Coordinates: 21°N 57°E

Oman
Oman (/oʊˈmɑːn/ ( listen) oh-MAHN; Arabic: ‫ ُعَمان‬ʿUmān
[ʕʊˈmaːn]), officially the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: Sultanate of Oman
‫ سْلطنُة ُعمان‬Salṭanat(u) ʻUmān), is a country in Western ‫سلطنة ُعمان‬ (Arabic)
Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Salṭanat ʻUmān
Peninsula, and spans the mouth of the Persian Gulf. Oman
shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, and Yemen; while sharing maritime borders with
Iran and Pakistan. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea
on the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The
Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the Flag
National emblem
United Arab Emirates on their land borders, with the Strait of
Hormuz (which it shares with Iran) and the Gulf of Oman Anthem: ‫
نشيد السالم السلطاني‬
forming Musandam's coastal boundaries. Muscat is the "as-Salām as-Sultānī"

nation's capital and largest city. "Sultanic Salutation"

0:00 / 0:00
From the 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire,
vying with the Portuguese and British empires for influence
in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th
century, Omani influence or control extended across the
Strait of Hormuz to modern-day Iran, and Pakistan, and as
far south as Zanzibar.[11] When its power declined in the
20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the
United Kingdom. For over 300 years, the relations built
between the two empires were based on mutual benefit. The
UK recognized Oman's geographical importance as a trading
hub that secured their trading lanes in the Persian Gulf and
Indian Ocean and protected their empire in the Indian sub-
continent. Historically, Muscat was the principal trading port
of the Persian Gulf region.

Sultan Qaboos bin Said was the hereditary leader of the Location of Oman in the Arabian Peninsula
(dark green)
country which is an absolute monarchy, from 1970 until his
death on 10 January 2020.[12] According to the rules for Capital Muscat

succession to the sultanic throne of Oman, the son of the and largest city 23°35′20″N
58°24′30″E
Sultan is usually announced as the new monarch. Sultan
Qaboos bin Said did not have any children. The sultanic Official languages Arabic[1]
family announced that Qaboos bin Said had named his Religion 85.9% Islam
cousin, Haitham bin Tariq, as his successor in a letter, and (Official)

the family confirmed him as the new Sultan of Oman.[13] 6.5% Christianity

5.5% Hinduism

Formerly a maritime empire, Oman is the oldest continuously 1% others

independent state in the Arab world.[14][15] It is a member of Demonym(s) Omani
the United Nations, the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation
Council, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Organisation Government Unitary Islamic
of Islamic Cooperation. It has oil reserves ranked 22nd absolute
monarchy
globally.[14][16] In 2010, the United Nations Development
Programme ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the • Sultan and Prime Haitham bin Tariq
world in terms of development during the preceding 40 Minister
years.[17] A portion of its economy involves tourism and • Crown Prince Theyazin bin
trading fish, dates and other agricultural produce. Oman is Haitham
categorized as a high-income economy and, as of 2021, Legislature Council of Oman
ranks as the 73rd most peaceful country in the world • Upper house Council of State
according to the Global Peace Index.[18] (Majlis al-Dawla)
• Lower house Consultative
Assembly (Majlis
al-Shura)
Contents Establishment
Etymology • The Azd tribe 130
History migration
• Al-Julanda 629
Prehistory and ancient history
• Imamate established[2] 751
Arab settlement
• Nabhani dynasty 1154
Imamate of Oman • Portuguese rule 1507–1656
Nabhani dynasty • Yaruba dynasty 1624
Portuguese era • Al Said dynasty 1744
Yaruba dynasty (1624–1744) • Muscat and Oman 8 January 1856
18th and 19th centuries • Jebel Akhdar War 1954–1959
British de facto colonisation • Dhofar Rebellion 9 June 1965 – 11
December 1975
Treaty of Seeb • Sultanate of Oman 9 August 1970
Reign of Sultan Said (1932–1970) • Admitted to the 7 October 1971
Jebel Akhdar War United Nations
Dhofar Rebellion • Current constitution 6 January 2021[3]
Reign of Sultan Qaboos (1970–2020) Area
Reign of Sultan Haitham (2020–present) • Total 309,500 km2
(119,500 sq mi)
Geography (70th)
Climate • Water (%) negligible
Biodiversity Population
Politics • 2018 estimate 4,829,473[4][5]
Legal system (125th)
Foreign policy • 2010 census 2,773,479[6]
Military • Density 15/km2
(38.8/sq mi)
Human rights (177th)
Migrant workers
GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
Administrative divisions
• Total $165.947 billion[7]
Economy (78th)
Oil and gas • Per capita $35,286 (71th)
Tourism GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
Industry, innovation and infrastructure • Total $110.127 billion[8]
Agriculture and fishing (66th)
• Per capita $23,416 (55th)
Demographics
Religion Gini (2018) 30.75[9]

Languages medium
Education HDI (2019)  0.813[10]

Health very high · 60th

 Largest cities Currency Omani rial (OMR)

Culture Time zone UTC+4 (GST)

Dress Driving side right
Music and cinema
Calling code +968
Media
Art ISO 3166 code OM
Food Internet TLD .om, ‫عمان‬.
Sports Website
See also www.oman.om (http://www.oman.om)

Notes
References
External links

Etymology
The origin of Oman's name seems to be related to Pliny the Elder's Omana[19] and Ptolemy's Omanon
(Ὄμανον ἐμπόριον in Greek),[20] both probably the ancient Sohar.[21] The city or region is typically
etymologized in Arabic from aamen or amoun ("settled" people, as opposed to the Bedouin),[21] although a
number of eponymous founders have been proposed (Oman bin Ibrahim al-Khalil, Oman bin Siba' bin
Yaghthan bin Ibrahim, Oman bin Qahtan and the Biblical Lot) and others derive it from the name of a valley
in Yemen at Ma'rib presumed to have been the origin of the city's founders, the Azd, a tribe migrating from
Yemen.[22]

History

Prehistory and ancient history

At Aybut Al Auwal, in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman, a site was

discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone
tools, belonging to a regionally specific African lithic industry—the
late Nubian Complex—known previously only from the northeast and
Horn of Africa. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates
place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This
supports the proposition that early human populations moved from
Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene.[23]

In recent years surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic

sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-
Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman.[24] Archaeological remains are
particularly numerous for the Bronze Age Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq
periods. Sites such as Bat show professional wheel-turned pottery,
Late Iron Age sites in Oman.
excellent hand-made stone vessels, a metals industry and monumental
architecture.[25] The Early (1300‒300 BC) and Late Iron Ages (100
BC‒300 AD) show more differences than similarities to each other. Thereafter, until the coming of Ibadi
Islam, little or nothing is known.
There is considerable agreement in sources that Frankincense was used by traders in 1500 BC. The Land of
Frankincense, a UNESCO World Heritage site, dramatically illustrates that the incense constituted testimony
to South Arabian civilizations.

During the 8th century BC, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of Qahtan, ruled the entire region of
Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin Abd-Shams (Saba) bin Yashjub (Yaman) bin Yarub bin
Qahtan later ruled Oman.[26] It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from
Yemen.[27]

In the 1970s and 1980s scholars like John C. Wilkinson[28] believed by virtue of oral history that in the 6th
century BC, the Achaemenids exerted control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal
centre such as Suhar.[29] Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage
named eponymously from Samad al-Shan. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula the Recent Pre-Islamic
Period begins in the 3rd century BC and extends into the 3rd A.D. century. Whether or not Persians brought
south-eastern Arabian under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian finds speak against this
belief. M. Caussin de Percevel suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognized the authority of
Cyrus the Great over Oman in 536 B.C.[26]

Sumerian tablets referred to Oman as "Magan"[30][31] and in the

Akkadian language "Makan",[32][33] a name which links Oman's
ancient copper resources.[34] Mazoon, a Persian name used to refer to
Oman's region, which was part of the Sasanian Empire.

Arab settlement

Over centuries tribes from western Arabia settled in Oman, making a

living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding, and many
The Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-
present day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of
Khutm and Al-Ayn in Ad Dhahirah
Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and
were built in the 3rd Millennium BCE,
south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete
are UNESCO World Heritage.
with the indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab
tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One
group, a segment of the Azd tribe migrated from the southwest of Arabia in A.D. 120[35]/200 following the
collapse of Marib Dam, while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from central
and northern Arabia, named Nizari (Nejdi). Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan which
belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd.[27]

The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd, a branch of Nabataeans, and were later known as
"the Al-Azd of Oman".[35] Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of Alazdi under Malik
bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of Tanukhites on the west of Euphrates, is believed to have settled in
Oman.[35] According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd.[36] He is said to have first
settled in Qalhat. By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought
against the Marzban, who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and
eventually defeated the Persian forces.[27][37][38][39][40] This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems
to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict into a story of two campaigns that exaggerate the
success of the Arabs. The account may also represent an amalgamation of various traditions from not only the
Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants. Furthermore, no date can be determined for the events of
this story.[38][41][42]

In the 7th century AD, Omanis came in contact with and accepted Islam.[43][44] The conversion of Omanis to
Islam is ascribed to Amr ibn al-As, who was sent by the prophet Muhammad during the Expedition of Zaid
ibn Haritha (Hisma). Amer was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman.
 They appear to have readily embraced Islam.[45]

Imamate of Oman

Omani Azd used to travel to Basra for trade, which was a centre of Islam
during the Umayyad empire. Omani Azd were granted a section of Basra,
where they could settle and attend their needs. Many of the Omani Azd who
settled in Basra became wealthy merchants and under their leader Muhallab
bin Abi Sufrah started to expand their influence of power eastwards towards
Khorasan. Ibadhi Islam originated in Basra by its founder Abdullah ibn Ibadh
around the year 650 CE, which the Omani Azd in Iraq followed. Later, Al-
hajjaj, the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadhis, which forced
Ruins of Khor Rori, built
them out to Oman. Among those who returned to Oman was the scholar Jaber
between 100 BCE & 100
bin Zaid. His return and the return of many other scholars greatly enhanced
CE.
the Ibadhi movement in Oman.[46] Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate
Oman, which was ruled by Suleiman and Said, the sons of Abbad bin
Julanda. Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. The confrontation
devastated Said's army. Thus, Said and his forces resorted to the Jebel Akhdar. Mujjaah and his forces went
after Said and his forces and succeeded in besieging them from a position in "Wade Mastall". Mujjaah later
moved towards the coast where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces.
Alhajjaj, however, sent another force under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman and eventually won the war and took
over the governance of Oman.[47][48][49]

The first elective Imamate of Oman is believed to have been established

shortly after the fall of the Umayyad Dynasty in 750/755 AD when Janaħ bin
ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected.[46][50] Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin
Ibadah served as a Wāli (governor) under Umayyad dynasty and later ratified
the Imamate, while Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam of Oman in
A.D. 751.[51][52] The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth A.D.
century.[46] The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled
the Gulf during the time when trade with the Abbasid Dynasty, the East and
Africa flourished.[53] The authority of the Imams started to decline due to
power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid and the rise of the
Seljuk Empire.[54][51]

Bahla Fort, a UNESCO

Nabhani dynasty World Heritage site, was
built between 12th and 15th
During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of c. by the Nabhani dynasty.
influence of the Seljuk Empire. They were expelled in 1154, when the
Nabhani dynasty came to power.[54] The Nabhanis ruled as muluk, or kings,
while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was Bahla.[55] The
Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via Sohar to the Yabrin oasis, and
then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus.[56] The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time
of Nabhani dynasty, by ElFellah bin Muhsin.[27][57] The Nabhani dynasty started to deteriorate in 1507 when
Portuguese colonisers captured the coastal city of Muscat, and gradually extended their control along the coast
up to Sohar in the north and down to Sur in the southeast.[58] Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty
ended earlier in A.D. 1435 when conflicts between the dynasty and Alhinawis arose, which led to the
restoration of the elective Imamate.[27]

Portuguese era
A decade after Vasco da Gama's successful voyage around the Cape
of Good Hope and to India in 1497–98, the Portuguese arrived in
Oman and occupied Muscat for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650.
In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up
and fortified the city, where remnants of their Portuguese architectural
style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonized in the
early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the
Persian Gulf and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in
the region, from Basra to Hormuz.

However, in 1552 an Ottoman fleet briefly captured the fort in

Muscat, during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the
Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of The Portuguese Empire ruled Oman
the fortress.[59] for 143 years (1507–1650).

Later in the 17th century using is bases in Oman, Portugal took on the
biggest battle ever taken in the Persian Gulf (Battle off Hormuz (1625)). The Portuguese force fought against
a combined armada of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and English East India Company support by the
Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the
Gulf.[60]

Several cities were sketched in the 17th century and appear in the António Bocarro Book of fortress.[61]

Yaruba dynasty (1624–1744)

The Ottoman Turks temporarily captured

Muscat from the Portuguese again in
1581 and held it until 1588. During the
17th century, the Omanis were reunited
by the Yaruba Imams. Nasir bin Murshid
became the first Yaarubah Imam in 1624,
when he was elected in Rustaq. Nasir's
energy and perseverance is believed to
have earned him the election.[63] Imam
Nasir and his successor succeeded in the Portuguese presence in the 16th and 18th century in the Persian
1650s in expelling the Portuguese from Gulf.
their coastal domains in Oman.[46] The
Omanis over time established a maritime
empire that pursued the Portuguese and expelled them from all their
possessions in East Africa north of Mozambique, which were then
incorporated into the Omani domains. To capture Zanzibar Saif bin
Sultan, the Imam of Oman, pressed down the Swahili Coast. A major
obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a
Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, the fort fell
to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698. Thereafter the Omanis easily ejected
the Portuguese from other African coastal regions including Kilwa Following the expulsion of the
and Pemba. Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700. Qeshm was Portuguese Empire, Oman became
captured in 1720.[53][64] The rivalry within the house of Yaruba over one of the powers in the western
power after the death of Imam Sultan in 1718 weakened the dynasty. Indian Ocean from 1698 onwards.[62]
With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif bin
Sultan II eventually asked for help against his rivals from Nader Shah
of Persia. A Persian force arrived in March 1737 to aid Saif. From their base at Julfar, the Persian forces
eventually rebelled against the Yaruba in 1743. The Persian empire then tried to take possession of the coast of
Oman until 1747.[46][65]

18th and 19th centuries

After the Omanis expelled the Persians, Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi in
1749 became the elected Imam of Oman, with Rustaq serving as the
capital. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the
Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the
person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling
family.[66] Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin
Ahmed became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said,
overthrew the representative of his father the Imam in Muscat and
The Sultan's Palace in Zanzibar, obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid".
which was once Oman's capital and Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed,
residence of its sultans took over power. Seyyid Said bin Sultan succeeded Sultan bin
Ahmed.[67][68] During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam
Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, Azzan
bin Qais was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept
Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in
supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said
bin Sultan, and brother of Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar, who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.[69]

Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over Gwadar, an area of modern-day
Pakistan. Gwadar was a part of Oman from 1783 to 1958 . This coastal city is located in the Makran region of
what is now the far southwestern corner of Pakistan, near the present-day border of Iran, at the mouth of the
Gulf of Oman.[note 1][70] After regaining control of Muscat, this sovereignty was continued via an appointed
wali ("governor"). Currently, Gwadar's residents speak Urdu and Balochi with many also knowledgeable in
Arabic.

British de facto colonisation

The British empire was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European
states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century.[71][53] The British empire
over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the
objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military
protection.[53][71] In 1798, the first treaty between the British East India Company and the Albusaidi dynasty
was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French
and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at Bandar Abbas.[72][46][73] A second
treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and
manage all external affairs with other states.[73] As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over
Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century.[62]

In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani Kuria Muria islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat
and the British government.[75] The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which,
for the most part, impeded competition from other nations.[76] Between 1862 and 1892, the Political
Residents, Lewis Pelly and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the
Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance.[69] By the end of the 19th century, and with the
loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became
heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult
the British government on all important matters.[71][77][78][79] The
Sultanate thus came de facto under the British sphere.[78][80]

Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the

Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and
became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact
reflected by the decision of the Sayyid Sa'id bin Sultan, to make it the
capital of the empire in 1837. Sa'id built impressive palaces and
gardens in Zanzibar. Rivalry between his two sons was resolved, with A British naval squadron in
the help of forceful British diplomacy, when one of them, Majid, Muscat.[74]
succeeded to Zanzibar and to the Omani domains on the Swahili
Coast. The other son, Thuwaini, inherited Oman and the Asian
domains. Zanzibar's influences in the Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean indirectly introduced Omani
customs to the Comorian culture. These influences include clothing traditions and wedding ceremonies.[81] In
1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates.[64]

Treaty of Seeb

The Al Hajar Mountains, of which the Jebel Akhdar is a part, separate

the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area
dominated by the capital, Muscat.[82] The British imperial
development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to
the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of
Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in
Oman.[53] The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed
the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the
British government over Muscat, which he described as being
completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and
political conditions of the locals.[83] In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi
instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the
The split between the interior region Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the Treaty of
(orange) and the coastal region (red) Seeb.The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic
of Oman and Muscat.
interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty
granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and
recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the Sultanate of
Muscat.[71][84][85][86] In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected.[46]

On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in which the
Sultanate had to consult with the British political agent residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the High
Government of India to extract oil in the Sultanate.[87] On 31 July 1928, the Red Line Agreement was signed
between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie
Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed
ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in the post-
Ottoman Empire region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies
holding 23.75 percent of the shares while Calouste Gulbenkian held the remaining 5 percent shares. The
agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions
within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement
established Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC).[88] On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal
abdicated.[89]
Reign of Sultan Said (1932–1970)

Said bin Taimur became the sultan of Muscat officially on 10 February 1932.
The rule of sultan Said bin Taimur, a very complex character, was backed by
the British government, and has been characterised, not totally justly, as being
feudal, reactionary and isolationist.[86][53][78][90] The British government
maintained vast administrative control over the Sultanate as the defence
secretary and chief of intelligence, chief adviser to the sultan and all ministers
except for one were British.[78][91] In 1937, an agreement between the sultan
and Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a consortium of oil companies that was
23.75% British owned, was signed to grant oil concessions to IPC. After
failing to discover oil in the Sultanate, IPC was intensely interested in some
promising geological formations near Fahud, an area located within the
Imamate. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force
Sultan Said bin Taimur ruled
against any potential resistance by the Imamate.[92][93]
from 1932 to 1970.

In 1955, the exclave coastal Makran strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a
district of its Balochistan province, while Gwadar remained in Oman. On 8
September 1958, Pakistan purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for US$3  million.[note 2][94] Gwadar
then became a tehsil in the Makran district.

Jebel Akhdar War

Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest in occupying the

Imamate right after the death of Imam Alkhalili, thus taking advantage
of any potential instability that might occur within the Imamate when
elections were due, to the British government.[95] The British political
agent in Muscat believed that the only method of gaining access to the
oil reserves in the interior was by assisting the sultan in taking over the
Imamate.[96] In 1946, the British government offered arms and
ammunition, auxiliary supplies and officers to prepare the sultan to
attack the interior of Oman.[97] In May 1954, Imam Alkhalili died and
Ghalib Alhinai was elected Imam.[98] Relations between the Sultan
Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute
Nizwa Fort attacked by British Royal about oil concessions. Under the terms of the 1920 treaty of Seeb, the
Air Force strike aircraft during Jebel Sultan, backed by the British government, claimed all dealings with
Akhdar War. the oil company as his prerogative. The Imam, on the other hand,
claimed that since the oil was in the Imamate territory, anything
concerning it was an internal matter.[82]

In December 1955, Sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the
main centres in Oman, including Nizwa, the capital of the Imamate of Oman, and Ibri.[84][99] The Omanis in
the interior led by Imam Ghalib Alhinai, Talib Alhinai, the brother of the Imam and the Wali (governor) of
Rustaq, and Suleiman bin Hamyar, who was the Wali (governor) of Jebel Akhdar, defended the Imamate in
the Jebel Akhdar War against British-backed attacks by the Sultanate. In July 1957, the Sultan's forces were
withdrawing, but they were repeatedly ambushed, sustaining heavy casualties.[84] Sultan Said, however, with
the intervention of British infantry (two companies of the Cameronians), armoured car detachments from the
British Army and RAF aircraft, was able to suppress the rebellion.[100] The Imamate's forces retreated to the
inaccessible Jebel Akhdar.[100][92]
Colonel David Smiley, who had been seconded to organise the Sultan's Armed Forces, managed to isolate the
mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to the plateau from Wadi Bani Kharus.[101] On 4 August 1957,
the British Foreign Secretary gave the approval to carry out air strikes without prior warning to the locals
residing in the interior of Oman.[90] Between July and December 1958, the British RAF made 1,635 raids,
dropping 1,094 tons and firing 900 rockets at the interior of Oman targeting insurgents, mountain top villages,
water channels and crops.[78][90] On 27 January 1959, the Sultanate's forces occupied the mountain in a
surprise operation.[101] Imam Ghalib, his brother Talib and Sulaiman managed to escape to Saudi Arabia,
where the Imamate's cause was promoted until the 1970s.[101] The exiled partisans of the now abolished
Imamate of Oman presented the case of Oman to the Arab League and the United Nations.[102][103] On 11
December 1963, the UN General Assembly decided to establish an Ad-Hoc Committee on Oman to study the
'Question of Oman' and report back to the General Assembly.[104] The UN General Assembly adopted the
'Question of Oman' resolution in 1965, 1966 and again in 1967 that called upon the British government to
cease all repressive action against the locals, end British control over Oman and reaffirmed the inalienable
right of the Omani people to self-determination and independence.[105][106][80][107][108][109]

Dhofar Rebellion

Oil reserves in Dhofar were discovered in 1964 and extraction began in 1967. In the Dhofar Rebellion, which
began in 1965, pro-Soviet forces were pitted against government troops. As the rebellion threatened the
Sultan's control of Dhofar, Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a bloodless coup (1970) by his son Qaboos
bin Said, who expanded the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces, modernised the state's administration and
introduced social reforms. The uprising was finally put down in 1975 with the help of forces from Iran,
Jordan, Pakistan and the British Royal Air Force, army and Special Air Service.

Reign of Sultan Qaboos (1970–2020)

After deposing his father in 1970, Sultan Qaboos opened up the

country, embarked on economic reforms, and followed a policy of
modernisation marked by increased spending on health, education and
welfare.[110] Slavery, once a cornerstone of the country's trade and
development, was outlawed in 1970.[81]

In 1981, Oman became a founding member of the six-nation Gulf

Cooperation Council. Political reforms were eventually introduced.
Historically, a limited franchise of voters for the State Consultative
Council, later Majlis Al-Shura, had been chosen from among tribal Sultan Qaboos bin Said ruled from
notables, intellectuals, degree holders, and businessmen. In 1997, a 1970 until his death in 2020.
royal decree was issued granting women the right to vote, and stand
for election to the Majlis al-Shura, the Consultative Assembly of
Oman. Two women were duly elected to the body.

In 2002, voting rights were extended to all citizens over the age of 21, and the first elections to the
Consultative Assembly under the new rules were held in 2003. In 2004, the Sultan appointed Oman's first
female minister with portfolio, Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel al-Sayabiyah. She was appointed to the
post of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship, an office that attempts to preserve and promote
Oman's traditional crafts and stimulate industry.[111] Despite these changes, there was little change to the
actual political makeup of the government. The Sultan continued to rule by decree. Nearly 100 suspected
Islamists were arrested in 2005 and 31 people were convicted of trying to overthrow the government. They
were ultimately pardoned in June of the same year.[14]
Inspired by the Arab Spring uprisings that were taking place throughout the region, protests occurred in Oman
during the early months of 2011. While they did not call for the ousting of the regime, demonstrators
demanded political reforms, improved living conditions and the creation of more jobs. They were dispersed by
riot police in February 2011. Sultan Qaboos reacted by promising jobs and benefits. In October 2011,
elections were held to the Consultative Assembly, to which Sultan Qaboos promised greater powers. The
following year, the government began a crackdown on internet criticism. In September 2012, trials began of
'activists' accused of posting "abusive and provocative" criticism of the government online. Six were given jail
terms of 12–18 months and fines of around $2,500 each.[112]

Qaboos died on 10 January 2020, and the government declared 40 days of national mourning. He was buried
the next day.[113]

Reign of Sultan Haitham (2020–present)

On 11 January 2020, Qaboos was succeeded by his first cousin Sultan Haitham bin Tariq.[114] Sultan Qaboos
did not have any children.[115]

An initiative was commenced on 22 May 2022 in cooperation with Oman Vision 2040 when the Ministry of
Transport, Communications and Information Technology launched a series of laboratories to streamline
government services under the codename ‘Mangam Labs Initiative’, with more than 100 representatives of
government and private establishments.

Geography
Oman lies between latitudes 16° and 28° N, and longitudes 52° and 60° E. A
vast gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman, with mountain ranges
along the north (Al Hajar Mountains) and southeast coast (Qara or Dhofar
Mountains),[116][117] where the country's main cities are located: the capital
city Muscat, Sohar and Sur in the north, and Salalah in the south and
Musandam. Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the
coast. During past epochs, Oman was covered by ocean, as evidenced by the
large numbers of fossilized shells found in areas of the desert away from the
modern coastline.

The peninsula of Musandam

(Musandem) exclave, which is
strategically located on the Strait of
Hormuz, is separated from the rest of
Wadi Shab
Oman by the United Arab
Emirates.[118] The series of small
towns known collectively as Dibba are the gateway to the Musandam
peninsula on land and the fishing villages of Musandam by sea, with
boats available for hire at Khasab for trips into the Musandam
peninsula by sea. An oasis in Oman

Oman's other exclave, inside UAE territory, known as Madha, located

halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman,[118] is part of the Musandam
governorate, covering approximately 75  km2 (29  sq  mi). Madha's boundary was settled in 1969, with the
north-east corner of Madha barely 10 m (32.8 ft) from the Fujairah road. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE
enclave called Nahwa, belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah, situated about 8 km (5 mi) along a dirt track west
of the town of New Madha, and consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange.[119]
The central desert of Oman is an important source of meteorites for
scientific analysis.[120]

Climate

Like the rest of the Persian Gulf, Oman generally has one of the
hottest climates in the world—with summer temperatures in Muscat
and northern Oman averaging 30 to 40  °C (86.0 to 104.0  °F).[121] The coast of Sur, Oman
Oman receives little rainfall, with annual rainfall in Muscat averaging
100 mm (3.9 in), occurring mostly in January. In the south, the Dhofar
Mountains area near Salalah has a tropical-like climate and receives seasonal rainfall from late June to late
September as a result of monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean, leaving the summer air saturated with cool
moisture and heavy fog.[122] Summer temperatures in Salalah range from 20 to 30  °C (68.0 to 86.0  °F)—
relatively cool compared to northern Oman.[123]

The mountain areas receive more rainfall, and annual rainfall on the higher parts of the Jabal Akhdar probably
exceeds 400 mm (15.7 in).[124] Low temperatures in the mountainous areas leads to snow cover once every
few years.[125] Some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all
within the course of a year. The climate is generally very hot, with temperatures reaching around 54  °C
(129.2 °F) (peak) in the hot season, from May to September.[126] Drought and limited rainfall contribute to
shortages in the nation's water supply. Maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic
use is one of Oman's most pressing environmental problems, with limited renewable water resources.

On 26 June 2018 the city of Qurayyat set the record for highest minimum temperature in a 24-hour period,
42.6 °C (108.7 °F).[127]

In terms of climate action, major challenges remain to be solved, per the United Nations Sustainable
Development 2019 index. The CO2 emissions from energy (tCO2 /capita) and CO2 emissions embodied in
fossil fuel exports (kg per capita) rates are very high, while imported CO2 emissions (tCO2 /capita) and people
affected by climate-related disasters (per 100,000 people) rates are low.[128]

Biodiversity

Desert shrub and desert grass, common to southern Arabia, are found
in Oman, but vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which is
largely gravel desert. The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the
mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant during summer;
coconut palms grow plentifully on the coastal plains of Dhofar and
frankincense is produced in the hills, with abundant oleander and
varieties of acacia. The Al Hajar Mountains are a distinct ecoregion,
the highest points in eastern Arabia with wildlife including the Nakhal palm tree farms in Oman's
Arabian tahr. Batina Region

Indigenous mammals include the leopard, hyena, fox, wolf, hare, oryx
and ibex. Birds include the vulture, eagle, stork, bustard, Arabian partridge, bee eater, falcon and sunbird. In
2001, Oman had nine endangered species of mammals, five endangered types of birds,[129] and nineteen
threatened plant species. Decrees have been passed to protect endangered species, including the Arabian
leopard, Arabian oryx, mountain gazelle, goitered gazelle, Arabian tahr, green sea turtle, hawksbill turtle and
olive ridley turtle. However, the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary is the first site ever to be deleted from UNESCO's
World Heritage List, following the government's 2007 decision to reduce the site's area by 90% to clear the
way for oil prospectors.[130]
Local and national entities have noted unethical treatment of animals
in Oman. In particular, stray dogs (and to a lesser extent, stray cats) are
often the victims of torture, abuse or neglect.[131] The only approved
method of decreasing the stray dog population is shooting by police
officers. The Oman government has refused to implement a spay and
neuter programme or create any animal shelters in the country. Cats, The Arabian humpback whales off
while seen as more acceptable than dogs, are viewed as pests and Dhofar
frequently die of starvation or illness.[132][133]

In recent years, Oman has become one of the newer hot spots for whale
watching, highlighting the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale, the
most isolated and only non-migratory population in the world, sperm whales
and pygmy blue whales.[134]

Politics
Oman is a unitary state and an
absolute monarchy,[135] in which all
legislative, executive and judiciary
power ultimately rests in the hands of
the hereditary Sultan. Consequently, Osprey in Yiti Beach, Oman
Freedom House has routinely rated the
country "Not Free".[136]

The Sultan's Al Alam Palace in Old The sultan is the head of state and directly controls the foreign affairs
Muscat and defence portfolios.[137] He has absolute power and issues laws by
decree.[138][139]

Legal system

Oman is an absolute monarchy, with the Sultan's word having the force of law. The judiciary branch is
subordinate to the Sultan. According to Oman's constitution, Sharia law is one of the sources of legislation.
Sharia court departments within the civil court system are responsible for family-law matters, such as divorce
and inheritance.

While ultimate power is concentrated in the Sultan,[12] and Oman does not have an official separation of
powers[12] the late Sultan Qaboos declined to grant the full title Minister of Defence, Minister of Foreign
Affairs and Minister of Finance to the ministers exercising those responsibilities, preferring to keep them
within the Royal Domain. The current Sultan Haitham has granted the ministers responsible of those portfolios
the full titles, whilst elevating the defense portfolio to that of a deputy prime minister.[12] Since 1970 all
legislation has been promulgated through royal decrees, including the 1996 Basic Law.[12] The Sultan
appoints the ministers, the judges, and can grant pardons and commute sentences.[12] The Sultan's authority is
inviolable and the Sultan expects total subordination to his will.[12]

The administration of justice is highly personalized, with limited due process protections, especially in political
and security-related cases.[140] The Basic Statute of the State[141] is supposedly the cornerstone of the Omani
legal system and it operates as a constitution for the country. The Basic Statute was issued in 1996 and thus far
has only been amended twice: in 2011,[142] in response to protests; and in 2021, to create the position of
Crown Prince of Oman.
Though Oman's legal code theoretically protects civil liberties and personal freedoms, both are regularly
ignored by the regime.[12] Women and children face legal discrimination in many areas.[12] Women are
excluded from certain state benefits, such as housing loans, and are refused equal rights under the personal
status law.[12] Women also experience restrictions on their self-determination in respect to health and
reproductive rights.[12]

The Omani legislature is the bicameral Council of Oman, consisting of an upper chamber, the Council of State
(Majlis ad-Dawlah) and a lower chamber, the Consultative Council (Majlis ash-Shoura).[143] Political parties
are banned, as are any affiliations based on religion.[139] The upper chamber has 71 members, appointed by
the Sultan from among prominent Omanis; it has only advisory powers.[144] The 84 members of the
Consultative Council are elected by universal suffrage to serve four-year terms.[144] The members are
appointed for three-year terms, which may be renewed once.[143] The last elections were held on 27 October
2019, and the next is due in October 2023. Oman's national anthem, As-Salam as-Sultani is dedicated to
former Sultan Qaboos.

Foreign policy

Since 1970, Oman has pursued a moderate foreign policy, and has
expanded its diplomatic relations dramatically. Oman is among the
very few Arab countries that have maintained friendly ties with
Iran.[145][146] WikiLeaks disclosed US diplomatic cables which state
that Oman helped free British sailors captured by Iran's navy in
2007.[147] The same cables also portray the Omani government as
wishing to maintain cordial relations with Iran, and as having
consistently resisted US diplomatic pressure to adopt a sterner Sultan Haitham bin Tariq with US
stance.[148][149][150] Yusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah is the Sultanate's secretary of state Mike Pompeo,
Minister Responsible for Foreign Affairs. February 2020.

Oman allowed the British Royal Navy and Indian Navy access to the
port facilities of Al Duqm Port & Drydock.[151]

Military

SIPRI's estimation of Oman's military and security

expenditure as a percentage of GDP in 2020 was 11
percent, making it the world's highest rate in that year,
higher than Saudi Arabia (8.4 percent).[152] Oman's on-
average military spending as a percentage of GDP
between 2016 and 2018 was around 10 percent, while
the world's average during the same period was 2.2
percent.[153]
Royal Navy of Oman Khareef-class corvette, Al-
Oman's military manpower totalled 44,100 in 2006,
Shamikh
including 25,000 men in the army, 4,200 sailors in the
navy, and an air force with 4,100 personnel. The Royal
Household maintained 5,000 Guards, 1,000 in Special
Forces, 150 sailors in the Royal Yacht fleet, and 250 pilots and ground personnel in the Royal Flight
squadrons. Oman also maintains a modestly sized paramilitary force of 4,400 men.[154]
The Royal Army of Oman had 25,000 active personnel in 2006, plus a small contingent of Royal Household
troops. Despite a comparative large military spending, it has been relatively slow to modernise its forces.
Oman has a relatively limited number of tanks, including 6 M60A1, 73 M60A3 and 38 Challenger 2 main
battle tanks, as well as 37 aging Scorpion light tanks.[154]

The Royal Air Force of Oman has approximately 4,100 men, with only 36 combat aircraft and no armed
helicopters. Combat aircraft include 20 aging Jaguars, 12 Hawk Mk 203s, 4 Hawk Mk 103s and 12 PC-9
turboprop trainers with a limited combat capability. It has one squadron of 12 F-16C/D aircraft. Oman also has
4 A202-18 Bravos and 8 MFI-17B Mushshaqs.[154]

The Royal Navy of Oman had 4,200 men in 2000, and is headquartered at Seeb. It has bases at Ahwi,
Ghanam Island, Mussandam and Salalah. In 2006, Oman had 10 surface combat vessels. These included two
1,450-ton Qahir class corvettes, and 8 ocean-going patrol boats. The Omani Navy had one 2,500-ton Nasr al
Bahr class LSL (240 troops, 7 tanks) with a helicopter deck. Oman also had at least four landing craft.[154]
Oman ordered three Khareef class corvettes from the VT Group for £400 million in 2007. They were built at
Portsmouth.[155] In 2010 Oman spent US$4.074 billion on military expenditures, 8.5% of the gross domestic
product.[156] The sultanate has a long history of association with the British military and defence industry.[157]
According to SIPRI, Oman was the 23rd largest arms importer from 2012 to 2016.[158]

Human rights

Homosexual acts are illegal in Oman.[159] The practice of torture is widespread in Oman state penal
institutions and has become the state's typical reaction to independent political expression.[160][161] Torture
methods in use in Oman include mock execution, beating, hooding, solitary confinement, subjection to
extremes of temperature and to constant noise, abuse and humiliation.[160] There have been numerous reports
of torture and other inhumane forms of punishment perpetrated by Omani security forces on protesters and
detainees.[162] Several prisoners detained in 2012 complained of sleep deprivation, extreme temperatures and
solitary confinement.[163] Omani authorities kept Sultan al-Saadi, a social media activist, in solitary
confinement, denied him access to his lawyer and family, forced him to wear a black bag over his head
whenever he left his cell, including when using the toilet, and told him his family had "forsaken" him and
asked for him to be imprisoned.[163]

The Omani government decides who can or cannot be a journalist and this permission can be withdrawn at
any time.[165] Censorship and self-censorship are a constant factor.[165] Omanis have limited access to
political information through the media.[166] Access to news and information can be problematic: journalists
have to be content with news compiled by the official news agency on some issues.[165] Through a decree by
the Sultan, the government has now extended its control over the media to blogs and other websites.[165]
Omanis cannot hold a public meeting without the government's approval.[165] Omanis who want to set up a
non-governmental organisation of any kind need a licence.[165] To get a licence, they have to demonstrate that
the organisation is "for legitimate objectives" and not "inimical to the social order".[165] The Omani
government does not permit the formation of independent civil society associations.[162] Human Rights Watch
issued in 2016, that an Omani court sentenced three journalists to prison and ordered the permanent closure of
their newspaper, over an article that alleged corruption in the judiciary.[167]

The law prohibits criticism of the Sultan and government in any form or medium.[165] Oman's police do not
need search warrants to enter people's homes.[165] The law does not provide citizens with the right to change
their government.[165] The Sultan retains ultimate authority on all foreign and domestic issues.[165]
Government officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws.[165] Liberal laws and concerns for national
security have been used to suppress criticism of government figures and politically objectionable views.[165]
Publication of books is limited and the government restricts their importation and distribution, as with other
media products.[165]
Merely mentioning the existence of such restrictions can land Omanis in
trouble.[165] In 2009, a web publisher was fined and given a suspended jail
sentence for revealing that a supposedly live TV programme was actually pre-
recorded to eliminate any criticisms of the government.[165]

Faced with so many restrictions, Omanis have resorted to unconventional

methods for expressing their views.[165] Omanis sometimes use donkeys to
express their views.[165] Writing about Gulf rulers in 2001, Dale Eickelman
observed: "Only in Oman has the occasional donkey… been used as a mobile
billboard to express anti-regime sentiments. There is no way in which police
can maintain dignity in seizing and destroying a donkey on whose flank a
political message has been inscribed."[165] Some people have been arrested
for allegedly spreading fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic in
Oman.[168] Mohammed Alfazari, an
exiled Omani writer and
Omani citizens need government permission to marry foreigners.[163] The journalist now living in the
Ministry of Interior requires Omani citizens to obtain permission to marry UK, is an author whose
foreigners (except nationals of GCC countries); permission is not books are banned in Oman.
automatically granted.[163] Citizen marriage to a foreigner abroad without He is also the founder and
ministry approval may result in denial of entry for the foreign spouse at the EIC of Muwatin.[164]
border and preclude children from claiming citizenship rights.[163] It also may
result in a bar from government employment and a fine of 2,000 rials
($5,200).[163] According to HRW, women in Oman face discrimination.[164]

In August 2014, The Omani writer and human rights defender Mohammed Alfazari, the founder and editor-
in-chief of the e-magazine Mowatin "Citizen", disappeared after going to the police station in the Al-Qurum
district of Muscat.[169] For several months the Omani government denied his detention and refused to disclose
information about his whereabouts or condition.[169] On 17 July 2015, Alfazari left Oman seeking political
asylum in UK after a travel ban was issued against him without providing any reasons and after his official
documents including his national ID and passport were confiscated for more than 8 months.[170] There were
more reports of politically motivated disappearances in the country.[163] In 2012, armed security forces
arrested Sultan al-Saadi, a social media activist.[163] According to reports, authorities detained him at an
unknown location for one month for comments he posted online critical of the government.[163] Authorities
previously arrested al-Saadi in 2011 for participating in protests and again in 2012 for posting comments
online deemed insulting to Sultan Qaboos.[163] In May 2012 security forces detained Ismael al-Meqbali,
Habiba al-Hinai and Yaqoub al-Kharusi, human rights activists who were visiting striking oil workers.[163]
Authorities released al-Hinai and al-Kharusi shortly after their detention but did not inform al-Meqbali's
friends and family of his whereabouts for weeks.[163] Authorities pardoned al-Meqbali in March.[163] In
December 2013, a Yemeni national disappeared in Oman after he was arrested at a checkpoint in Dhofar
Governorate.[171] Omani authorities refuse to acknowledge his detention.[171] His whereabouts and condition
remain unknown.[171]

The National Human Rights Commission, established in 2008, is not independent from the regime.[12] It is
chaired by the former deputy inspector general of Police and Customs and its members are appointed by royal
decree.[12] In June 2012, one of its members requested that she be relieved of her duties because she disagreed
with a statement made by the Commission justifying the arrest of intellectuals and bloggers and the restriction
of freedom of expression in the name of respect for "the principles of religion and customs of the country".[12]

Since the beginning of the "Omani Spring" in January 2011, a number of serious violations of civil rights have
been reported, amounting to a critical deterioration of the human rights situation.[12] Prisons are inaccessible to
independent monitors.[12] Members of the independent Omani Group of Human Rights have been harassed,
arrested and sentenced to jail. There have been numerous testimonies of torture and other inhumane forms of
punishment perpetrated by security forces on protesters and detainees.[12] The detainees were all peacefully
exercising their right to freedom of expression and assembly.[12] Although authorities must obtain court orders
to hold suspects in pre-trial detention, they do not regularly do this.[12] The penal code was amended in
October 2011 to allow the arrest and detention of individuals without an arrest warrant from public
prosecutors.[12]

In January 2014, Omani intelligence agents arrested a Bahraini actor and handed him over to the Bahraini
authorities on the same day of his arrest.[172] The actor has been subjected to a forced disappearance. His
whereabouts and condition remain unknown.[172]

Migrant workers

The plight of domestic workers in Oman is a taboo subject.[173][174] In 2011, the Philippines government
determined that out of all the countries in the Middle East, only Oman and Israel qualify as safe for Filipino
migrants.[175] In 2012, it was reported that every 6 days, an Indian migrant in Oman commits
suicide.[176][177] There has been a campaign urging authorities to check the migrant suicide rate.[178] In the
2014 Global Slavery Index, Oman is ranked No. 45 due to 26,000 people in slavery.[179][180] The
descendants of servant tribes and slaves are victims of widespread discrimination.[162][181] Oman was one of
the last countries to abolish slavery, in 1970.[174] Migrant workers remained insufficiently protected against
exploitation.[182]

Administrative divisions

The Sultanate is administratively divided into eleven

governorates. Governorates are, in turn, divided into 60
wilayats.[183][184]

Ad Dakhiliyah
Ad Dhahirah
Al Batinah North
Al Batinah South
Al Buraimi
Al Wusta
Ash Sharqiyah North
Ash Sharqiyah South
Dhofar
Muscat
Musandam

Economy
Governorates of Oman
Oman's Basic Statute of the State expresses in Article 11 that
the "national economy is based on justice and the principles
of a free economy."[185] By regional standards, Oman has a relatively diversified economy, but remains
dependent on oil exports. In terms of monetary value, mineral fuels accounted for 82.2 percent of total product
exports in 2018.[186] Tourism is the fastest-growing industry in Oman. Other sources of income, agriculture
and industry, are small in comparison and account for less than 1% of the country's exports, but diversification
is seen as a priority by the government. Agriculture, often subsistence in its character, produces dates, limes,
grains and vegetables, but with less than 1% of the country under cultivation, Oman is likely to remain a net
importer of food.
Oman's socio-economic structure is described as being hyper-
centralized rentier welfare state.[187] The largest 10 percent of
corporations in Oman are the employers of almost 80 percent of
Omani nationals in the private sector. Half of the private sector jobs
are classified as elementary. One third of employed Omanis are in the
private sector, while the remaining majority are in the public
sector.[188] A hyper-centralized structure produces a monopoly-like
economy, which hinders having a healthy competitive environment
between businesses.[187] A proportional representation of
Oman exports, 2019
Since a slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to
diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas
of industry, namely tourism and infrastructure. Oman had a 2020
Vision to diversify the economy established in 1995, which targeted a
decrease in oil's share to less than 10 percent of GDP by 2020, but it
was rendered obsolete in 2011. Oman then established 2040
Vision.[187]

A free-trade agreement with

the United States took effect 1
January 2009, eliminated tariff Historical development of real GDP
barriers on all consumer and per capita in Oman
industrial products, and also
provided strong protections for
foreign businesses investing in Oman.[189] Tourism, another source of
Oman's revenue, is on the rise.[190] A popular event is The Khareef
Festival held in Salalah, Dhofar, which is 1,200  km from the capital
Muscat Securities Market city of Muscat, during the monsoon season (August) and is similar to
Muscat Festival. During this latter event the mountains surrounding
Salalah are popular with tourists as a result of the cool weather and
lush greenery, rarely found anywhere else in Oman.[191]

Oman's foreign workers send an estimated US$10  billion annually to their home states in Asia and Africa,
more than half of them earning a monthly wage of less than US$400.[192] The largest foreign community is
from the Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat and the Punjab,[193]
representing more than half of entire workforce in Oman. Salaries for overseas workers are known to be less
than for Omani nationals, though still from two to five times higher than for the equivalent job in India.[192]

In terms of foreign direct investment (FDI), total investments in 2017 exceeded US$24billion. The highest
share of FDI went to the oil and gas sector, which represented around US$13billion (54.2 percent), followed
by financial intermediation, which represented US$3.66billion (15.3 percent). FDI is dominated by the United
Kingdom with an estimated value of US$11.56billion (48 percent), followed by the UAE USD 2.6billion
(10.8 percent), followed by Kuwait USD 1.1billion (4.6 percent).[194]

Oman, in 2018 had a budget deficit of 32 percent of total revenue and a government debt to GDP of 47.5
percent.[195][196] Oman's military spending to GDP between 2016 and 2018 averaged 10 percent, while the
world's average during the same period was 2.2 percent.[197] Oman's health spending to GDP between 2015
and 2016 averaged 4.3 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 10 percent.[198] Oman's
research and development spending between 2016 and 2017 averaged 0.24 percent, which is significantly
lower than the world's average (2.2 percent) during the same period.[199] Oman's government spending on
education to GDP in 2016 was 6.11 percent, while the world's average was 4.8 percent (2015).[200]
 Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) in Oman by country
as of 2017.[194]

   United Kingdom (48%)

   United Arab Emirates (10.8%)
   Kuwait (4.6%)
   Other (36.6%)

Oman's Spending in 2016

Type Spending (% of GDP)[201][202][203][204]
military spending 13.73
education
6.11
spending
health spending 4.30
research &
development 0.26
spending

Oil and gas

Oman's proved reserves of petroleum total about 5.5  billion barrels,

25th largest in the world.[145] Oil is extracted and processed by
Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), with proven oil reserves
holding approximately steady, although oil production has been
declining.[205][206] The Ministry of Oil and Gas is responsible for all
Petrochemical tanks in Sohar
oil and gas infrastructure and projects in Oman.[207] Following the
1970s energy crisis, Oman doubled their oil output between 1979 and
1985.[208]

In 2018, oil and gas represented 71 percent of the government's revenues.[195] In 2016, oil and gas share of
the government's revenue represented 72 percent.[209] The government's reliance on oil and gas as a source of
income dropped by 1 percent from 2016 to 2018. Oil and gas sector represented 30.1 percent of the nominal
GDP in 2017.[210]

Between 2000 and 2007, production fell by more than 26%, from 972,000 to 714,800 barrels per day.[211]
Production has recovered to 816,000 barrels in 2009, and 930,000 barrels per day in 2012.[211] Oman's
natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5 billion cubic metres, ranking 28th in the world, and production in
2008 was about 24 billion cubic metres per year.[145]

In September 2019, Oman was confirmed to become the first Middle Eastern country to host the International
Gas Union Research Conference (IGRC 2020). This 16th iteration of the event will be held between 24 and
26 February 2020, in collaboration with Oman LNG, under the auspices of the Ministry of Oil and Gas.[212]

Tourism

Tourism in Oman has grown considerably recently, and it is expected

to be one of the largest industries in the country.[213] The World
Travel & Tourism Council stated that Oman is the fastest growing
tourism destination in the Middle East.[214]

Tourism contributed 2.8 percent to the Omani GDP in 2016. It grew

from RO 505 million (US$1.3  billion) in 2009 to RO 719  million
(US$1.8 billion) in 2017 (+42.3 percent growth). Citizens of the Gulf
Al-Bustan Palace Hotel
Cooperation Council (GCC), including Omanis who are residing
outside of Oman, represent the highest ratio of all tourists visiting
Oman, estimated to be 48 percent. The second highest number of visitors come from other Asian countries,
who account for 17 percent of the total number of visitors.[215] A challenge to tourism development in Oman
is the reliance on the government-owned firm, Omran, as a key actor to develop the tourism sector, which
potentially creates a market barrier-to-entry of private-sector actors and a crowding out effect. Another key
issue to the tourism sector is deepening the understanding of the ecosystem and biodiversity in Oman to
guarantee their protection and preservation.[216]

Oman has one of the most diverse environments in the Middle East with
various tourist attractions and is particularly well known for adventure and
cultural tourism.[190][217] Muscat, the capital of Oman, was named the second
best city to visit in the world in 2012 by the travel guide publisher Lonely
Planet.[218] Muscat also was chosen as the Capital of Arab Tourism of
2012.[219]

In November 2019, Oman made the rule of visa on arrival an exception and
introduced the concept of e-visa for tourists from all nationalities. Under the
new laws, visitors were required to apply for the visa in advance by visiting
Oman's online government portal.[220]

Industry, innovation and infrastructure

Wahiba Sands
In industry, innovation and infrastructure, Oman is still faced with "significant
challenges", as per United Nations Sustainable Development Goals index, as
of 2019. Oman has scored high on the rates of internet use, mobile broadband subscriptions, logistics
performance and on the average of top 3 university rankings. Meanwhile, Oman scored low on the rate of
scientific and technical publications and on research & development spending.[128] Oman's manufacturing
value added to GDP rate in 2016 was 8.4 percent, which is lower than the average in the Arab world (9.8
percent) and world average (15.6 percent). In terms of research & development expenditures to GDP, Oman's
share was on average 0.20 percent between 2011 and 2015, while the world's average during the same period
was 2.11 percent.[221] The majority of firms in Oman operate in the oil and gas, construction and trade
sectors.[216]
 Non-hydrocarbon GDP growth 2015 2016 2017 2018

Value (%)[222] 4.8 6.2 0.5 1.5

Oman is refurbishing and expanding the ports infrastructure in Muscat, Duqm, Sohar and Salalah to expand
tourism, local production and export shares. Oman is also expanding its downstream operations by
constructing a refinery and petrochemical plant in Duqm with a 230,000 barrels per day capacity projected for
completion by 2021.[194] The majority of industrial activity in Oman takes place in 8 industrial states and 4
free-zones. The industrial activity is mainly focused on mining-and-services, petrochemicals and construction
materials.[216] The largest employers in the private-sector are the construction, wholesale-and-retail and
manufacturing sectors, respectively. Construction accounts for nearly 48 percent of the total labour force,
followed by wholesale-and-retail, which accounts for around 15 percent of total employment and
manufacturing, which accounts for around 12 percent of employment in the private sector. The percentage of
Omanis employed in the construction and manufacturing sectors is nevertheless low, as of 2011 statistics.[188]

Oman, as per Global Innovation Index (2019) report, scores "below expectations" in innovation relative to
countries classified under high income.[223] Oman in 2019 ranked 80 out of 129 countries in innovation
index, which takes into consideration factors, such as, political environment, education, infrastructure and
business sophistication.[224] Innovation, technology-based growth and economic diversification are hindered
by an economic growth that relies on infrastructure expansion, which heavily depends on a high percentage of
'low-skilled' and 'low-wage' foreign labour. Another challenge to innovation is the dutch disease phenomenon,
which creates an oil and gas investment lock-in, while relying heavily on imported products and services in
other sectors. Such a locked-in system hinders local business growth and global competitiveness in other
sectors, and thus impedes economic diversification.[216] The inefficiences and bottlenecks in business
operations that are a result of heavy dependence on natural resources and 'addiction' to imports in Oman
suggest a 'factor-driven economy'.[188] A third hindrance to innovation in Oman is an economic structure that
is heavily dependent on few large firms, while granting few opportunities for SMEs to enter the market, which
impedes healthy market-share competition between firms.[216] The ratio of patent applications per million
people was 0.35 in 2016 and the MENA region average was 1.50, while the 'high-income' countries' average
was approximately 48.0 during the same year.[225] Oman was ranked 76th in the Global Innovation Index in
2021.[226]

Patent Grants 2014 2015 2016 2017

Total[227] 2 4 6 14

Agriculture and fishing

Oman's fishing industry contributed 0.78 percent to the GDP in 2016. Fish exports between 2000 and 2016
grew from US$144 million to US$172 million (+19.4 percent). The main importer of Omani fish in 2016 was
Vietnam, which imported almost US$80 million (46.5 percent) in value, and the second biggest importer was
the United Arab Emirates, which imported around US$26 million (15 percent). The other main importers are
Saudi Arabia, Brazil and China. Oman's consumption of fish is almost two times the world's average. The
ratio of exported fish to total fish captured in tons fluctuated between 49 and 61 percent between 2006 and
2016. Omani strengths in the fishing industry comes from having a good market system, a long coastline
(3,165  km) and wide water area. Oman, on the other hand, lacks sufficient infrastructure, research and
development, quality and safety monitoring, together with a limited contribution by the fishing industry to
GDP.[215]

Dates represent 80 percent of all fruit crop production. Further, date farms employ 50 percent of the total
agricultural area in the country. Oman's estimated production of dates in 2016 is 350,000 tons, making it the
9th largest producer of dates. The vast majority of date production (75 percent) comes from only 10 cultivars.
Oman's total export of dates was US$12.6 million in 2016, almost equivalent to Oman's total imported value
of dates, which was US$11.3 million in 2016. The main importer is India (around 60 percent of all imports).
Oman's date exports remained steady between 2006 and 2016. Oman is considered to have good
infrastructure for date production and support provision to cultivation and marketing, but lacks innovation in
farming and cultivation, industrial coordination in the supply chain and encounter high losses of unused
dates.[215]

Demographics
As of 2014, Oman's population is over 4 million, with 2.23  million Historical population
Omani nationals and 1.76  million expatriates.[228] The total fertility Year Pop. ±%
rate in 2011 was estimated at 3.70.[229] Oman has a very young 1950 456,000 —    
population, with 43 percent of its inhabitants under the age of 15. 1960 552,000 +21.1%
Nearly 50 percent of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah 1970 724,000 +31.2%
coastal plain northwest of the capital. Omani people are predominantly 1980 1,154,000 +59.4%
of Arab, Baluchi and African origins.[145] 1990 1,812,000 +57.0%
Omani society is largely tribal[181][230][231] and encompasses three 2000 2,268,000 +25.2%
2010 3,041,000 +34.1%
major identities:[181] that of the tribe, the Ibadi faith and maritime
2019 4,975,000 +63.6%
trade.[181] The first two identities are closely tied to tradition and are
2020 5,106,622 +2.6%
especially prevalent in the interior of the country, owing to lengthy [4][5]
periods of isolation.[181] The third identity pertains mostly to Muscat source:
and the coastal areas of Oman, and is reflected by business, trade,[181]
and the diverse origins of many Omanis, who trace their roots to Baloch, Al-Lawatia, Persia and historical
Omani Zanzibar.[232] Gwadar, a region of Balochistan, was a Colony of Oman for more than a century and in
the 1960s, Pakistan took over the land. Many people in this area are Omani and Pakistani.[233]

Religion

Even though the Oman government does not keep statistics on religious
affiliation, statistics from the US's Central Intelligence Agency state that
adherents of Islam are in the majority at 85.9%, with Christians at 6.5%,
Hindus at 5.5%, Buddhists at 0.8%, Jews less than 0.1%. Other religious
affiliations have a proportion of 1% and the unaffiliated only 0.2%.

Most Omanis are Muslims, most of whom follow the Ibadi[235] school of
Islam, followed by the Twelver school of Shia Islam, and the Shafi`i
school of Sunni Islam.
Virtually all non-Muslims in Oman are foreign
workers. Non-Muslim religious communities include various groups of
Jains, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Jews, Hindus and Christians.
Christian communities are centred in the major urban areas of Muscat, Religion in Oman
Sohar and Salalah. These include Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and various (2010)[234]
Protestant congregations, organising along linguistic and ethnic lines.
More than 50 different Christian groups, fellowships and assemblies are    Islam (99%)
active in the Muscat metropolitan area, formed by migrant workers from    Christianity (0.2%)
Southeast Asia.    Hinduism (0.3%)
   others (0.5%)
There are also communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians.
   Buddhism (0%)
There are also small Sikh[236] and Jewish[237] communities.
   Unaffiliated (0%)
   Judaism (0%)
Languages
Arabic is the official language of Oman. It belongs to the Semitic
branch of the Afroasiatic family.[185] There are several dialects of
Arabic spoken, all part of the Peninsular Arabic family: Dhofari
Arabic (also known as Dhofari, Zofari) is spoken in Salalah and
the surrounding coastal regions (the Dhofar Governorate);[238]
Gulf Arabic is spoken in parts bordering the UAE; whereas
Omani Arabic, distinct from the Gulf Arabic of eastern Arabia
and Bahrain, is spoken in Central Oman, although with recent oil
wealth and mobility has spread over other parts of the Sultanate.
Arabic and English road sign in Oman
According to the CIA, besides Arabic, English, Baluchi
(Southern Baluchi), Urdu, Bengali (spoken by Indians and
Bangladeshis), Hindi, Malayalalam, Tulu and various other Indian languages are the main languages spoken
in Oman.[145] English is widely spoken in the business community and is taught at school from an early age.
Almost all signs and writings appear in both Arabic and English at tourist sites.[190] Baluchi is the mother
tongue of the Baloch people from Balochistan in western Pakistan, eastern Iran and southern Afghanistan. It is
also used by some descendants of Sindhi sailors.[239] Bengali is widely spoken due to a large Bangladeshi
expatriate population. A significant number of residents also speak Urdu, due to the influx of Pakistani
migrants during the late 1980s and 1990s. Additionally, Swahili is widely spoken in the country due to the
historical relations between Oman and Zanzibar.[11]

Prior to Islam, Central Oman lay outside of the core area of spoken Arabic. Possibly Old South Arabian
speakers dwelled from the Al Batinah Region to Zafar, Yemen.[240] Rare Musnad inscriptions have come to
light in central Oman and in the Emirate of Sharjah, but the script says nothing about the language which it
conveys.[241] A bilingual text from the 3rd century BCE is written in Aramaic and in musnad Hasiatic, which
mentions a 'king of Oman' (mālk mn ʿmn).[242] Today the Mehri language is limited in its distribution to the
area around Salalah, in Zafar and westward into the Yemen. But until the 18th or 19th century it was spoken
further north, perhaps into Central Oman.[243] Baluchi (Southern Baluchi) is widely spoken in Oman.[244]
Endangered indigenous languages in Oman include Kumzari, Bathari, Harsusi, Hobyot, Jibbali and
Mehri.[245] Omani Sign Language is the language of the deaf community. Oman was also the first Arab
country in the Persian Gulf to have German taught as a second language.[246] The Bedouin Arabs, who
reached eastern and southeastern Arabia in migrational waves—the latest in the 18th century, brought their
language and rule including the ruling families of Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.[247]

Education
The Human Capital
Oman scored high as of 2019 on the percentage of students who complete lower Index[248]
secondary school and on the literacy rate between the age of 15 and 24, 99.7
Rank Economy score
percent and 98.7 percent, respectively. However, Oman's net primary school
enrollment rate in 2019, which is 94.1 percent, is rated as "challenges remain" by 56 Albania 0.62
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG) standard. Oman's 55 Malaysia 0.62
overall evaluation in quality of education, according to UNSDG, is 94.8
54 Oman 0.62
("challenges remain") as of 2019.[128]
53 Turkey 0.63
Oman's higher education produces a surplus in humanities and liberal arts, while 52 Mauritius 0.63
it produces an insufficient number in technical and scientific fields and required
skill-sets to meet the market demand.[216] Further, sufficient human capital creates a business environment that
can compete with, partner or attract foreign firms. Accreditation standards and mechanisms with a quality
control that focuses on input assessments, rather than output, are areas of improvement in Oman, according to
the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2014 report.[216] The transformation Index BTI
2018 report on Oman recommends that the education curriculum should focus more on the "promotion of
personal initiative and critical perspective".[187] Oman was ranked 84th in the Global Innovation Index in
2020, down from 80th in 2019.[249][250][251][252]

The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 86.9%.[253] Before 1970, only three formal schools existed in the entire
country, with fewer than 1,000 students. Since Sultan Qaboos' ascension to power in 1970, the government
has given high priority to education to develop a domestic work force, which the government considers a vital
factor in the country's economic and social progress. Today, there are over 1,000 state schools and about
650,000 students.

Oman's first university, Sultan Qaboos University, opened in 1986. The University of Nizwa is one of the
fastest growing universities in Oman. Other post-secondary institutions in Oman include the Higher College of
Technology and its six branches, six colleges of applied sciences (including a teachers' training college), a
college of banking and financial studies, an institute of Sharia sciences, and several nursing institutes. Some
200 scholarships are awarded each year for study abroad.

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are
Sultan Qaboos University (1678th worldwide), the Dhofar University (6011th) and the University of Nizwa
(6093rd).[254]

Health

Since 2003, Oman's undernourished share of the population has dropped from 11.7 percent to 5.4 percent in
2016, but the rate remains high (double) the level of high-income economies (2.7 percent) in 2016.[255] The
UNSDG targets zero hunger by 2030.[256] Oman's coverage of essential health services in 2015 was 77
percent, which is relatively higher than the world's average of approximately 54 percent during the same year,
but lower than high-income economies' level (83 percent) in 2015.[257]

Since 1995, the percentage of Omani children who receive key vaccines has consistently been very high
(above 99 percent). As for road incident death rates, Oman's rate has been decreasing since 1990, from 98.9
per 100,000 individuals to 47.1 per 100,000 in 2017, however, the rate remains significantly above average,
which was 15.8 per 100,000 in 2017.[258] Oman's health spending to GDP between 2015 and 2016 averaged
4.3 percent, while the world's average during the same period averaged 10 percent.[198]

As for mortality due to air pollution (household and ambient air pollution), Oman's rate was 53.9 per 100,000
population as of 2016.[259]
In 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) ranked Oman as the least polluted
country in the Arab world, with a score of 37.7 in the pollution index. The country ranked 112th in Asia
among the list of highest polluted countries.[260]

Life expectancy at birth in Oman was estimated to be 76.1 years in 2010.[229] As of 2010, there were an
estimated 2.1 physicians and 2.1 hospital beds per 1,000 people.[229] In 1993, 89% of the population had
access to health care services. In 2000, 99% of the population had access to health care services.[261] During
the last three decades, the Oman health care system has demonstrated and reported great achievements in
health care services and preventive and curative medicine. Oman has been making strides in health research
too recently. Comprehensive research on the prevalence of skin diseases was performed in North Batinah
governorate.[262] In 2000, Oman's health system was ranked number 8 by the World Health
Organization.[263]

Largest cities
  Largest cities or towns in Oman  
"Oman – 10 Largest Cities" (http://www.geonames.org/OM/largest-cities-in-om
 Rank Name
an.html). Governorate
geonames.org. / Region
Retrieved Pop.
20 August 2021.
1 Muscat Muscat 797,000
2 Seeb Muscat 237,816

3 Salalah Dhofar 163,140

4 Bawshar Muscat 159,487

5 Sohar Al Batinah 108,274
Muscat Salalah
6 Suwayq Al Batinah 107,143
7 Ibri Az Zahirah 101,640

8 Saham Al Batinah 89,327

9 Barka Al Batinah 81,647
Seeb Bawshar
10 Rustaq Al Batinah 79,383

Culture
Outwardly, Oman shares many of the cultural characteristics of its
Arab neighbours, particularly those in the Gulf Cooperation
Council.[265] Despite these similarities, important factors make Oman
unique in the Middle East.[265] These result as much from geography
and history as from culture and economics.[265] The relatively recent
and artificial nature of the state in Oman makes it difficult to describe a
national culture;[265] however, sufficient cultural heterogeneity exists
within its national boundaries to make Oman distinct from other Arab
States of the Persian Gulf.[265] Oman's cultural diversity is greater The traditional Dhow, an enduring
than that of its Arab neighbours, given its historical expansion to the symbol of Oman[264]
Swahili Coast and the Indian Ocean.[265]

Oman has a long tradition of shipbuilding, as maritime travel played a major role in the Omanis' ability to stay
in contact with the civilisations of the ancient world. Sur was one of the most famous shipbuilding cities of the
Indian Ocean. The Al Ghanja ship takes one whole year to build. Other types of Omani ship include As
Sunbouq and Al Badan.[266]

In March 2016 archaeologists working off Al Hallaniyah Island identified a shipwreck believed to be that of
the Esmeralda from Vasco da Gama's 1502–1503 fleet. The wreck was initially discovered in 1998. Later
underwater excavations took place between 2013 and 2015 through a partnership between the Oman Ministry
of Heritage and Culture and Blue Water Recoveries Ltd., a shipwreck recovery company. The vessel was
identified through such artifacts as a "Portuguese coin minted for trade with India (one of only two coins of
this type known to exist) and stone cannonballs engraved with what appear to be the initials of Vincente
Sodré, da Gama's maternal uncle and the commander of the Esmeralda."[267]

Dress

The male national dress in Oman consists of the dishdasha, a simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long
sleeves.[170] Most frequently white in colour, the dishdasha may also appear in a variety of other colours. Its
main adornment, a tassel (furakha) sewn into the neckline, can be impregnated with perfume.[268] Underneath
the dishdasha, men wear a plain, wide strip of cloth wrapped around the body from the waist down. The most
noted regional differences in dishdasha designs are the style with which they are embroidered, which varies
according to age group.[170] On formal occasions a black or beige cloak called a bisht may cover the
dishdasha. The embroidery edging the cloak is often in silver or gold thread and it is intricate in detail.[268]

Omani men wear two types of headdress:

 the ghutra, also called "Musar" a square piece of woven wool or
cotton fabric of a single colour, decorated with various
embroidered patterns.
the kummah, a cap that is the head dress worn during leisure
hours.[170]

Some men carry the assa, a stick, which can have practical uses or is simply
used as an accessory during formal events. Omani men, on the whole, wear
sandals on their feet.[268]

The khanjar (dagger) forms part of the national dress and men wear the
khanjar on all formal public occasions and festivals.[170] It is traditionally A khanjar, the traditional
worn at the waist. Sheaths may vary from simple covers to ornate silver or dagger of Oman (c. 1924)
gold-decorated pieces.[268] It is a symbol of a man's origin, his manhood and
courage. A depiction of a khanjar appears on the national flag.[170]

Omani women wear eye-catching national costumes, with distinctive regional variations. All costumes
incorporate vivid colours and vibrant embroidery and decorations. In the past, the choice of colours reflected a
tribe's tradition. The Omani women's traditional costume comprises several garments: the kandoorah, which is
a long tunic whose sleeves or radoon are adorned with hand-stitched embroidery of various designs. The
dishdasha is worn over a pair of loose fitting trousers, tight at the ankles, known as a sirwal. Women also
wear a head shawl most commonly referred to as the lihaf.[269]

As of 2014 women reserve wearing their traditional dress for special occasions, and instead wear a loose black
cloak called an abaya over their personal choice of clothing, whilst in some regions, particularly amongst the
Bedouin, the burqa is still worn.[269] Women wear hijab, and though some women cover their faces and
hands, most do not. The Sultan has forbidden the covering of faces in public office.[264]

Music and cinema

Music of Oman is extremely diverse due to Oman's imperial legacy. There are over 130 different forms of
traditional Omani songs and dances. The Oman Centre for Traditional Music was established in 1984 to
preserve them.[270] In 1985, Sultan Qaboos founded the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra. Instead of
engaging foreign musicians, he decided to establish an orchestra made up of Omanis.[271] On 1 July 1987 at
the Al Bustan Palace Hotel's Oman Auditorium the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra gave its inaugural
concert.[272]

The cinema of Oman is very small, there being only one Omani film
Al-Boom (2006) as of 2007. Oman Arab Cinema Company LLC is
the single largest motion picture exhibitor chain in Oman. It belongs to
the Jawad Sultan Group of Companies, which has a history spanning
more than 40 years in the Sultanate of Oman.[273] In popular music, a
seven-minute music video about Oman went viral, achieving 500,000
views on YouTube within 10 days of being released on YouTube in
November 2015. The a cappella production features three of the
region's most popular talents: Kahliji musician Al Wasmi, Omani poet
Cinema in Sur Mazin Al-Haddabi and actress Buthaina Al Raisi.[274]

Media
The government has continuously held a monopoly on television in Oman. Oman TV is the only state-owned
national television channel broadcaster in Oman. It began broadcasting for the first time from Muscat on 17
November 1974 and separately from Salalah on 25 November 1975. On 1 June 1979, the two stations at
Muscat and Salalah linked by satellite to form a unified broadcasting service. Oman TV broadcasts four HD
channels, including Oman TV General, Oman TV Sport, Oman TV Live and Oman TV Cultural.[275]

Although private ownership of radio and television stations is permitted, Oman has only one privately owned
television channel.[276] Majan TV is the first private TV channel in Oman. It began broadcasting in January
2009. However, Majan TV's official channel website was last updated in early 2010.[277] Moreover, the
public has access to foreign broadcasts since the use of satellite receivers is allowed.[276][278]

Oman Radio is the first and only state-owned radio channel.[276] It began broadcasting on the 30th, July
1970.[279] It operates both Arabic and English networks. Other private channels include Hala FM, Hi FM, Al-
Wisal, Virgin Radio Oman FM and Merge. In early 2018, Muscat Media Group (MMG), trend-setting media
group founded by late Essa bin Mohammed Al Zedjali, launched a new private radio stations in hopes of
catering educative and entertaining programmes to the youth of the Sultanate.[280][281][282]

Oman has nine main newspapers, five in Arabic and four in English.[283] Instead of relying on sales or state
subsidies, private newspapers depend on advertising revenues to sustain themselves.[284]

The media landscape in Oman has been continuously described as restrictive, censored, and subdued.[285]
The Ministry of Information censors politically, culturally, or sexually offensive material in domestic or foreign
media. The press freedom group Reporters Without Borders ranked the country 127th out of 180 countries on
its 2018 World Press Freedom Index. In 2016, the government drew international criticism for suspending the
newspaper Azamn and arresting three journalists after a report on corruption in the country's judiciary. Azamn
was not allowed to reopen in 2017 although an appeal court ruled in late 2016 that the paper can resume
operating.[284]

Art

Traditional art in Oman stems from its long heritage of material culture. Art movements in the 20th century
reveal that the art scene in Oman began with early practices that included a range of tribal handicrafts and self-
portraiture in painting since the 1960s.[286] However, since the inclusion of several Omani artists in
international collections, art exhibitions, and events, such Alia Al Farsi, the first Omani artist to show at the
last Venice Biennale and Radhika Khimji, the first Omani artist to exhibit at both the Marrakesh and Haiti
Ghetto biennale, Oman's position as a newcomer to the contemporary art scene in recent years has been more
important for Oman's international exposure.[287]

Bait Muzna Gallery is the first art gallery in Oman.

Established in 2000 by Sayyida Susan Al Said, Bait
Muzna has served as a platform for emerging Omani
artists to showcase their talent and place themselves
on the wider art scene. In 2016, Bait Muzna opened a
second space in Salalah to branch out and support art
film and the digital art scene. The gallery has been
primarily active as an art consultancy.[287][289]
Ancient irrigation system and water channels.[288] Aflaj
The Sultanate's flagship cultural institution, the Gallery, The National Museum of Oman.
National Museum of Oman, opened on 30 July 2016
with 14 permanent galleries. It showcases national
heritage from the earliest human settlement in Oman two million years ago through to the present day. The
museum takes a further step by presenting information on the material in Arabic Braille script for the visually
impaired, the first museum to do this in the Gulf region.[287]
The Omani Society for Fine Arts, established in 1993, offers educational programmes, workshops and artist
grants for practitioners across varied disciplines. In 2016, the organisation opened its first exhibition on
graphic design. It also hosted the "Paint for Peace" competition with 46 artists in honour of the country's 46th
National Day, where Mazin al-Mamari won the top prize. The organisation has additional branches in Sohar,
Buraimi and Salalah.[287]

Bait Al- Zubair Museum is a private, family-funded museum that opened its doors to the public in 1998. In
1999, the museum received Sultan Qaboos’ Award for Architectural Excellence. Bait Al Zubair displays the
family's collection of Omani artifacts that spans a number of centuries and reflect inherited skills that define
Oman's society in the past and present. Located within Bait Al-Zubair, Gallery Sarah, which opened in
October 2013, offers an array of paintings and photographs by established local and international artists. The
gallery also occasionally holds lectures and workshops.[290]

Food

Omani cuisine is diverse and has been influenced by many cultures.

Omanis usually eat their main daily meal at midday, while the evening
meal is lighter. During Ramadan, dinner is served after the Taraweeh
prayers, sometimes as late as 11  pm. However, these dinner timings
differ according to each family; for instance, some families would
choose to eat right after maghrib prayers and have dessert after
taraweeh.
Traditional Omani food
Arsia, a festival meal served during celebrations, consists of mashed
rice and meat (sometimes chicken). Another popular festival meal,
shuwa, consists of meat cooked very slowly (sometimes for up to 2
days) in an underground clay oven. The meat becomes extremely tender and it is infused with spices and
herbs before cooking to give it a very distinct taste. Fish is often used in main dishes too, and the kingfish is a
popular ingredient. Mashuai is a meal consisting of a whole spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice.

Rukhal bread is a thin, round bread originally baked over a fire made from palm leaves. It is eaten at any meal,
typically served with Omani honey for breakfast or crumbled over curry for dinner. Chicken, fish, and lamb or
mutton are regularly used in dishes. The Omani halwa is a very popular sweet, basically consisting of cooked
raw sugar with nuts. There are many different flavors, the most popular ones being black halwa (original) and
saffron halwa. Halwa is considered as a symbol of Omani hospitality, and is traditionally served with coffee.
As is the case with most Arab states of the Persian Gulf, alcohol is only available over-the-counter to non-
Muslims. Muslims can still purchase alcoholic drinks. Alcohol is served in many hotels and a few restaurants.

Sports

In October 2004, the Omani government set up a Ministry of Sports

Affairs to replace the General Organisation for Youth, Sports and
Cultural Affairs. The 19th Arabian Gulf Cup took place in Muscat,
from 4 to 17 January 2009 and was won by the Omani national
football team. The 23rd Arabian Gulf Cup that took place in Kuwait,
from 22 December 2017 until 5 January 2018 with Oman winning
their second title, defeating the United Arab Emirates in the final on
penalties following a goalless draw.
Oman hosted and won the 19th
The first "El Clasico" to be played outside of Spain, was played on 14
Arabian Gulf Cup.
March 2014, at the Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex.[291] Real Madrid
F.C. starting eleven consisted of: Contreras, Míchel Salgado, Pavón,
Belenguer, Fernando Sanz, Velasco, Fernando Hierro, De la Red, Amavisca, Sabido and Alfonso. Emilio
Álvarez, García Cortés, Torres Mestre, Morán, Álex Pérez, and Iván Pérez also played. FC Barcelona played
with: Felip, Coco, Roberto, Nadal, Goicochea, Milla, Víctor Muñoz, Gaizka Mendieta, Giuly, Ezquerro and
Luis García. Moner, Ramos, Albert Tomás, Mulero, Arpón, Lozano and Christiansen also played. The match
ended with a score of 2 to 1 in favor of FC Barcelona.

Oman's traditional sports are dhow racing, horse racing, camel racing, bull fighting and falconry.[292]
Association football, basketball, waterskiing and sandboarding[293] are among the sports that have emerged
quickly and gained popularity among the younger generation.[292]

Ali Al-Habsi is an Omani professional association football player. As of 2020, he plays in the Football League
Championship as a goalkeeper for West Brom.[294] The International Olympic Committee awarded the former
GOYSCA its prestigious prize for Sporting excellence in recognition of its contributions to youth and sports
and its efforts to promote the Olympic spirit and goals.

The Oman Olympic Committee played a major part in organising the

highly successful 2003 Olympic Days, which were of great benefit to
the sports associations, clubs, and young participants. The football
association took part, along with the handball, basketball, rugby
union, field hockey, volleyball, athletics, swimming and tennis
associations. In 2010 Muscat hosted the 2010 Asian Beach Games.

Oman also hosts tennis tournaments in different age divisions each

year. The Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex stadium contains a 50-meter
2010 FIFA World Cup Qualifiers
swimming pool which is used for international tournaments from Round 3 match between Oman and
different schools in different countries. The Tour of Oman, a
Japan at the Royal Oman Police
professional cycling 6-day stage race, takes place in February. Oman Stadium on 7 June 2008 in Muscat,
hosted the Asian 2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup qualifiers, Oman
where 11 teams competed for three spots at the FIFA World Cup.
Oman hosted the Men's and Women's 2012 Beach Handball World
Championships at the Millennium Resort in Mussanah, from 8 to 13 July.[295] Oman has competed repeatedly
for a position in the FIFA World Cup, but have yet qualified to compete in the tournament.

Oman, along with Fujairah in the UAE, are the only regions in the Middle East that have a variant of
bullfighting, known as 'bull-butting', organised within their territories.[296] Al-Batena area in Oman is
specifically prominent for such events. It involves two bulls of the Brahman breed pitted against one another
and as the name implies, they engage in a forceful barrage of headbutts. The first one to collapse or concede
its ground is declared the loser. Most bull-butting matches are short affairs and last for less than 5
minutes.[296][297] The origins of bull-butting in Oman remain unknown, but many locals believe it was
brought to Oman by the Moors of Spanish origin. Yet others say it has a direct connection with Portugal,
which colonised the Omani coastline for nearly two centuries.[298]

In cricket, Oman qualified for the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 by securing sixth place in 2015 ICC World
Twenty20 Qualifier. They have also been granted T20I status as they were among the top six teams in the
qualifiers. On 30 October 2019, they qualified for 2021 T20 Cricket World Cup. On 25 June 2021, it was
confirmed that Oman will co-host the 2021 edition of the ICC Men's T20 World Cup alongside the United
Arab Emirates.[299] Oman was also chosen as the venue to decide on the grouping of teams for the 2021 ICC
Men's T20 World Cup.[300]

Oman featured a men's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 AVC Beach
Volleyball Continental Cup.[301]

See also
 Omani people
Outline of Oman
Index of Oman-related articles

Notes
1. In 1783, when Seyyid Said succeeded to the "masnad" of Muscat and Oman (an independent
state founded in 1749), he fell out with his brother Imam Sultan, who fled to safety in Makran
and entered into communication with Nasir Khan of Kalat. Said was granted the Kalat share of
the revenues of Gwadar and lived there until 1797 when he came to rule over Muscat and
Oman.
2. Gwadar remained an Omani possession as part of the Sultanate until September 1958

Muscat, Oman

A mosque in Mutrah Fort, Muscat, Al Ameen Mosque,

Muscat, Oman Oman Muscat, Oman

Sultan Qaboos Sultan's Ship, Al Amarat Hills, Al Azaiba Beach,

Grand Mosque, Mutrah, Muscat, Muscat, Oman Muscat, Oman
Muscat, Oman Oman
Library of Sultan
Qaboos Grand
Mosque, Muscat,
Oman

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301. "Continental Cup Finals start in Africa" (https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-fin
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External links
Ministry of Tourism (http://www.omantourism.gov.om/) (official government website).
Ministry of Information (https://web.archive.org/web/20071010124752/http://www.omanet.om/)
(official government website).
"Oman" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/428217/Oman) – Encyclopædia
Britannica
Oman (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/). The World Factbook. Central
Intelligence Agency.
Oman (http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=oman) web
resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Oman (https://curlie.org/Regional/Middle_East/Oman) at Curlie
Oman (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654150) from the BBC News.
Wikimedia Atlas of Oman

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