Page 1 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

1. Energy level:: every electron of an atom has certain value of energy,

called energy level. Nucleus is responsible for this energy. The energy
levels are named as 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, …… etc.
2. Energy band : when an atom is in a crystal surrounded with many
atoms, then every electron in atom is also surrounded with many
nuclei. Hence the electron posses many energy levels levels, which are due
nucleus of itself and due the surrounding nuclei. This group of energy
levels of an electron is called energy band. The energy levels in a band
are separated by a very small difference ( 10-23 eV).
3. Valance band(V.B) : It is the outer most energy band of an atom whose electrons involve in bonding, i.e. electrons
electr are
not free for current flow. This band is partially filled with electrons.
4. Conduction band(C.B.): it is next upper band of valance band. In this band
electrons are not present at zero Kelvin. At room temp. some electrons may
go from valance to conduction band due to having thermal energy. Electrons
of this band are called free-electrons,
electrons, which are available for current flow.
5. Forbidden Energy Gap / band (ΔEg) :
∆
Where EC =lowest level of conduction energy band
EV = highest level of valence energy band.
6. Classification of conductors, insulators & semiconductors:
C
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
Examples Metals(Ag, Cu, Al) PVC, rubber Si,Ge
∆
<3eV
Zero >3eV
Si(1.1eV), Ge(0.7eV)

Band diagram

Free electron-atom number Pure 1:108to1010

1:1 1:1015
ratio doped 1:104to106
Free electron number
1029 m-3 105 - 109 m-3 1015 - 1019 m-3
density(n)
Resistivity( ) 10-8Ω-m 108Ω-m 10-2 to 102Ω-m
Conductivity ( = / ) 108Ω-1-m-1 10-8 Ω-1-m-1 10-2 to 102 Ω-1-m-1

7. Intrinsic (internal) semiconductor:

The
he semiconductor in pure form i.e. with no impurity mixed,
is called Intrinsic semiconductor. In Si(14) & Ge(32) : tetra
valent, sp3 hybridization, shape of unit cell: tetrahedral,
∆
number density of charge careers . . where
A is a constant, k= Boltzmann constant=1.38x10-23 J/K,
T=Kelvin temp.
8. Hole : When an electron of valance band gains energy
equal to ∆ , it goes to conduction band and gets freed,
then there is a vacancy in valance band, called ‘hole’.
Although a hole does not have mass but it posses +1.6x10-19C
charge. A hole plays role of charge carrier, like free
free-electron.
Its mobility is less than free-electron.
Page 2 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

9. Expression for conductivity ( ) :

(NOTE: In lower-scripts e stands for electron and h for hole.)
$
! ⟹ current density # ! &
%
' + ) ⟹ # #' + #) ' &' + ) &) * ' &' + ) &) +
-
Then , . ⟹ , * ' &' + ) &) +
For a pure semiconductor : ' )
⟹, *&' + &) +
10. Extrinsic (external) semiconductor: when suitable impurity is mixed(doped) with pure Si/Ge then it is called
extrinsic (external) semiconductor. The purpose behind doping is to increase ' & ) , hence to improve , (since , of
pure Si is very poor, so not useful).
Two Type : (i) P-Type (ii) N-type
P-Type semiconductor N-Type semiconductor
(tetra-valent Si) + (tetra-valent Si) +
Composition
(tri-valent Al, In, Ga, B etc.) (penta-valent P, As, Sb etc.)

Crystal structure

Al-atom accepts one electron from Si- As-atom donates one electron to Si-atom
atom and becomes a negative ion, and becomes a positive ion, hence a free-
hence a hole is created in V.B. of Si electron is created in C.B. of Si

Band diagram

EA= acceptor level of Al-atom ED= donor level of As-atom

Block diagram of
crystal

Charge on impurity
negative positive
element
Impurity type acceptor donor
Majority charge carrier Hole ( ) %) electron( ' 0)
Minority charge carrier electron* ' ) hole* ) )
Page 3 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

P-N Junction : When P-type and N-type semiconductor are joined then the interface is called P-N junction. A silicon
crystal is heated and aluminum vapor is passed over the half crystal(this process is called doping) and arsenic vapor is
passed over the rest half. As a result p-n junction if formed at meeting place of two halves.
Depletion layer/region : it is a non-conductor layer at p-n junction having electric field directed from n-side to p-side.
When p-n junction is formed, hole from p-side and free electrons from n-
side diffuse/flow across the junction. When hole and electron combine they
get neutralized and vanish. The current hence produced is called diffusion
current, directed from p-side to n-side. Due to vanishing of holes and
electron, the surface of the depletion layer at n-side is positive charged(due
to donor atoms) and p-side is negative charged(due to acceptor atoms). This
charge creates electric field inside depletion layer, called barrier field(EB),
directed from positive to negative charge, i.e. from n-side to p-side. This
field obstructs diffusion process.
Due to electric field, there is potential difference ( VB=0.3V for Ge & 0.7V for
Si) across the layer, called potential barrier.
>.? 8:3
1
2
AB ≈ 10F G/H
3) 456'77 89 :;<'= @> C

NOTE: field EB creates drift current, directed towards field. The two currents, diffusion
current and drift current are opposite and equal, resulting net current.
P-N junction diode: it is an electronic device having one p-n junction, made up
of one p-type and one n-type semiconductors. It has a property that current can
pass from p-type to n-type only, not in reverse direction. Use : A.C. to D.C.
rectification, voltage regulation, LED, photo-diode, etc.
Forward(f.b.) & Reverse Bias(r.b.):
FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

connection

VB decreased increased
Width of depletion
decreased increased
layer

CURRENT THROUGH
JUNCTION

Circuit
Page 4 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

V-I graph
(characteristic
curve)

Upto point A V(cell)< VB then current is

negligible, VA is called knee /cut-in voltage. A Vz= zener voltage
to B current increases sharply
'
= 7I 5J − 1K
When V = negative(due to r.b.) then
current When V = positive(due to f.b.) then
LM
=− 7 (only before Vz)
= 7 then graph will be exponential IS = constant(saturation current)

∆G9 ∆G=
Diode’s dynamic N9 = ≈ 1 OP 100Q N= = ≈ 10F Q
∆9 ∆=
resistance
In ideal case N9 = 0 In ideal case N= = ∞
High current(mA) at low voltage(0 to 1 Volt) small current(µA) at high voltage(10 to 50 Volt)
Reverse breakdown : In reverse bias it occurs in two types :
(i) Zener breakdown : due to high voltage valance electrons start to get free, hence free electron & hole pairs are
produced which increase current(mA) sharply.
(ii) Avalanche breakdown: the broken electrons get high K.E. due high voltage they make collisions with other valance
electrons and get them free, hence there is a cumulative increase in free electron-hole pairs.
Use of Diode as a Rectifier:
Rectification : to convert a.c. current into d.c. current. All d.c. circuits requires this, e.g. battery charging, T.V., etc.
Since a diode allows current in one direction(p to n) only, so it allows only positive current and obstructs the negative
current of a.c.
(i) Half Wave Rectifier:
In first half cycle( t=0 to t=T/2) of a.c. voltage(VAB), the point A is at positive potential and point B is at negative potential,
therefore the diode is forward biased, therefore there is current through RL .

In second half cycle( t=T/2 to t=T) of a.c. voltage(VAB), the point A is at negative potential and point B is at positive
potential, therefore the diode is reverse biased, therefore there is no current through RL
(ii) Full Wave Rectifier:
In first half cycle( t=0 to t=T/2) of a.c. voltage(VAB), the point A is at positive potential then diode D1 is forward biased and
point B is at negative potential then diode D2 is reverse biased, therefore path of current will be AD1XRLC.
In second half cycle( t=T/2 to t=T) of a.c. voltage(VAB), the point A is at negative potential then diode D1 is reverse biased
and point B is at positive potential then diode D2 is forward biased, therefore path of current will be BD2XRLC.
Hence current through RL is from X to C during both half cycles.
Page 5 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)
(iii) Full Wave Bridge rectifier:

In first half cycle( t=0 to t=T/2) of a.c. voltage(VAB), the point A is at positive potential then path of current will be
AD1XRLYD4B.
alf cycle( t=T/2 to t=T) of a.c. voltage(VAB), the point A is at negative potential then path of current will be
In second half
BD3XRLYD2A.
Hence current through RL is from X to Y during both half cycles.
Filter cicuit: After rectification, although voltage across RL is positive but still it is not a constant d.c. while it is a
fluctuating d.c. . A fluctuating d.c. can be considered a mixture (superimposed) of a.c. & d.c.
The a.c. component is by-passed (short circuited) through capacitor(C) and d.c. component is allowed to pass through
inductor(L) and hence through RL.

NOTE :
ω XL= ωL XC= 1/ωC
A.C. High High Small
D.C. zero zero infinity

ZENER DIODE : Symbol :

USE : voltage stabilization(regulation).
It works in reverse bias, at breakdown voltage/zener voltage(Vz). At this condition the
he voltage becomes constant while
current increases sharply. Since RL is connected in parallel with zener diode then the voltage across RL is also constant.
Value of Vz depends on doping.

PHOTO DIODE: symbol :

Use:: To convert light signal to electric signal, i.e. light detection, light operated switch(lift, street light, traffic control,
industrial safety), sensor of remote , as a receiver in optical communication, reproduction of sound in films, for reading
computer tapes, to measure re intensity of light
light.
This diode is connected in reverse bias. When light (whose hv>∆Eg) is incident on junction then electrons of V.B.
absorb thiss energy and go in C.B. , hence freefree-electron-hole
hole pair is produced. Therefore there is current in the circuit.
Also current ∝ number of photons ∝ intensity of light light(ϕ).
Page 6 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

LED( Light Emitting Diode):

USE: To produce light(highest efficiency), indicator, to convert electric signal to light signal(in optical
communication), display monitor(T.V.), seven segment display, remote, fast on-off
off switching light source.
source

It is connected in forward bias.s. As free electrons and holes combine at junction(i.e. free
free-electron
electron goes from C.B. to
V.B.) then photon is emitted whose energy is hv = ∆Eg. The colour of light depends on ∆Eg Eg which depends on type of
impurity doped. Intensity of light emitted depends on quantity of doping.
colour Doping hv(eV)
Violet InGaN 3.0
Blue InGaN, SiC
Green GaP, AlGaInP, AlGaP
Yellow GaAsP ,AlGaInP, GaP 2.4
Orange / amber GaAsP ,AlGaUInP ,GaP
Red AlGaAs ,GaAsP ,AlGaInP ,GaP 1.8
Infrared GaAs ,AlGaAs 1.4

SOLAR CELL:
USE: electric power production using light(often
light(oftenly sunlight).
type is made in form of thin layer so that light can reach at junction. When light(hv> ∆Eg)
N-type ∆ falls at junction hole
electron pairs are produced. Due to EB , electrons are swept towards n-type and nd hole towards p-type.
p This separation of
positive and negative charge creates e.m.f. which is used for current flow in RL or can be used to charge a battery.
Page 7 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

Transistor:
It is a three terminal semiconductor electronic device. It has three P and N- type blocks.
Use : power amplification of weak audio signals, voltage regulated switch, oscillator, NOT-gate, etc.
Types: (i) PNP and (ii) NPN

Construction :
(i) a transistor has three semiconductor blocks : Emitter(sends the majority charge Mode of
EBJ CBJ use
carriers to collector), Base(in middle) and Collector(collects the charge carriers). Each operation
block has conductor terminal named E, B & C. Active Amplifier.
(ii) Size : C > E >>> B f.b. r.b.
region oscillator
(iii) Doping: E > C >>>B ( e.g. E= 100% , C= 95% , B= 5%) Saturated
(iv) It has two P-N junctions : EBJ(always forward biased) & CBJ(always reverse f.b. f.b. switch
region
biased). The area of CBJ > EBJ to ensure Ic to be maximum (upto 99% of IE). Cut-off
CURRENTS THROUGH TRANSISTOR : r.b. r.b. switch
region
1.Due to f.b. of EBJ and r.b. of CBJ, the relation of currents is : IE=IC+IB Inverted
2. due to very low doping and thin size of Base-block the IB is very small( 2-5% of IE), r.b. f.b. -
state
hence IE≈IC . IE and IC are in mili-ampere (large) and IB is in micro-ampere (small).
3. Due to f.b. of EBJ, its resistance is small, therefore IE=mA for small VEB (≈1 volt).
4. Due to r.b. of CBJ, its resistance is high, therefore IC is made mA by applying high VCB (≈10 volt).
5. Explaining the flow of currents:
PNP :
EBJ is f.b. , so holes from Emitter are injected/emitted across EBJ. Very few of these holes are taken by electrons coming
from base(which is thin and less doped), and rest holes are attracted/collected by Collector through CBJ, because
collector is made negative charged due r.b. Therefore IE & IC are due to holes, IB is due to free-electrons.

NPN :
EBJ is f.b. , so electrons from Emitter are injected/emitted across EBJ. Very few of these electrons are taken by holes
coming from base (which is thin and less doped), and rest electrons are attracted/collected by Collector through CBJ,
because collector is made negative charged due r.b. Therefore IE & IC are due to free-electrons, IB is due to holes.
Page 8 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

THREE CONFIGURATIONS OF TRANSISTOR: (i) C.B. (ii) C.E. (iii) C.C.

(1) Common Base config. :

NOTE :
1. Arrow is in between E & B
directed from P to N
2. arrow shows direction of IE
3. IE=IC+IB
V-I Characteristics curves :

Input characteristic Output characteristic

it is VCB (output voltage) V/s IC (output current) graph.

Since CBJ is r.b. , so VCB is kept large (≈0 to 10 volt) then IC
is found large(≈0 to 10mA) (≈IE). IE is kept constant (by
keeping Rh1 fixed) and VCB & IC are varied by Rh2
It is VEB (input voltage) V/s IE (input current) graph. Since ● When EBJ is f.b. & CBJ is r.b. and as VCB is increased , first
EBJ is f.b. , so VEB is kept small(≈0 to 1 volt) and IE is found IC increases sharply, after then it becomes nearly
large(≈0 to 10mA). VCB is kept constant (by keeping Rh2 constant(≈IE). That is why Rob is very large. This region is
fixed) and VEB & IE are varied by Rh1 called active region.
∆G.1 ●When EBJ has no bias or r.b. then IE = 0, then IC≈0 (cut-
NT =U V ≈ 10Q OP 100Q
∆. X48673;63 off region)
W2
●When CBJ is f.b. then IC= 0 while IE≠ 0 (saturated
region).
∆ W2
●N8T = ∆$ ≈ 10F Q
W $ X48673;63
∆$W $W
● Current amplification factor(∝): ∝;4 = ; ∝!4 = $ ; ∝;4 ≈ ∝!4 ≈ 0.90 OP 0.99(< 1)
∆$

(2) Common Emitter config.

Page 9 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

V-I Characteristics curves :

Input characteristic Output characteristic

it is VCE (output voltage) V/s IC (output current) graph. Since

CBJ is r.b. , so VCE is kept large (≈0
( to 10 volt) then IC is
found large( 0 to 10mA). IB is kept constant (by keeping
Rh1 fixed) and VCE & IC are varied by Rh2.
It is VEB (input voltage) V/s IB (input current) graph. Since ● When EBJ is f.b. & CBJ is r.b. and as VCE is increased , first
EBJ is f.b. , so VEB is kept small(≈00 to 1 volt). IB is ≈0 to IC increases sharply, after then it becomes nearly constant.
100µA. VCE is kept constant (by keeping Rh2 fixed) and VEB That is why Rob is very large.. This region is called active
& IB are varied by Rh1 region.
∆G.1 When EBJ has no bias or r.b. then IB = 0, then IC≈0 (cut-
N' =U V 10Q OP
OP 100Q ●When
∆1 X48673;63 off region)
W
●When CBJ is f.b. then IC= 0 while IB≠ 0 (saturated region,
between y-axis
axis and line ‘OA’).
∆ W
●N8' = ∆$ ≈ 10F Q
W $2 X48673;63
48673;63
∆$W $W
● Current amplification factor(]): ^;4 ; ^!4 ; ∵ *H + ≫ 1 *& + ∴ ^;4 ^!4 10 OP 100*≫ 1+
∆$2 $2

Relation between ∝ & ] :

∵ due to f.b. of EBJ & r.b. of CBJ:
IE=IC + IB
⇒ ∆IE = ∆IC + ∆IB
∆$ ∆$W ∆$
Dividing by ∆IC ⇒ ∆$ + ∆$2
W ∆$ W W
1 1
⇒ 1+
∝ β
(3) Common Collector config.:
Page 10 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

USE OF TRANSISTOR AS AN AMLIFIER:

Amplifier :

it is a electronic device which increases power of a week input signal, without changing frequency and shape/form of the
signal.
Example: 1. week signals coming from microphone (mic) are amplified and sent to loud-speaker.
2. week signals coming from antenna are amplified and sent to T.V.
Hst uOvw Px PvOyvO
3. Amplijication factor (gain)(A) =
Hst uOvw Px u yvO
Common-Emitter Transistor Amplifier:

Vi = input signal (to be amplified), Vo = amplified output signal found across load RL , VBB = battery which provides f.b. on
EBJ, Vcc= battery which provides r.b. on CBJ,
In the absence of Vi , IB remains constant, when Vi is applied, IB is varied, therefore Ic also varies (since the fundamental
function of transistor is to transfer the variation of input current to output current). Hence Vo= IcRL also varies. Vo is
found amplified because of Ic(mA)≫ IB(µA) and RL is kept larger than Ri.
∆$
Current amplification factor or current gain(Ai or β)= ∆$W ≫ 1
2
∆$W ×}~ }
Voltage amplification factor(AV)= z
= ∆$2 ×}{
= β × }~ ≫ 1
{ {
•z $W ×}~ € }~
Power amplification factor(AP)= = =β ×} ≫1
•{ $2 ×}{ {

LOGIC GATES:
Logic gate is a elementary unit (building block) of a digital circuits (e.g. processor, RAM) which perform ‘logical
decisions’. Gates are made-up of diodes and transistor. A logic gate has minimum two inputs(A,B) and one output(Y).
NOTE: At any given case, every terminal of a gate is in one of the two binary conditions: low (0) or high (1), represented
by different voltage levels. In most logic gates, the low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is
approximately five volts
Fundamental Gates: (i) OR (ii) AND (iii) NOT
Derived Gates: NOR, NAND, XOR, etc.
(i)OR Gate:
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
When at least one input is ‘1’ then output will be ‘1’. If all inputs are ‘0’ then output will be ‘0’.
Boolean expression: Y=A+B
Page 11 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)

Diode circuit :

A B D1 D2 Current(I) Y
1 1 f.b. f.b. Yes 1
1 0 f.b. n.b. Yes 1
0 1 n.b. f.b. Yes 1
0 0 n.b. n.b. No 0

AND Gate:

TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
when at least one input is ‘0’ then output will be ‘0’. If all inputs are ‘1’ then output will be ‘1’.
Boolean expression: Y=A.B
Diode circuit :
A B D1 D2 Current(I) Y
1 1 n.b. n.b. no 1
1 0 n.b. f.b. Yes 0
0 1 f.b. n.b. Yes 0
0 0 f.b. f.b. yes 0

(iii) NOT Gate: It has one input and one output. It inverts the signal.
TRUTH TABLE
INPUT OUTPUT
A Y
1 0
0 1

Current in
A EBJ Y
RC
1 f.b. Yes 0
0 n.b. No 1

(iv) NOR (NOT-OR) Gate :

A B A+B Y=*‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚
+ •+
1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
Page 12 of 12 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ASHVINI KANT SHARMA(9214916592)
(v) NAND (NOT-AND) Gate :
A B A.B Y=(‚‚‚‚‚‚‚‚
. •)
1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1

(vi) XOR (Exclusive OR):

A B ̅ •‚ A.•‚ ̅.B Y=A.•‚ + ̅.B
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
NOTE: (1)
Four conditions (biasing) of a Diode

F.B R.B No Bias (N.B.) No Bias (N.B.)

(2)

VYE=IR ⇒ VY − VE = IR ⇒ VY - 0 =
IR
I VY
now case 1 : if I = 1A then VY =
LOGIC-1 1 1
1×1=1 Volt.
0 0
case 2 : if I = 0A then VY = 0×1= 0
Volt.

Applying KVL:
VYE= VY − VE= (VY − VP)+ (VP − VE)
⇒ VY − 0 = −IR + E
⇒ VY = −IR + E I VY
LOGIC-2 now case 1 : if I = 1A 1 0
then VY = −1×1+1=0 Volt. 0 1
case 2 : if I = 0
then VY = − 0×1+1=1 Volt.
.

END OF CHAPTER