Earth Science (Lecture and Laboratory) STEM-ES

MINERALS AND ROCKS

A. MINERALS
- a mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a
definite chemical composition.
• must be naturally occurring
- there are 92 naturally occurring elements on Earth but only eight elements make
over 98% of the minerals on the Earth’s crust. These are O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and
Mg
• must be inorganic
• must be a solid element or compound
- single element like diamond and graphite which is made of carbon; or compounds
of two or more elements, like quartz which contain 1 Si and 2 O atoms
• must have a definite chemical composition
- definite chemical composition indicates that a chemical analysis of a given mineral
will always produce the same ratio of elements
• must have a regular internal crystal structure
- regular internal structure indicates that atoms are arranged in a regular repeating
pattern

1. Properties of Minerals
a. Luster
- tells how the minerals reflect light; gives an indication of how ‘shiny’ a mineral is
- metallic minerals shine like metal
- non-metallic minerals vary greatly in their appearance
o pearly – iridescent, glows like pearl
o earthy – have a dull look with no shine, look as though it is covered with dirt or
dust
o vitreous – glassy, look like small pieces of a broken glass bottle
o greasy – looks like the mineral is covered with grease, the mineral definitely
shines
o resinous – the mineral has a grainy appearance
o silky – occurs in minerals with fibrous structure
o adamantine – the luster of a diamond
b. Color
- it is the easiest to see, but not always the best way to identify a mineral
c. Streak
- the color of the mineral in powdered form
d. Hardness
- measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching
- the scale used is the Mohs’ Scale developed by Frederick Mohs

e. Specific Gravity
- this is the ratio of the volume of a substance to the eight of the same volume
of water
r subs tan ce
- [Link]. =
r water

1
 Earth Science (Lecture and Laboratory) STEM-ES

f. Cleavage
- tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break, along planes of weak bonding
g. Fracture
- attributed to minerals that do not exhibit cleavage when broken
- occurs when minerals break at random lines
h. Other Properties
- some minerals exhibit other properties like magnetism, fluorescence, reaction
to simple chemicals, taste, odor and soapy feeling

2. Classification of Minerals
a. Silicates
- minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust,
namely, silicon and oxygen
- over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to this group
b. Oxides
- minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal
ions
c. Sulfates
- minerals containing sulphur and Oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with other
ions
d. Sulfides
- minerals containing sulphur anion (S2)- combined with one or more ions. Some
sulphide are sources of economically important metals such as copper, lead,
and zinc
e. Carbonates
- minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined with other
elements
f. Native Elements
- minerals that form as individual elements
v metals and inter-metals
- minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity, typically with metallic
luster, low hardness (gold, lead)
v semi-metals
- minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower conductivity
(arsenic, bismuth)
v non-metals
- nonconductive (sulphur, diamond)
g. Halides
- minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more elements

B. ROCKS
- an aggregation of one or more minerals that have been brought together into a
cohesive solid
1. The Rock Cycle

2. Igneous Rocks

2
 Earth Science (Lecture and Laboratory) STEM-ES

- from the latin word ‘ignis’ meaning ‘fire’

- igneous rocks are formed when molten or partially molten material, called
magma, cools and solidifies
a. Classification According to Depth of Formation
• plutonic or intrusive
- the magma producing this rock is not able to reach the surface such
that they ‘intrude’ into neighbouring rocks
• volcanic or extrusive
- the magma works its way toward the surface explodes or ‘extrudes’,
and generate extensive lava flow
- the lava solidifies to produce volcanic rocks
***geologists can tell the difference between intrusive and extrusive rocks by the
size of their crystals : crystals in intrusive rocks are larger than those in extrusive
rocks
b. Classification According to Composition
• felsic rocks
- feldspar and silicate (quartz)
- e.g. granite, granodorite, rhyolite, dacite
• mafic rocks
- magnesium and iron (ferrum)
- e.g. diorite, gabbro, dunite, pyroxenite, hornblendite
• intermediate rocks
- composition between felsic and mafic rocks
- syenite, monzonite, trachyte, latite
c. Classification According to Texture
• aphanitic or fine-grained texture
- igneous rocks form rapidly at the surface or as small masses within the
upper crust are fine grained
- minerals not visible to the naked eye
- relatively very fast rate of cooling
• phaneritic coarse-grained texture
- these are large masses of magma that solidify far below the surface
- these rocks have appearance of large intergrown crystals that are
roughly equal size and large enough that the individual minerals can
be identified with the rock
• porphyritic texture
- characterized by large crystals that are embedded in a matrix of
smaller crystals. Magma already containing large crystals suddenly
erupts at the surface. The remaining molten portion of lava would then
cool quickly producing a porphyritic texture
• vesicular or glassy texture
- voids are created by the rapid cooling of these rocks
- rocks that have this texture result from lava that is ejected into the
atmosphere and quenched very quickly

3. Sedimentary Rocks
- ‘sedimentum’ meaning ‘settling’
- accounts for only about 5% in volume of Earth outer 16km
a. Type of Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
- grains, matrix, and cement are the components of clastic rocks

*grains -greater than sand-sized minerals and/or rock

fragments
*matrix -fine grained (clay to silt sized) materials
*cement -minerals precipitated from solutions that bind the
grains and matrix together
• Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks

3
 Earth Science (Lecture and Laboratory) STEM-ES

- evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of

organic matter classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and
dolostone), precipitates (limestone) and bioclastics (coal, coquina)
-
4. Metamorphic Rocks
- metamorphic literally means “to change form”
a. Types of Metamorphism
• Regional Metamorphism
- (mountain building)
- when rocks are subjected to intense stresses and high temperatures
associated with large-scale deformation
• Contact (thermal) Metamorphism
- when rocks become in contact with, or near, a mass of magma
- change is caused by high temperature of the molten material
• Dynamic Metamophism
- occurs along faults because of gravity
b. Three Metamorphic Agents
• Heat
- provides energy to drive chemical reactions that re-crystallizes
minerals
• Pressure
• Chemically active fluid
c. Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
• Foliated Rocks
- composed of minerals that are drawn out, flattened, and arranged
in parallel layers or bands
- e.g. slate, schist sang phylites, gneiss
• Non-foliated Rocks
- not arranged in parallel layers or bands
- e.g. marble, quartzite, serpentine, anthracite, graphite

References:
• Bawang, E. G. et al. (2015). Lecture Manual in Physical Science 10 (Earth Science). Phy
Sci 10. Earth Science. College of Arts and Sciences, Benguet State University.
• Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. (2014). Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology 11th ed.