FORMING
FORGING
Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed
between two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part.
It is the oldest of the metal forming operations.
APPLICATIONS
A variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and
other applications.
Engine crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, and jet engine turbine parts.
In addition, steel and other basic metals industries use forging to establish
the basic form of large components that are subsequently machined to
final shape and dimensions.
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Either impact or gradual pressure is used in forging. The distinction is in
the type of equipment used in the process.
A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a forging hammer,
while one that applies gradual pressure is called a forging press
There are three types of forging operations
open-die forging impression-die forging
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Hand Forging Operations (Preliminary Operations)
Upsetting
Drawing
Edging
Fullering
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Bending
Setting Down
Cogging
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Forge welding
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Flassless forging In flashless forging, the work is
completely constrained within the die
and no excess flash is produced. The
volume of the starting work piece must
be controlled very closely so that it
matches the volume of the die cavity.
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Forgeability
The ability of material to deform before crack appears
The factors:
a) Crystal structure
b) Melting point
c) Grain size
d) Chemical compositions
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Grain Flow structure or flowlines
casting Machining Forging
In case of casting, the product has no grain flows. Hence, the strength of the
spanner is weakest if produced by casting method.
In case of machining, the grains have been cut and the continuity of the
grains has been lost. Hence, the strength of the spanner is reduced.
In case of forging, the grains are made to follow the contour the shape of
spanner. Hence, the spanner is able to withstand the maximum stress as the
stress lies in the direction of grains flow.
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Direction Properties
Directional strength is a direct result of the forging
process. In the forging process, controlled
deformation results in improved mechanical
properties of the material. Forging produces
directional alignment (or "grain flow") for important
directional properties in strength, ductility, and
resistance to impact and fatigue. These properties
are deliberately oriented in directions requiring
maximum strength.
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Production of Gear Blank
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Production of Coupling Hook
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OPEN-DIE FORGING
Open-die hot forging is an important
industrial process.
The simplest case of open-die forging
involves compression of a work piece
of cylindrical cross section between
two flat dies, much in the manner of a
compression test.
This forging operation, known as
upsetting or upset forging, reduces
the height of the work and increases
its diameter.
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# Shapes generated by open-die operations are simple; examples include
shafts, disks, an rings.
# The work must often be manipulated (e.g., rotating in steps) to effect the
desired shape change.
# Skill of the human operator is a factor in the success of these
operations.
Example: In the steel industry is the shaping of a large square cast ingot
into a round cross section.
Open-die forging operations produce rough forms, and subsequent
operations are required to refine the parts to final geometry and
dimensions. An important contribution of open-die hot-forging is that it
creates a favourable grain flow and metallurgical structure in the metal.
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Analysis of Open-Die Forging
If open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no friction between
work and die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs, and the
radial flow of the material is uniform throughout its height.
Under these ideal conditions, the true strain experienced by the work during
the process can be determined by
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The force required to continue the compression at any given height h during
the process can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding cross-
sectional area by the flow stress:
F= force (N); A= cross-sectional area of the part, mm2; and f=flow stress
corresponding to the strain, Mpa
Area A continuously increases during the operation as height is reduced.
Flow stress f also increases as a result of work hardening, except when
the metal is perfectly plastic (e.g., in hot working).
Force reaches a maximum value at the end of the forging stroke, when both
area and flow stress are at their highest values.
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An actual upsetting operation (barrelling effect)
1) friction opposes the flow of work metal at the die surfaces.
2) In hot working with cold dies, the barrelling effect is even more
pronounced. This results from a higher coefficient of friction and heat
transfer at and near the die surfaces, which cools the metal and
increases its resistance to deformation.
3) These effects are more significant as the diameter-to-height ratio of the
work piece increases, due to the greater contact area at the work–die
interface.
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All of these factors cause the actual upsetting force to be greater than what
is estimated by earlier equation. As an approximation, applying a shape
factor to the Equation to account for effects of the D/h ratio and friction:
where Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as
Range of values of Kf for different part geometries
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The force required
F=maximum force in the operation, A=projected area of the part
including flash, mm2; f = flow stress of the material, MPa; and Kf =
forging shape factor
In hot forging, the appropriate value of f is the yield strength of the
metal at the elevated temperature. In other cases, selecting the
proper value of flow stress is difficult because the strain varies
throughout the work piece for complex shapes. Kf is a factor
intended to account for increases in force required to forge part of
shapes of various complexities.
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Example: A cylindrical work piece is subjected to a cold upset forging
operation. The starting piece is 75 mm in height and 50 mm in diameter. It is
reduced in the operation to a height of 36mm. The work material has a flow
curve defined by K=350MPa and n=0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of
0.1. Determine the force as the process begins, at intermediate heights of
62mm, 49 mm, and at the final height of 36 mm.
Work piece volume
At the start of yielding, flow stress is given by
Shape factor, Kf
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The forging force at the start of operation
At h = 62 mm,
Flow stress, f
Shape factor, Kf
Assuming constant volume, and neglecting barrelling, D = 55 mm
Forging force, F
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IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
Several forming steps are often required in impression-die forging to
transform the starting blank into the desired final geometry. Separate
cavities in the die are needed for each step. The beginning steps are
designed to redistribute the metal in the work piece to achieve a uniform
deformation and desired metallurgical structure in the subsequent steps.
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The five steps of impression die forging are:
1) Heating. Pre-forged metal starts with metal blocks called "ingots,"
which come in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on the part
or component to be produced. ...
2) Preforming. ...
3) Finish Forging. ...
4) Cooling. ...
5) Finishing.
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Different steps in the metal forging process used to manufacture a
complex part.
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FORGING HAMMERS, PRESSES, AND DIES
Equipment used in forging consists of forging machines, classified as:
a) Hammers
b) Presses, and
c) Forging Dies,
In addition, auxiliary equipment is needed, such as furnaces to heat the
work, mechanical devices to load and unload the work, and trimming
stations to cut away the flash in impression-die forging.
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Forging Hammers
Forging hammers operate by applying an impact loading against the
work. The term drop hammer is often used for these machines.
Drop hammers are most frequently used for impression-die forging.
The upper portion of the forging die is attached to the ram, and the
lower portion is attached to the anvil.
In the operation, the work is placed on the lower die, and the ram is
lifted and then dropped. When the upper die strikes the work, the
impact energy causes the part to assume the form of the die cavity.
Several blows of the hammer are often required to achieve the
desired change in shape.
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Capacity of Hammers
Is expressed by tonnage of the total mass of falling parts. If the
total mass is 5000 kg, then it is called 5 ton hammer
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Drop hammers can be classified as
# Gravity drop hammers and
# Power drop hammers.
Forging Presses
Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden impact, to
accomplish the forging operation. Forging presses include
# Mechanical Presses,
# Hydraulic Presses, and
# Screw Presses.
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Design of Forging Dies
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Location of the parting line
The parting line influences
► where flash will be formed, and
► affects the grain structure of the manufactured part.
The underlying principle for selection of parting line is that It is
easier to fill sections closer to the parting line than further away. In
determining a parting line the maximum periphery of the metal
forging should be considered.
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Design C is acceptable for the following reasons:
± more economical and
± provides superior grain structure of the metal forging
(does not disrupt grain structure) .
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Webs and ribs:
A web is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel to the parting
line, while a rib is a thin portion that is perpendicular to the parting
line.
Flash, land and gutter:
Flash provides a way for excess material from the work stock to exit the
forging die.
Flash must travel through a narrow passage, called land, before it opens
up into a gutter.
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Upsetting and Heading
It is performed as a mass-production operation—cold, warm, or hot—on
special upset forging machines, called headers or formers. These machines
are usually equipped with horizontal slides, rather than vertical slides as in
conventional forging hammers and presses.
Long wire or bar stock is fed into the machines, the end of the stock is upset
forged, and then the piece is cut to length to make the desired hardware
item.
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Upsetting Rules
The maximum length that can be upset in one blow is three times the
diameter of the starting stock.
If the stock extend beyond the die cavity by a length l, then l = d, where
d is the diameter of the work piece.
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Swaging and Radial Forging
Swaging and radial forging are forging processes used to reduce the diameter
of a tube or solid rod.
Swaging is often performed on the end of a work piece to create a tapered
section.
A mandrel is sometimes required to control the shape and size of the internal
diameter of tubular parts
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Swaging of neck on a gas cylinder
Radial forging vs. swaging
The difference is that in radial forging the dies do not rotate around the work
piece; instead, the work is rotated as it feeds into the hammering dies.
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