtained by a nasopharyngeal swab; however, a nasal swab or sputum sample
may also be used.[110][111] The WHO has published several testing protocols for the disease. [112]

Prevention
Further information: COVID-19 §  Prevention, Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic,
and Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic
Preventive measures to reduce the chances of infection include getting vaccinated, staying at home,
wearing a mask in public,[113] avoiding crowded places, keeping distance from others, ventilating
indoor spaces, managing potential exposure durations, [114] washing hands with soap and water often
and for at least twenty seconds, practising good respiratory hygiene, and avoiding touching the eyes,
nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.[115][116]
Those diagnosed with COVID-19 or who believe they may be infected are advised by the CDC to
stay home except to get medical care, call ahead before visiting a healthcare provider, wear a face
mask before entering the healthcare provider's office and when in any room or vehicle with another
person, cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue, regularly wash hands with soap and water and
avoid sharing personal household items.[117][118]

Vaccines
Main article: COVID-19 vaccine
See also: History of COVID-19 vaccine development and Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines

COVID-19 vaccine

A COVID-19 vaccine is intended to provide acquired immunity against severe acute respiratory

syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-
19). Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, an established body of knowledge existed about the structure
and function of coronaviruses causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). This knowledge accelerated the development of
various vaccine platforms during early 2020.[119] The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on
preventing symptomatic, often severe illness.[120] On 10 January 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 genetic
sequence data was shared through GISAID, and by 19 March, the global pharmaceutical industry
announced a major commitment to address COVID-19. [121] The COVID-19 vaccines are widely
credited for their role in reducing the severity and death caused by COVID-19. [122][123]
As of late-December 2021, more than 4.49 billion people had received one or more doses[124] (8+
billion in total) in over 197 countries. The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine was the most widely used. [125]

Treatment
Main article: Treatment and management of COVID-19

A critically ill patient receiving invasive ventilation in the intensive care unit of the Heart Institute, University of
São Paulo in July 2020. Due to a shortage of mechanical ventilators, a bridge ventilator is being used to
automatically actuate a bag valve mask.

For the first two years of the pandemic, no specific and effective treatment or cure was available. [126]
[127]
 In 2021, the European Medicines Agency's (EMA) Committee for Medicinal Products for Human
Use (CHMP) approved the oral antiviral protease inhibitor, Paxlovid (nirmatrelvir plus AIDS
drug ritonavir), to treat adult patients.[128] FDA later gave it an EUA.[129]
Most cases of COVID-19 are mild. In these, supportive care includes medication such
as paracetamol or NSAIDs to relieve symptoms (fever,[130] body aches, cough), adequate intake of
oral fluids and rest.[127][131] Good personal hygiene and a healthy diet are also recommended.[132]
Supportive care includes treatment to relieve symptoms, fluid therapy, oxygen support and prone
positioning, and medications or devices to support other affected vital organs. [133] More severe cases
may need treatment in hospital. In those with low oxygen levels, use of
the glucocorticoid dexamethasone is recommended, to reduce mortality. [134] Noninvasive
ventilation and, ultimately, admission to an intensive care unit for mechanical ventilation may be
required to support breathing.[135] Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has been used to
address the issue of respiratory failure. [136][137]
Existing drugs such as hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, ivermectin and so-called early
treatment are not recommended by US or European health authorities. [126][138][139] Two monoclonal
antibody-based therapies are available for early use in high-risk cases.[139] The antiviral remdesivir is
available in the US, Canada, Australia, and several other countries, with varying restrictions;
however, it is not recommended for use with mechanical ventilation, and is discouraged altogether
by the World Health Organization (WHO),[140] due to limited evidence of its efficacy.[126]

Variants
Main article: Variants of SARS-CoV-2
Several variants have been named by WHO and labelled as a variant of concern (VoC) or a variant
of interest (VoI). They share the more infectious D614G mutation:[141][142][143] Delta dominated and then
eliminated earlier VoC from most jurisdictions. Omicron's immune escape ability may allow it to
spread via breakthrough infections, which in turn may allow it to coexist with Delta, which more often
infects the unvaccinated.[144]
0:45
World Health Organization video describing how variants proliferate in unvaccinated areas.

Variants

Name Lineage Detected Countries Priority

Alpha B.1.1.7 UK 190 VoC

South
Beta B.1.351 140 VoC
Africa

Delta B.1.617.2 India 170 VoC

Gamma P.1 Brazil 90 VoC

Lambda C.37 Peru 30 VoI

 Mu B.1.621 Colombia 57 VoI

Omicron B.1.1.529 Botswana 77 VoC[145]

Prognosis
Further information: COVID-19 §  Prognosis
The severity of COVID-19 varies. The disease may take a mild course with few or no symptoms,
resembling other common upper respiratory diseases such as the common cold. In 3–4% of cases
(7.4% for those over age 65) symptoms are severe enough to cause hospitalization. [146] Mild cases
typically recover within two weeks, while those with severe or critical diseases may take three to six
weeks to recover. Among those who have died, the time from symptom onset to death has ranged
from two to eight weeks. Prolonged prothrombin time and elevated C-reactive protein levels on
admission to the hospital are associated with severe course of COVID-19 and with a transfer
to intensive care units (ICU).[147][148]

Strategies
Main article: Public health mitigation of COVID-19

Goals of mitigation include delaying and reducing peak burden on healthcare (flattening the curve) and
lessening overall cases and health impact.[149][150] Moreover, progressively greater increases in healthcare
capacity (raising the line) such as by increasing bed count, personnel, and equipment, help to meet increased
demand.[151]

Many countries attempted to slow or stop the spread of COVID-19 by recommending, mandating or
prohibiting behaviour changes, while others relied primarily on providing information. Measures
ranged from public advisories to stringent lockdowns. Outbreak control strategies are divided into
elimination and mitigation. Experts differentiate between elimination strategies (commonly known as
"zero-COVID") that aim to completely stop the spread of the virus within the community, [152] and
mitigation strategies (commonly known as "flattening the curve") that attempt to lessen the effects of
the virus on society, but which still tolerate some level of transmission within the community.
[153]
 These initial strategies can be pursued sequentially or simultaneously during the acquired
immunity phase through natural and vaccine-induced immunity.[154]
Nature reported in 2021 that 90 per cent of immunologists who responded to a survey "think that the
coronavirus will become endemic".[155]

Containment
Further information: Zero-COVID
Containment is undertaken to stop an outbreak from spreading into the general population. Infected
individuals are isolated while they are infectious. The people they have interacted with are contacted
and isolated for long enough to ensure that they are either not infected or no longer contagious.
Screening is the starting point for containment. Screening is done by checking for symptoms to
identify infected individuals, who can then be isolated or offered treatment. [156] The Zero-
COVID strategy involves using public health measures such as contact tracing, mass testing, border
quarantine, lockdowns and mitigation software to stop community transmission of COVID-19 as
soon as it is detected, with the goal of getting the area back to zero detected infections and
resuming normal economic and social activities.[152][157] Successful containment or suppression
reduces Rt to less than 1.[158]

Mitigation
Further information: Flattening the curve
Should containment fail, efforts focus on mitigation: measures taken to slow the spread and limit its
effects on the healthcare system and society. Successful mitigation delays and decreases the
epidemic peak, known as "flattening the epidemic curve".[149] This decreases the risk of overwhelming
health services and provides more time for developing vaccines and treatments. [149]
Individual behaviour changed in many jurisdictions. Many people worked from home instead of at
their traditional workplaces.[159]
Non-pharmaceutical interventions

Person washing hands with soap and water.

Non-pharmaceutical interventions that may reduce spread include personal actions such as hand
hygiene, wearing face masks, and self-quarantine; community measures aimed at reducing
interpersonal contacts such as closing workplaces and schools and cancelling large gatherings;
community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as
environmental measures such as surface cleaning. [160] Many such measures were criticised
as hygiene theatre.[161]
Other measures
More drastic actions, such as quarantining entire populations and strict travel bans have been
attempted in various jurisdictions.[162] China and Australia's lockdowns have been the most strict. New
Zealand implemented the most severe travel restrictions. South Korea introduced mass screening
and localised quarantines, and issued alerts on the movements of infected individuals. Singapore
provided financial support, quarantined, and imposed large fines for those who broke quarantine. [163]
Contact tracing
See also: Use and development of software for COVID-19 pandemic mitigation and Public health
mitigation of COVID-19 §  Information technology
Contact tracing attempts to identify recent contacts of newly infected individuals, and to screen them
for infection;[164] the traditional approach is to request a list of contacts from infectees, and then
telephone or visit the contacts.
Another approach is to collect location data from mobile devices to identify those who have come in
significant contact with infectees, which prompted privacy concerns. [165] On 10 April 2020, Google
and Apple announced an initiative for privacy-preserving contact tracing. [166][167] In Europe and in the
US, Palantir Technologies initially provided COVID-19 tracking services.[168]

Health care
Further information: Flattening the curve, list of countries by hospital beds, and Shortages related to
the COVID-19 pandemic
WHO described increasing capacity and adapting healthcare as a fundamental mitigation. [169] The
ECDC and WHO's European regional office issued guidelines for hospitals and primary healthcare
services for shifting resources at multiple levels, including focusing laboratory services towards
testing, cancelling elective procedures, separating and isolating patients, and increasing intensive
care capabilities by training personnel and increasing ventilators and beds.[169][170] The pandemic drove
widespread adoption of telehealth.[171]
Improvised manufacturing
A patient in Ukraine in 2020 wearing a scuba mask in the absence of artificial ventilation.

Due to capacity supply chains limitations, some manufacturers began 3D printing material such as

nasal swabs and ventilator parts.[172][173] In one example, an Italian startup received legal threats due to
alleged patent infringement after reverse-engineering and printing one hundred requested ventilator
valves overnight.[174] On 23 April 2020, NASA reported building, in 37 days, a ventilator which is
undergoing further testing.[175][176] Individuals and groups of makers created and shared open
source designs, and manufacturing devices using locally sourced materials, sewing, and 3D printing.
Millions of face shields, protective gowns, and masks were made. Other ad hoc medical supplies
included shoe covers, surgical caps, powered air-purifying respirators, and hand sanitizer. Novel
devices were created such as ear savers, non-invasive ventilation helmets, and ventilator splitters.[177]
Main article: Open Source Medical Supplies