1.

MECHANICS
Joy in looking and comprehending is natures most beautiful gift, said Albert Einstein. In the world around us, we see a falling apple, an orbiting satellite, a speeding race car, an acrobat balancing on a bar. This is what Mechanics is all about. Mechanics is that branch of physics which deals with the conditions of rest or motion of bodies around us. Statics is that branch of mechanics which deals with the science of forces balancing one another. Dynamics is that branch of mechanics which deals with the motion of bodies under the action of forces. The falling apple reminds us of Sir Isaac Newton. He was Einsteins predecessor in understanding gravity. His theories of gravity help us to explain the fall of an apple or the path of a satellite. Albert Einstien represents the human spirit and creative drive in all of us. Now it is your turn to experience the excitement and challenge of Physics. In this chapter, we shall study about the fundamental concepts of centre of gravity, projectile motion and circular motion. 1.1 Centre of gravity All objects are made up of tiny particles. Each particle has a mass of negligible volume. These particles behave as if their mass is concentrated at some point. The point at which their mass appears to act or is concentrated is called its centre of mass. When the shape of the object is regular, then the centre of mass is its geometric centre. When an object falls towards the earth, every particle of the object is pulled by the force of gravity and the object behaves as if all that force is concentrated at one point in the object. This point is called the centre of gravity The centre of gravity of an object is a fixed point through which the entire weight of the object acts, irrespective of the position of the object.
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TABLE 1.1 Centre of gravity of regular objects

No. Name of the object Figure denoting the position of the centre of gravity Position of the centre of gravity of the object

1. 2.

Uniform rod. Rectangle.

At the midpoint of the rod. At the point of intersection of the diagonals. At its geometric centre. At the point of intersection of the medians. This point is called the centroid. At the midpoint of its axis, h/2 from the base where h is the height of the cylinder. At a point on the axis, h/4 from the base where h is the height of the cone.

3.

Circular ring, disc, solid sphere, hollow sphere. Triangle.

4.

5.

Right cylinder.

CG

6.

Solid cone.
CG

1.2 Illustrations for the stability of bodies (a) A man carrying a bucket of water in his right hand, leans towards his left. He does it to keep the vertical line through the centre of gravity fall between his legs. (b) The bottom of a ship is made heavy, to keep the centre of gravity as low as possible. The cargo is kept at the base of the ship and this makes the ship stable.
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CG

(c) In the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy, the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls within the base of the tower. Thus the tower does not fall and remains stable. (Fig. 1.1). (d) A student carrying a school bag and climbing up a flight of stairs always leans forward to maintain his stability. (e) Tanjore - dolls and Hit-me dolls have a broad and heavy base to enable them to come back to a vertical position when they are knocked down. (Fig. 1.2). Conditions for the stability of bodies From the above illustrations it is understood that the following conditions are necessary for an object to be stable.
Fig. 1.1 The leaning tower of Pisa

Fig. 1.2 Tanjore doll.

(i) The base of the body should be broad. (ii) The centre of gravity should be as low as possible. (iii) The vertical line through the centre of gravity should fall within the base. 1.3 Free fall Galileo stated In the absence of air resistance, all bodies fall at the same acceleration, which is approximately 9.8 m s2 . The value of acceleration due to gravity at different locations are given below. TABLE 1.2
Location Acceleration due to gravity (m s-2)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

At the equator At the poles At Chennai At the surface of the earth (average) At the centre of the earth
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9.780 9.832 9.782 9.8 zero

An object is said to have a free fall when it falls vertically under the influence of gravity alone, free from air resistance. Examples (i) Fruits like ripe mangoes falling from a tree. (ii) A skydiver with an unopened parachute. (iii) Bungee jumper. Imagine a body falling from a certain height. In each succeeding second of its fall, it is seen that the velocity of the body increases by 9.8 m s1. Initially the velocity of the body is zero . As it descends down, the velocity increases and reaches a maximum value on reaching the ground.

Galileo Galilei

1.3.1 Newtons feather and coin experiment A dry leaf, a feather or a sheet of paper may flutter to the ground, while, a stone or a coin falls rapidly. The fact that air resistance is responsible for these different accelerations is explained with the Feather and coin experiment performed by Sir Isaac Newton. Newton took a long glass tube as shown in Fig. 1.3 and dropped a feather and a coin simultaneously into it. He noticed that the coin travelled much faster than the feather because of the air inside the tube.
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Fig. 1.3 Feather and coin experiment

Then the air from the glass tube was removed with the help of a vacuum pump. When the experiment was repeated, the coin and the feather reached the other end of the tube at the same time. From this experiment he proved that in the absence of air, all objects fall with the same acceleration. Thus Galileos statement was proved by Newton. The velocity of a freely falling object (under the influence of the force of gravity) increases at a constant rate. Hence, it is said to be accelerated. This acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity and it is denoted as g. The average value of g has been found to be 9.8 m s2. 1.3.2 Equations of motion for a freely falling object When an object is dropped from a certain height initial velocity u = 0 acceleration due to gravity a = + g displacement s = h

Sir Isaac Newton

= u + at becomes v = gt 1 1 s = ut + at2 becomes h = gt2 2 2 v2 = u2 + 2 as becomes v2 = 2gh

When an object is thrown vertically up, initial velocity = u acceleration due to gravity a = g u = gt h = ut 1 gt2 2 u2 = 2 g h

displacement s = h

final velocity v = 0 at the maximum height

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Problems 1. A cat steps off a ledge and falls to the ground in 2 seconds (i) what is its velocity when it reaches the ground? (ii) What is its average velocity?

time taken t = 2 s acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s2 (i) velocity v = gt (ii) average velocity = 9.8 2 = 19.6 m s1 = = initial velocity + final velocity 2 0 + 19.6 = 9.8 m s1 2

2. An object released from a certain height, hits the ground with a velocity of 49 m s1. What is the height from which it is released?

initial velocity u = 0 final velocity v = 49 m s1 acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s2 v2 = 2gh 49 x 49 = 2 9.8 h h = 49 49 2 9.8 h = 122.5 m

3. A ball is thrown up with a velocity of 19.6 m s1. Find the maximum height reached and the time taken to reach it.

initial velocity u = final velocity v = acceleration due to gravity g = a = u2 = we know that h = h = we know that u = t 1.4 Projectile motion =

19.6 m s1 0 9.8 m s2 g 2 gh u2 = 19.6 19.6 = 19.6 m 2g 2 9.8 19.6 m gt u = 19.6 = 2 s g 9.8

An object thrown with an initial velocity horizontally or at an angle less than 900 under the action of the earths gravity is called projectile. A few examples of projectile are (i) a bullet fired from a gun (ii) a stone thrown horizontally from the top of a building (iii) a bomb dropped from an aeroplane and (iv) a shotput or a javelin thrown by a sportsman. What is the path taken by a coin when it is pushed horizontally off the edge of a table? (as shown in Fig 1.4). It takes a curved path undergoing both horizontal and vertical motion. Consider a body A which is allowed to fall freely and another body B which is projected horizontally with a velocity u from the same height and at the same
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Fig. 1.4 coin falling from a table

time as shown in Fig. 1.5. The body A which is falling freely and the body B which is projected horizontally from the same height and at the same time will reach the ground simultaneously, at different points. The two bodies at any instant will be at the same vertical height above the ground.
Fig. 1.5 Free fall and projectile motion

Range of a projectile is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where the projectile hits the ground. 1.4.1 Path of a projectile Consider an object thrown with a horizontal velocity u from a point P which is at a certain height from the ground as shown in Fig. 1.6. As it undergoes vertical and horizontal motion, it has a vertical and horizontal velocity. The vertical velocity increases due to the force of Fig. 1.6 Path of a projectile gravity. But the horizontal velocity remains constant throughout its motion. Let us assume that the object moves from P to O in a time interval t. Horizontal displacement of the particle Since the initial vertical velocity is zero, the vertical displacement of the particle from equation (1) substituting this in equation (2) t = y = y = y = x = ut (1) y = 2 gt2 (2)
x u 1 gt2 2 1 g x 2 u g 2 2u2 . x 1

( )

x2 1 = 2 g . u2

y = k . x2

where k = g 2
2u

(since u and g are constants k is also a constant) This is the equation of a parabola. Thus, the path of a projectile is a parabola.
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Problem 1. A body is thrown horizontally from the top of a building. It falls on the ground after 1.5 s at a distance of 5 m from the building. Calculate (a) the height of the building (b) the horizontal velocity? time taken t range x acceleration due to gravity g h = 1.5 s = 5m = 9.8 m s2 = 1 gt2

h =

2 1 9.8 1.5 1.5 2

height of the building h = 11.025 m range = horizontal velocity time taken i.e. x = u t x horizontal velocity u = = 5 = 3.33 m s1 t 1.5 2. An aeroplane, flying horizontally at a height of 1960 m with a velocity of 125 m s1 aims to hit an enemy target. Find at what distance from the tank, the pilot will release the bomb in order to hit the tank. acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m s2 height from the ground, h = 1960 m Since the initial vertical velocity is zero, h = 1960 = t2 =
1 gt2 2 1 9.8 t2 2 1960 = 400 4.9

t = 20 s. horizontal distance = horizontal velocity time taken = 125 20 = 2500 m. The bomb should be released at a distance of 2500 m from the tank.
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1.5 Types of motion There are different types of motion. They are (i) linear or translatory motion. (ii) vibratory motion (iii) circular motion (iv) random motion and (v) oscillatory motion A child sliding down a sliding board, an aeroplane on the runway, a speeding train, a man walking down a straight road are examples of objects which move in a straight line. This is called linear motion. Circular motion (i) Rotatory motion The rotating blades of a fan, a potters wheel, the spinning earth, a merry-go-round and a giant wheel move about their axes. Such a motion is called rotatory motion. (ii) Revolving motion The motion of the moon round the earth, the motion of an electron around the nucleus are examples of revolving motion. The movement of a particle in a circular path is called circular motion. 1.5.1 Angular displacement and angular velocity Let us consider an object moving in a circular path with uniform speed about a fixed point O as centre. When the object moves from A to B, the radius OA sweeps an angle at the centre as shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7 Circular motion

Angular displacement of the object is measured by the angle swept by the radius at the centre, as the particle is moving along the circumference of the circle. The unit of angular displacement is radian. One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.
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Angular velocity of an object is the rate of change of angular displacement. The object moves from A to B in time t. During this time the radius sweeps an angle at the centre as shown in Fig. 1.7. angular velocity, = = angular displacement time
t

The unit of angular velocity is radians per second. (rad s1) Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity. Angular acceleration, = = Change in angular velocity time o t

where o and are the initial and final angular velocities in a time interval t. The unit of angular acceleration is rad s2. 1.5.2. Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity Consider a body moving along the circumference of a circle of radius r with linear velocity v and angular velocity . It covers AB in a time interval t. AB s The linear velocity of the body v = = -------(1) t t s = r -----(2) (one radian corresponds to r. radian corresponds to r) substituting equation (2) in (1) s r v = t = t -------(3) v = r , since = t

Fig. 1.8 Circular motion

linear velocity = radius of the circle angular velocity

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1.5.3. Angular momentum Angular momentum of a particle is defined as the moment of linear momentum of the particle. The moment of linear momentum = = = = mv r mr r, mr2 I

( ... v = r )

where I = mr2 is called the moment of inertia of the rotating particle. Moment of inertia is the measure of inertia of the particle in circular motion and it is equal to the product of the mass of the particle and the square of its distance from the axis of rotation. Angular momentum, L = I Angular momentum = moment of inertia angular velocity The unit of angular momentum is kg m2 s1 TABLE 1.3. Comparison of linear and angular motion
No. Linear motion Angular motion

1. 2. 3. 4.

Linear displacement is s Linear velocity, v = s t vu t

Angular displacement is t Angular acceleration, = t o Angular velocity, = Moment of inertia I = mr2, is the measure of inertia in circular motion. Angular momentum, L = I

Linear acceleration, a =

Mass m is the measure of inertia in linear motion

5.

Linear momentum, p = mv

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1.6 Centripetal force A stone is tied to a string and rotated in a circular path. The pull of our hand on the string is towards the centre of the circular path traced by the stone. The tension in the string provides the centripetal force. If the string is suddenly released, the stone will go off in a direction tangential to the circle.

Fig. 1.9

When a satellite moves in a circular path around the earth, the gravitational force between the earth and the satellite provides the necessary centripetal force. For a car taking a curve, the frictional force on the tyres and the ground provides the required centripetal force. The external force required to make a body move along a circular path with uniform speed and directed towards the centre is called centripetal force. Let us consider an object of mass m, moving along a circular path of radiusr with an angular velocity and linear velocity v. As the body moves along the circular path, the direction of velocity changes at every point and hence it has an acceleration, which is directed towards the centre. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration. Centripetal acceleration a = Centripetal force F v2 r = mass acceleration = Centripetal force F =
2 2 m v = mv r r 2 ... v = r mr

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Problem 1. A particle undergoing circular motion of radius 7 cm completes one revolution in 0.2 s. Calculate its angular velocity and linear velocity. The angle swept in one revolution radius of the circle r time taken

= =

2 radian 7cm = 0.07 m

t = 0.2s 2 angular velocity = t = 0.2 = 10 rad s1 linear velocity v = v = linear velocity v = r 0.07 10 = 2.2 m s1 0.07 x 10 x 22 7

2. A body of mass 2 kg undergoes circular motion in a path of radius 1.4 m with an angular velocity of 3.14 rad s-1. Calculate its centripetal acceleration and centripetal force. mass of the body m = 2 kg radius of the circle r = 1.4 m angular velocity = 3.14 rad s1 centripetal acceleration a = r2 = 1.4 3.14 3.14 = 13.8 m s2 centripetal force F = mr2 = 2 1.4 3.14 3.14 centripetal force F = 27.60 N

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3. A giant wheel rotates with a linear velocity of 20 m s1 at a point on its circumference. If the diameter of the wheel is 100 m, what is the centripetal acceleration at that point?

diameter of the wheel = 100 m radius r = 50 m velocity = 20 m s1 v2 20 20 centripetal acceleration a = r = 50 2 centripetal acceleration = 8 m s

4. Calculate the centripetal force on a 1 kg rock whirling at a speed of 5 m s1 in an arc of radius 1.5 m. mass of the rock = 1 kg speed of the rock = 5 m s1 radius of the arc = 1.5 m centripetal force F = = mv2 r

1 (5)2 1.5 155 = 1.5 centripetal force F = 16.67 N.

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Let us muse upon

The study of moving objects under the action of force is called dynamics and the study of forces on bodies at rest is called statics. The centre of gravity of an object is a fixed point through which the entire weight of the object acts, irrespective of the position of the object. The acceleration due to gravity decreases with increasing altitude and it decreases with depth. The stability of a body is decided by the position of the centre of gravity. A body will be stable if the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls within the base A projectile is defined as a body which is given an initial velocity and then allowed to move under the action of gravity. The Range of a projectile is the horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where the projectile hits the ground. The movement of a particle in a circular path is called circular motion. Angular displacement of an object is measured by the angle swept by the radius at the centre as the particle moves along the circumference of a circle The unit of angular displacement is radian. One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by an arc whose length is equal to its radius. Angular velocity of an object is the rate of change of angular displacement. The relation between linear and angular velocity is v = r. Angular momentum of a particle is defined as the moment of linear momentum of the particle about the axis of rotation. The moment of inertia is defined as the measure of inertia of a rotating particle and is equal to the product of the mass of the particle and the square of its distance from the axis of rotation. The external force required to make a body move along a circular path with uniform speed and directed towards its centre is called centripetal force. When a body moves along a circular path, the direction of velocity changes at every point and hence it has an acceleration which is directed towards the centre. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
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Self evaluation 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. The centre of gravity of a triangular body lies at its (a) centroid (b) orthocentre (c) vertex (d) circumcentre The average value of acceleration due to gravity is (a) 9.8ms2 (b) 9.8cms-2 (c) 19.8ms2 (d) 8.9ms2 A man carrying a cement bag on his back up a slope will (a) lean backward (b) lean forward (c) walk straight (d) lean towards his left. When an object falls vertically the initial velocity is (b) less than 4.6 m s2 (a) more than 9.8 m s1 (d) zero. (c) 2 m s1

1.4.

1.5.

A ball is thrown vertically up, then the velocity at its maximum height is (a) more than 9.8 m s1 (b) zero (c) less than 9.8 m s2 (d) 9.8 m s1 The force between the moon and the earth which acts as a centripetal force keeping the moon in its orbit is (a) an elastic force (b) gravitational force (c) electrical force (d) nuclear force. An object released from a height of 19.6 m strikes the ground with a velocity of (a) 7 m s1 (b) 9.8 m s1 (c) 19.6 m s1 (d) 15 m s1 A marble is thrown up vertically with an initial velocity of 9.8 m s1. The maximum height reached is (a) 9.8 m (b) 8.9 m (c) 4.9 m (d) 19.6 m The angular velocity of the seconds hand of a wrist-watch is (a) 15 rad s1 (b) 30 rad s1 (c) 60 rad s1 (d) 90 rad s1

1.6.

1.7.

1.8.

1.9.

1.10. A cycle wheel 0.6 m radius is moving with an angular velocity of 10 rad s1. Its linear velocity is (a) 2 m s1 (b) 60 m s1 (c) 10 m s1 (d) 6 m s1

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1.11. What is centre of mass? 1.12. Define the term centre of gravity. 1.13. Where does the centre of gravity of a rectangular cardboard lie? 1.14. At what position does the centre of gravity of a cylindrical tin lie? 1.15. Mention the conditions for the stability of bodies. 1.16. When do we say an object is in free fall? Mention some examples. 1.17. With the help of a diagram explain Newtons Feather and coin experiment. 1.18. Write the equations of motion for (a) a freely falling object (b) an object thrown vertically up. 1.19. Define a projectile. Give some examples of projectile. 1.20. Why does a ball released from a moving bus take a parabolic path? 1.21. Define the term range of a projectile. 1.22. A boy throws a water-balloon from a certain height on a passerby. What is the path taken by the water-balloon? 1.23. Show that the path of a projectile is a parabola. 1.24. What is circular motion? Give some examples. 1.25. Define angular displacement and mention its unit. 1.26. What is angular velocity? Give its formula and unit. 1.27. Define angular acceleration. Write its formula and unit. 1.28. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity. 1.29. Define angular momentum and derive its formula. 1.30. Tabulate the differences between linear and angular motion. 1.31. Give two examples of objects moving under the influence of centripetal force and hence define it. 1.32. What is centripetal acceleration? Give an expression for centripetal force. 1.33. What are the different types of motion? 1.34. Define moment of inertia.
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1.35. Compare the motion of a freely falling body with that of a projectile. 1.36. An aeroplane flying horizontally with a velocity of 100 m s1, releases a bomb at a height of 490 m. Find the time taken by the bomb to reach the ground. 1.37. A marble is thrown up vertically with an initial velocity of 29.4 m s1. How high will it rise and how long will it take to reach that height ? 1.38. Calculate the angular velocity of the earth about its own axis. 1.39. A fighter pilot flies the aircraft in a circular path of radius 200 m. If the aircraft flies with the speed of 400 km hr1 determine the centripetal acceleration. 1.40. A force of 150 N is required to break a 3m long nylon cord. An object of mass 1.2 kg is fixed to one end of the cord and whirled around. Determine the maximum speed with which it can be whirled around without breaking the cord. 1.41. What speed should the rim of a 50 m diameter space station travel, so that its inhabitants experience an acceleration of 10 m s2 ? 1.42. A body is dropped from a certain height. What is the velocity of the body at the third second of its fall ? 1.43. A ball is released from a certain height. Calculate the vertical distance covered by the ball at the sixth second of its fall. 1.44. To estimate the height of a bridge across the river, a stone is dropped freely in the river from the bridge. The stone takes 2s to touch the water surface. Calculate the height of the bridge from the water level. 1.45. A merry-go-round completes 3 revolutions in one minute. Calculate its angular velocity. 1.46. The centripetal force acting on a body of mass 5 kg, undergoing circular motion of radius 1m is 500 N. Calculate (a) its linear velocity (b) its angular velocity. 1.47. A soft ball is dropped from a height of 10m. How long does it take for the ball to reach the ground?
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1.48. A toy car is dropped from the top of a building. It reaches the ground in 3 s. Calculate (a) the velocity with which it strikes the ground (b) the height of the building.

Answers 1.1. (a) 1.6. (b) 1.36. 10 s. 1.38. 43200 rad s1. 1.40. 19.36 m s1. 1.42. 29.4 m s1. 1.44. 19.6 m. 1.46. 10 m s1, 10 rad s1. 1.48. 29.4 m s1, 44.1 m.

1.2. (a) 1.7. (c)

1.3. (b) 1.8.(c)

1.4. (d) 1.9.(b)

1.5. (b) 1.10.(d)

1.37. 44.1 m, 3 s. 1.39. 61.73 m s2 [Link] m s1. 1.43. 176.4 m. 1.45. 0.314 rad s1. 1.47. 1.43 s.

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