FLOORING

Floor covering is a term to generally describe any finish material applied over a floor structure to
provide a walking surface.

Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such
as a flooring covering. It describes any finish material applied over a floor structure to provide a
walking surface.
 The purpose of a floor is to provide a level surface and to support live and dead loads.
 Flooring tends to set the tone of the interior whether in the home, the office, or the mall.
 Although aesthetics plays an important role in any design solution, flooring must be practical in
today’s environment. Today’s designer has an enormous range of flooring types, colours and
patterns from which to choose.
 Flooring can pull a design together or visually fragment it. The use of one continuous material
increases the flow and homogeneity and suggests that areas share equal importance and are equally
accessible, whereas the introduction of accent flooring suggests that special areas exist.

Types of Flooring
1. Vinyl Composition Tile (VCT)
2. Mud Flooring
3. Tiles
4. Wooden Flooring
5. Rubber flooring
6. Plastic or P.V.C. Flooring
7. Glass Flooring
8. Stone
9. Brick Flooring
10. Cement Concrete Flooring
[Link]
 VINYL COMPOSITION TILE (VCT)

Vinyl comes in an infinite variety of colours and patterns, often

with designs that simulate other more expensive types of flooring
such as wood, tile, and marble. It is a wholly synthetic material
and contains a varying percentage of PVC, which gives certain
flexibility. Also, it is inexpensive, and comes in sheet or tile
form. Linoleum is also available in sheet or tile form and comes
in a comprehensive range of colours and patterns. Its recent
rediscovery is largely due to its improved performance and
because it is made up of entirely natural ingredients

 It is a finished flooring material used primarily in commercial and institutional applications.

 Vinyl tiles are composed of colour vinyl chips formed into solid sheets of varying thickness
(1/8” is most common) by heat and pressure and cut into 12” squares.
 Tiles are applied to a smooth, levelled sub-floor using a specially formulated vinyl adhesive that
remains tacky but does not completely dry.
 Tiles are typically waxed and buffed using special materials.
 This flooring product is mostly used in interior works and also photo labourites, airport, drawing
room, bedroom, offices, water proof used in bathrooms.

Advantages:
 Easy installation
 Cost effective
 Low maintenance
 Water resistant
 Durable
 Vinyl floor tiles – one of the most versatile floors
available.
 It is quite and warm underfoot, easy to clean like other hard surfaces.
Materials required:
 Vinyl tiles
 Adhesive
 Trowel
 Tape measure
 Utility knife
 Self-levelling compound
 Floor roller
 Hammer
 Chalk line

Installation:
 Measure the floor
 Prepare the plan
 Centre the tile
 Cut the fit
 Finish up
MUD FLOORING
These are used for unimportant buildings, particularly
in villages.

Merits:
 Cheap
 Hard and fairly impervious
 Easy in construction and maintenance
 Good thermal insulation

Demerits:

 For proper maintenance – the floors are required to be given a wash of cement
cow dung plaster once or twice a week which is objectionable from sanitary
considerations.
 TILES

Hard tiles including ceramic, terracotta, and quarry tiles are generally machine-made, which
gives them a precise size, and are particularly suited to areas where water is often present, like
kitchens and bathrooms. Tiles of baked clay, such as the popular quarry tile, are similar to
masonry materials and require a sturdy subfloor. The small scale of mosaic tiles gives them an
almost soft appearance. They consist of small cubes of terracotta, marble, ceramic, or stone and
are bedded in mortar. Mosaic is best restricted to small areas like bathrooms.
 Tiles are often used to form wall or floor coverings, and can range from simple square
tiles to complex mosaics.
 Tiles are most often made from ceramic with a hard glaze finish, but other materials are
also commonly used, such as glass, marble, granite, slate and reformed ceramic slurry.

Types:

 Ceramic
 Vitrified
 Porcelain

Advantages:

 High wear resistance with low density.

 Corrosion resistance at high temperature.
 Resistance to plastic deformation.
 Easy to clean and water-proof.
 Harder and stiffer than steel, more heat and corrosion resistant than metals and polymers.
 Resistant to stains and spillages.
 Their incombustibility prevents spread of fire.

Installation:

 Remove any baseboard and shoe molding.

 Level the subfloor.
 Install the underlayment.
 Spread the adhesive with the smooth side of the trowel. Make sure it covers the area
evenly and does not cover your reference lines.
 Lightly press and twist the ceramic when setting to make sure the adhesive sticks. Don’t
push so hard that the adhesive is forced out from under the ceramic.
 Once a row is in place, level the tile with a rubber mallet and level.
 Grouting.
 Finish touches.
 WOODEN FLOORING

Wood is a widely used floor material that has maintained its

popularity over the centuries. It is practical, both functionally
and aesthetically, and works in most environments. Its warm
mellow tone, soft touch, and easy maintenance make it a
favourite in residential applications. It lasts well, comes in a
variety of formats, and makes an excellent base for decorative
rugs. Wood usually comes in hardwood strip, block, parquet, or
board form. The most common species used are beech, maple, ash, birch, pine, or oak. Most
types of strip flooring comes tongue-and-groove so that the planks fit together without leaving
any gaps.

 Wooden flooring is generally used for special purpose floor. Example – auditorium,
hospitals etc.
 Laminated wooden flooring is better suited to moisture prone area.
 Wood being a natural material, it expands and contracts with changes in temperature and
humidity. Therefore proper installation leaves a margin for this movement.
 There are many pre-laminated inter locking panel flooring in smooth, matt and rough
finishing. It is a high quality interior product, which is most effectively being used in
interiors.
 Hardness of wooden flooring is comparable to marble and the former is available in up to
45 different colours and shades.
 All style are available in solid wood and in laminated wood, which are a thin veneer layer
laminated to layer of wood so that it can be sanded and refined several times.
Types of Wooden Flooring
 Strip flooring – This type of flooring consists of narrow and thin strip of wood joined to
each other by tongue and groove joint.
 Planked flooring – In this type of flooring, wider planks are used and these are also
tongued and grooved.
 Heavy wood block flooring – These are made up of thicker pieces of wood cut in short
lengths ranging from 5 to 10 cm. so as form block which are set with the ends of the
grains exposed.
 Fabricated wood block – These consist of Small Square of rectangular block with
tongue and groove joints all side.
 RUBBER FLOORING

 This consists of sheets or tiles of rubber

in a variety of patterns and colours with
thickness varying from 3 to 10 mm.
 Sheet or tiles are manufactured by mixing
pure rubber with filters such as cotton
fibre, granulated cork or asbestos fibre.
 Sheets or tiles are fixed to concrete base
by appropriate adhesives.
 Resilient and noise proof.
 They are costly.
 Used in office or public buildings.
 Rubber floorings are used in gym, auditorium, play schools etc.

ADVANTAGES OF RUBBER TILE FLOORING

 Rubber flooring is a type of resilient
flooring, and therein lies its most obvious
advantages.
 Like other resilient materials, namely
vinyl and linoleum, rubber flooring provides a
durable, easy-to-clean surface that's suitable
for hard-wearing environments, such as
gyms, basements, rec rooms, playrooms,
laundry rooms, and utility areas.

DISADVANTAGES OF RUBBER TILE FLOORING

It's fair to say that rubber tile flooring represents a niche in the flooring market. This means
there are many fewer manufacturers and dealers—and consequently fewer options—than with
the major flooring materials. Rubber flooring also has fewer applications in the typical home.
As great as it is for activity areas, most rubber flooring doesn't have the right look and feel for
living space (at least for most people).
 PLASTIC OR P.V.C. FLOORING

It is made of plastic materials fabricated in the form of

tiles of different sizes and colour shades. Widely used
in all types of buildings. The tiles are laid on concrete
base. The floor is washed with warm soap water
before use. It is resilient, smooth, good looking and
can be cleaned easily. It is costly and slippery and is
damaged when comes in contact with burning objects.

Here are some of the advantages of PVC Flooring .

Durability- PVC flooring is one of the most durable flooring types available. Durability It is
commonly installed in places that usually receive high footfall.

Inexpensive- It is also less expensive that many other flooring types.

Easy Installation- PVC flooring can be installed easily without any the help of a professional.
There are also different methods of installation depending on the type of vinyl flooring you
have chosen.

Easy Maintenance- Vinyl tiles come in small sizes and if an individual tile is damaged it can be
replaced. PVC floors are the easiest to clean because these tiles come with various coatings
which protect the floor from stains, moisture and fading.

Anti-Static- Certain variations of vinyl floors have anti static properties which means you are
safe from static current passing from the floor.

Aesthetics- With PVC tiles you could create beautiful patterns and enhance the appearance of
your home and office.
 GLASS FLOORING
• Glass floors are made with transparent glass when it
is useful to view something from above or below;
whereas translucent glass is used when there is no need
to view through. In either case, toughened glass is
usually chosen, for its durability and resistance to
breakage.

• Glass as a flooring material is used in both residential

and commercial structures. Special hollow glass blocks
known as '"glass pavers" are often used in combination
with a metal frame. Glass floors are often lit from
below with natural or artificial light, or may be treated as ordinary floor surfaces illuminated
from above.

INSTALLATION

 Floor panels are constructed of laminated

layers of tempered, annealed, or heat
strengthened glass.
 Laminated glass flooring requires a rigid
support with a deflection of L/500
 Minimum support depth should be 20-
[Link] should be more than [Link]
joints used of 6mm.
 Glass flooring is very expensive to replace once
installed
 To maintain the aesthetic beauty of glass flooring, it is important to keep the panel clean. A
soft, clean, non-abrasive cloth and a mild detergent, or non-abrasive glass cleaning solution is
suitable for cleaning.
  After cleaning, rinse immediately with clean water and remove any excess water from the
panel surface. Do not use abrasive cleaners, bleach, scouring powder or pads which can
scratch and damage glass flooring.

As a rule of thumb heat strengthened glass is approximately twice as “strong” as annealed or

ordinary float glass, and fully toughened glass is roughly four to five times as strong.

Using fully toughened glass would dramatically reduce the thickness of the glass to be used in
glass flooring laminates

STONES
Marble and granite are more widely used in countries of the Middle East, Greece and
Italy than in the United States. Both materials have prestigious connotations and are primarily
used in banks and foyers of commercial buildings and some custom dwellings. Terrazzo is a
relative newcomer to the domestic scene. It has been popular in Mediterranean countries from
early times. Terrazzo is an aggregate of marble or granite chips mixed into a cement mortar and
either laid in place or as slabs or tiles.

Types:

Marble Flooring– Superior type of flooring. Used in residential buildings, temples, hospitals
etc. where cleanliness is required. Marble slabs may be square or rectangular.
Granites – Durable and natural with visible coarse grains. Expensive as compares to marble.
Slip resistant. Hardest type of stone. Very difficult to cut and polish. Once polished, gives a
mirror finish. Can resist a lot of wear and tear. Available in 20 mm thick slabs and 9 mm thick
tiles. Available in India – Rajasthan, Jhansi, Black granite from Bangalore.
Installation:
 Ensure that the tiles are of regular shape.
 Base mortar 1:5 or 1:6 with low water cement ratio.
 Minimum thickness of base mortar is 25 mm.
 Fix the marble tiles temporarily then press it using wooden handle of the hammer to bring
them in a level.
 After fixing them in a pattern remove the tiles and spread white cement slurry (2:1) and
refit the tiles.
 Press with wooden handle.
 Fill up joints with white cement.
 First grinding minimum after 5 days of fixing.
 Apply white cement slurry over marble floor after first grinding and cure for a day.
 Minimum 3 grindings are required.

BRICK FLOORING
Suitable for cheap construction used in
places where heavy articles are to be
stored e.g. Warehouses, stores and go
downs. Used in alluvial places like U.P.,
Punjab where stone is scarce and well
burnt bricks are readily available.

Brick products have been used for many

centuries throughout the world for
applications such as roads, flooring,
monuments, side walks and building structures.
Bricks are considered to be the oldest manufactured building material that has been trusted
throughout history because of its durability, versatility and practical attributes.

Here in india standard size of brick is used in flooring which is used in wall construction.

ADVANTAGES

There are various reasons for the benefits that brick flooring products provide in visual terms,
their strength and ability and their practical purposes. Here are some of the benefits of what brick
flooring will provide when used as paving:

•They provide elegance and character with the old world look rustic charm
•They are fade resistant
•They resist wear and tear
•They are slip resistant
•They are recycled products, so you are helping the environment
•They are very durable with long lasting attributes
•They are fire resistant
•They are maintenance free
•They will not crack or chip
Merits:

 Durable and hard.

 Non slippery and fire resistant.
 Initial cost is less.
 Easy maintenance.

Demerits:
 It is absorbent.
 CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING
Used for residential, commercial and industrial buildings. The floor consists of two components
– the two components of the floor can be constructed either monolithically or non-
monolithically. Base course may be 7.5 to 10 cm thick. It may be either in lean cement concrete
([Link] or [Link]) or lime concrete containing 40% mortar of 1:2 lime-sand and 60% coarse
aggregate. The topping is then laid in square or rectangular panels of size 1X1 or 2X2 or 1X2 m.
it consists of [Link] cement concrete.

Merits:

 Resistant to dampness.
 Possesses high durability.
 Provides a smooth, hard and even surface.
 Can be easily cleaned and is economical.
 Fire resistant.

Demerits:

 Defects, once developed, cannot be easily

rectified.
 Does not provide sound and heat insulation
 CARPET FLOORING
Carpet denotes a more relaxed, contemplative, and
higher status area because it is softer underfoot and
therefore quieter. Moreover, designers can combine various
colours, textures and patterns of carpet to create visual
excitement, define specific work areas or to direct traffic in
corridors and common areas. Carpet also has low
maintenance costs compared with other commercial floor
coverings. The inherent cushioning and non-slip
characteristics of carpet contribute to a comfortable and safe
work environment by reducing the likelihood of falls and
minimizing potential injuries. These properties also may help lower insurance costs in
commercial enterprises. Additionally, the insulating properties of carpet keep floors warm in
winter and cool in summer, which helps reduce heating and cooling costs. Likewise, carpet
provides acoustical benefits by absorbing airborne sound, reducing surface noise generation, and
helps block sound transmission to floors below. The current trend in carpeting is for increasing
specification of nylon fibre carpets for their superior long-term performance, including their
improved resistance to staining, soiling, matting, crushing, texture loss, and abrasive wear
compared to other fibers.
 CEILINGS
A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that covers the upper limits of a room. It is not generally
considered a structural element, but a finished surface concealing the underside of the roof
structure or the floor of a story above.

A false ceiling is a ceiling made beneath the main ceiling of the room or building. In other
words, it is a second layer of roof suspended from the main roof with the help of metal or
wooden frame. It is also known as dropped ceiling. False ceiling has multiple advantages. It
improves the aesthetics of the room. False ceiling is provided to keep the room cool during
summer and warm in winter. It is also provided to conceal the ugly mesh of electrical wires, light
fixtures, air-conditioning ducts and other fixtures.

From nearly & before the 20th century, the ceiling has been ignored when it comes to interior
design. Most people default to white ceilings done in flat [Link] most attention ceilings have
received, as of late is due to texture, which many people have come to regret.
 There are quite a few different types of ceilings that exist for both decorative and
functional purpose.
 A room’s ceiling can also have a big impact on things like lighting design and the
acoustic properties of a room – both of which are important considerations for home
theatre rooms, and for living areas in general.
 Dropped ceilings, for example, can be used to help conceal ventilation or electrical
services, or an existing ceiling that can’t be modified for whatever reason.
 Things like coffered ceilings and stretched ceilings open up decorative possibilities, and
(space and budget permitting) can help to very radically transform the way a room looks
and feels.
TYPES OF CEILING

 SUSPENDED CEILINGS
 WOODEN CEILINGS
 VENEERED CEILINGS
 ALUMINUM CEILINGS
 METAL CASSETTE CEILINGS
 ACOUSTIC CEILINGS
 POP CEILINGS
 COFFERED CEILING
 STRETCH CEILING
 HOLLOW CORE SLAB CEILING

SUSPENDED CEILINGS

 Suspended ceiling consist of various panels that are placed below the original ceiling, so it is
a very good choice as it conceals the surface below.
 A very positive side of suspended ceiling is that even after it has been installed, access to the
surface below to install wiring or in case you need to do some other repair work, for example
to fix pipes.
 Suspended ceilings are also used in noisy places or offices as they are very good sound
barriers and special acoustic panels can be used in suspended ceilings.
 A dropped ceiling is a secondary ceiling which hangs below an existing ceiling, or from the
floor above it.
 A dropped ceiling can be used to disguise the poor condition of an existing ceiling, or to
conceal wires, pipes or ducting.
 The space between the dropped ceiling and the structural ceiling can range from a few
centimetres to a metre or more, and is known as a ‘plenum space’.
 Dropped ceilings are also known as drop, false or suspended ceilings.
 These types of ceilings are most commonly found in industrial and commercial buildings,
consisting of roofing tiles.
 Dropped ceilings can also be used in residential buildings, provided that the existing ceiling
is high enough to allow it.
Uses:

 Suspended ceilings are typically associated with industrial or commercial buildings, or

large-scale urban dwellings.
 There are however, suspended ceiling finishes that are suitable for homes.
 Dropped ceilings have the advantage of being easily maintained and repaired, and allow a
great amount of freedom to rearrange ductwork and lighting.

Installation:

The panels and tiles which make up the surface part of a suspended ceiling are made from any
number of materials. Tiles made from spun mineral fibre glass can help in sound proofing and
improving a room’s acoustics. Cork, tin and plastic are also commonly used. The frames and grid
arrays for dropped ceilings are generally made of metal.

 Dropped ceilings are constructed by suspending panels or tiles on a metal grid.

 The grid is partially supported by moulding attached to the walls, but most of the weight
of the panels or tiles is taken by metal wires that are strung from the ceiling.
 This grid is normally built from the middle of the room out.
 Without enough wires to support this metal grid, the dropped ceiling will sag.
Advantages:

 Reasonably inexpensive.
 Can improve acoustics / sound proofing.
 Can improve insulations.
 Able to hide wires, pipes and ducts.
 Can help to disguise uneven or ugly ceilings.

Disadvantages:
 Makes the room smaller.
 Ceiling tiles show wear more quickly than other finishes.

WOODEN CEILINGS

Wooden ceiling were used long before plastic or drywall ceilings. They are very beautiful and
make the space look very cosy. The wooden ceilings offer a
lot of different appearances as there is a big variety of wood
that they are made of. Choices available from dark or light
wood and different patterns on boards and panels are
available. This means that with only covering the ceiling
with wood you can make it look very old and antique or
modern and new.

VENEERED CEILINGS

Veneered ceilings are quite often build in a similar way as

veneered floors and walls as veneer is placed under some
kind of a coverage. Thus it is possible to colour the ceiling
in the most appropriate colour for your space. Also you
can use mirrors or other kinds of tiles that you like the best
to cover the veneered ceilings. There are some
circumstances where veneer just does not suit as it is not
humid resistant and can change its form when it gets wet, therefore if your space has a lot of
humidity.
 ALUMINUM CEILINGS

Aluminum ceilings are installed like all other drop ceilings as the panels are fitted to the
previously built framework. Those ceilings are very endurable and look attractive even after long
time. As aluminum ceilings consist also from different panels it is not hard to install further
lights or ventilation to the ceiling. Aluminum is a corrosion resistant, very durable product that
does not rust. When special aluminum alloy is pressed into different ceiling panels it holds it
shape permanently and hardens substantially. Aluminum ceiling is longer- lasting than a plaster
ceiling. These ceilings will not rust or crack and the material that they are made from are non-
porous, therefore it resists moisture and odor very well.

METAL CASSETTE CEILINGS

Metal cassette ceilings can be installed on top of the

old ceiling or if a new room is being built. The metal cassette
ceiling is made out of interlocking thin metal sheets that have
been bolted together from the angles. This acquires only a little
levelling work and the installation is rather quick and
uncomplicated after fast assembly. In the metal cassette ceiling
there are no gaps between the surfaces, thus there is no
possibility that germs or bacteria can get into the cracks. The
advantage of metal cassette ceiling is that it has a really smooth surface that is extremely easy to
clean. Thus, they are quite widely used in hospitals and other institutions that need very clean
environment.
 ACOUSTIC CEILINGS

Acoustic ceiling panels are designed to improve the sound quality and block noise
transmission through the ceiling. Acoustic ceiling panels can be easily installed to existing
suspended ceiling grids. As they are easy to install and do not demand a lot of money, these
ceilings are used quite commonly. Typical places where acoustic ceilings are being used are
commercial establishments like theatres, studios, offices, training rooms etc., but also in
educational institutes, for classrooms, lecture halls and gymnasiums. Lately they have expanded
to residential homes, home theatres, offices and gyms.

POP CEILINGS

Add feature to a space with Pop ceilings, ceiling moldings

and medallion. Be creative in P.O.P ceiling designing.
Choose a design of straight lines in small rooms and low
ceiling. Coffered style ceiling designs in tray ceiling with
crown molding in a large room may be our choice.

COFFERED CEILING

A coffered (lacuna) ceiling is a decorative ceiling style,

formed out of recessed panels framed by beams. A square
shaped pattern is used in most coffered ceilings, however
other geometric patterns can be created.
Uses:

Coffered ceilings were originally designed to help make stone ceilings lighter. Today, they are
mostly used to add interest and a personal touch to ceiling design – an often neglected aspect of
home décor. They help to complete interior design themes and use period details and molding to
evoke certain eras. Coffered ceilings can also be used to improve a room’s acoustics.

Installation:

Coffered ceilings are built by

adding faux beams onto the
existing ceiling beams and then
installing plasterboard or tin
inlay. They can also be added to
existing plasterboard ceilings.
The beams maybe stained,
painted or otherwise finished according to your preference. Beams are usually timber but can be
made from tin, medium density fiberboard (MDF) or plasterboard.

Advantages:

 Can improve acoustics.

 Can help to add character and visual appeal.

 Can improve the value of the home.

Disadvantages:

More expensive than some other options.

Not always attractive in smaller rooms.

 STRETCH CEILING
A stretch ceiling is similar to a dropped ceiling, in that it sits below the structural ceiling
of a room. A stretch ceiling typically consists of a piece of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) material
‘stretched” across an area, and held in place by a frame called a ‘perimeter profile’. The
perimeter profile can be curved and shaped as required, and the PVC can be colored or painted to
suit just about the taste. As a result, stretched ceilings offer a great deal of freedom in terms of
shape, color and lighting.
Uses:
A stretch ceiling has the same advantages as a dropped ceiling. It can disguise the poor
condition of an existing ceiling, conceal wires, pipes or ducting. Stretch ceilings are often
installed in home theater or music rooms to soundproof them or improve their acoustics. Stretch
ceilings can also be installed more quickly than many other ceiling finishes.
Installation:
Most stretch ceilings are made of a non-flammable PVC membrane which is attached to
Aluminum railings (also known as ‘perimeter profiles’). The PVC can be finished with high or
low gloss paint, or painted with images or patterns. For this reason, stretched ceilings are popular
in shops and displays. The PVC membrane is composed of numerous sheets joined together – it’s
a good idea to check the quality of the joints before purchasing a particular product.
To install a stretch ceiling, tracks are fixed to the interior perimeter of the room. The PVC sheets
are then attached to the tracks and tightened using heat.
Advantages:
 Can help to disguise uneven or damaged ceilings.
 Can hide wires, pipes and ducts.
 Able to be used to create unique shapes and designs.
 Easy to clean.
 Quick to install.
 Good for acoustics.
Disadvantages:
 Sometimes used to conceal serious damage or pest infestations.
 May be more expensive than some other options.
 .

HOLLOW CORE SLAB CEILING

A hollow-core slab ceiling is made from precast, pre-stressed concrete slabs which have
tube-shaped tunnels running through them. These concrete slabs can also be called voided slabs
or hollow core planks. The surface of a hollow-core slab ceiling can be finished by polishing or
painting the concrete, or by spraying it with a soundproofing material.

Uses:
Hollow-core slab ceilings are often used in multi-storeyapartment buildings as a cost-
effective method of creating floors and ceilings over large spaces. As long as the interior voids
are correctly aligned, they can be used to carry wires for lighting, heating and communication.
A hollow-core slab ceiling will suit contemporary industrial designed interiors.

Installation:
 Hollow-core slab ceiling are made from either very low slump or normal slump concrete
poured to a thickness ranging from 50mm to 130mm.
 The interior tubes are cast by pouring the wet concrete over augers or tubes.
 The concrete is cast on beds which can be between 100 and 200 meters long.
 It is cut to the required size once it has set.
Advantages:
 Cheap option for large spaces.
 Fast assembly due to prefabrication.
 Lighter weight equals lower transportation costs.
 Hollow interior can be used for heating, wiring and communication cables.

Disadvantages:
 Not suitable for buildings in earthquake prone regions.
 Potential to amplify and transmit noise.
 Does not incorporate well into a timber framed house.
 WALLS
 A continuous vertical brick or stone structure that encloses or divides an area of land.
 Walls are important elements of any design scheme because they define spaces, segregate
activities, and mark out personal domains within the home or office. Their importance is
highlighted by the enormous variety of treatments available that draw attention to the
walls themselves.
 In addition to the obvious paint, the market is saturated with all types of wall covering
material, including fabrics, leather and carpet, in addition to the paper and vinyl wall
coverings of the past.
 For high traffic areas, there are ceramic and clay tiles, metal panels, plastic laminate, and
rubber, as well as rougher cinderblock, brick, and glass block.
 A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or security.
There are many kinds of walls: Defensive walls in fortification. Walls in buildings that
form a fundamental part of the superstructure or separate interior sections, sometimes for
fire safety.
Functions of a Wall:
 To provide protection from weather, animals.
 To divide the areas.
 Acts as sound barriers.
 As fire walls to attenuate the spread of fire from one building unit to another.
 Separates the interior spaces.
 To improve the building appearance.
 To provide privacy.
Materials used for wall construction:
 Timber, brick, concrete block, reinforced concrete can be used for wall construction.
 Good for wall construction due to its durability, beauty and able to provide comfortable
area.
 Cengal is suitable to be used at hot and cold climate area.
 Meranti can be used for all types of construction in the buildings.
 Reinforced concrete used for precast concrete panel.
Types of wall:
a) Load Bearing Walls
Able to carry the load from above (own
weight & load from roof) and transfer it to
the foundation. It can be exterior wall or
interior wall. It brace form the roof to the
floor. As the height of the building
increases, required thickness of wall and
resulting stress on foundation will also
increase and cause it to be uneconomical.
Types of Load Bearing Wall:
 Precast Concrete Wall
 Pre Panelised Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls
 Retaining Wall
 Masonry Wall
 Engineering Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)
 Stone Wall
b) Non Load Bearing Walls
Only carry their own weight. Also known as interior wall (doesn’t carry other than its own load).
Typically used as
 Partition wall to separate interior spaces
 Protection from the elements.
MATERIALS
 Wood framing
 Light gauge steel framing
 Curtain wall
Types of Non-Load Bearing Walls:
 Hollow Concrete Block
 Façade Bricks
 Hollow Bricks
 Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)
WALL FINISHES

The range of wall finishes could be used to achieve desired effects. The aesthetic appearance of
the interiors and exteriors could be enhanced by the use of these finishes appropriately.
 PARTITION WALLS
A partition wall may be defined as a wall or division made up of bricks, studding, glass
or other such material and provided for the purpose of dividing one room or portion of a room
from another. Partition walls are designed as non-load bearing walls. It may be of folding,
collapsible or fixed type. If partition walls are load bearing then they are called as ‘internal wall’.

Advantages of Partition Walls:

 Thin in cross-section so that maximum floor area can be utilized.
 Provide adequate privacy in rooms both in respect of sight and sound.
 Constructed from light, sound, uniform, homogeneous, durable and sound insulated
materials.
 Simple in nature, easy and economical in construction having proper coherence with the
type of building structure.
 Offer sufficient resistance against fire, heat, dampness, white ant or fungus, etc.
 Rigid enough to take the vibrations caused due to loads.
 Storing enough to support sanitary fittings and heavy fixtures.
 Divide the whole area into a number of rooms.
TYPES OF PARTITION WALLS:
 GLASS PARTITION WALLS
 PLASTER SLAB PARTITION
 BRICK PARTITION
 WOODEN PARTITION
 ASBESTOS PARTITION
 CONCERT PARTITION
 HOLLOW BRICK PARTITION
 STRAW BOARD PARTITION
 METAL PARTITION

Types of Partition Walls:

a) Glass Partition Walls
 These may be made from sheet glass or
hollow glass bricks.
 Sheets of glass are fixed in the framework
of wooden members dividing the entire
area into a number of panels.
 Glass block adds to the architectural
beauty and also provide good day light.
 They are sound-proof and fire-proof
 Needs care and maintenance.
 b) Plaster Slab Partition
 These are made of burnt gypsum or plaster of paris
mixed with sawdust.
 5cm to 10cm thick slabs are prepared in iron or timber
moulds.
 To form rigid joints suitable grooves are provided in
plaster slabs.
 Nails and screws can be easily driven into these slabs.

C) Brick Partition Walls

 Plain Brick Partition: These are cheap,

strong and fire resistant.
 Brick Noggin Partition: It consists of brick
work within the frame work of wooden
members called studs (vertical members) and
noggin pieces (horizontal members).
 Reinforced Brick Partition: Bricks are
reinforced with iron strips or steel bars.

Installation:

 Constructed with plain bricks, reinforced bricks, bricks-

nogged or hollow bricks.
 Plain brick partition of half brick thickness is not more than
2m in height.
 In reinforced brick partition of half brick thickness,
reinforcement in the form of wire mesh or hoop iron or steel bars is provided.
 Brick noggin partition wall consists of brickwork built up within a framework of wooden
members.
 Brick partition is fire-resistant and sound-proof.
D) Wood Partition Walls

These partition walls consists of a wooden framework either supported on the floor below or by
side walls.

Advantages:

 The major advantage of using this partition is light in weight.

Disadvantages:

 Neither sound-proof nor fire-proof.

 Not suitable for damp locations.

Types of Wood Partition Walls

o Common Partition: These are composed of vertical members known as studs bridged
between upper horizontal (head) and lower horizontal (still) member.
o Trussed Partition: These are designed on the principle of trusses. It is applied with
possibilities of providing supports only.
C) ASBESTOS OR G.I SHEET

 Wooden frame is used to fix the sheets for

the partition.
 They are lighter in weight, thin and cheaper.
 To make it stronger, specially manufactured
asbestos slabs are used.
 Fire-resistant and makes it have good heat
and sound insulation properties.

F) CONCRETE PARTITION
WALLS

 It can be plain or reinforced.

 It may be cast in site or
precast in advance.
 This partition is rigid and
stable along both vertical
and horizontal directions.

G) HOLLOW BLOCK AND CLAY BLOCK PARTITIONS

Hollow concrete block partitions are built of individual units of concrete.

 Clay blocks used are well prepared from clay or terra-cotta, and
they are either solids or hollow. Hollow clay blocks of section
30*20 cm with thickness varying from 5 cm to 15 cm can also be
used.
 The blocks are provided with grooves on top, bottom and sides,
surfaces are kept glazed in different colures.
 They do not change their volume and are in lighter in weight.
H) STRAWBOARD PARTITIONS

Useful where removal of partitions is frequent.

Made of compressed straw covered thick paper or hardboard. Easy to construct.

Heat and sound proof partitions.

I) METAL PARTITIONS

 Are light in weight, fireproof and strong.

 Are easy to construct and shift.
 Insulated material is filled into hollow spaces.
 Used for office and industrial buildings.
 Are also formed of metal lathes supported and fixed by wires.
 WINDOWS
Purpose of Window Treatment

Window coverings help control the environment in a home. They regulate the amount of light,
muffle noise, insulate and provide privacy.

a) Light Control: Window treatments allows to control the amount of light a room receives.
They also allow to brighten the room by removing the covering from the window.
b) Energy Control: Window treatments can effectively conserve heat in a room, thus
making the heating of the room more economical.
c) Noise Control: Although most people enjoy the light and ventilation a window provides,
there may be times of the day, or season, when undesirable noise enters the buildings
through a window. In some cases, a window treatment can minimize the noise from the
outside world.
d) Privacy: Bedrooms and bathrooms require window treatments that provide privacy.
Privacy can also be provided in other areas of the home with window treatments.
e) Beauty: Window treatments can add a great deal of beauty to an otherwise dreary room.
f) View: Although many window treatment are designed to enhance an outside view, other
treatments are designed to obscure a poor view.

When choosing window treatments, consider these points:

 Direction of window (exposure)
 Light control
 Shape of window
 Purpose of window
 Style of room
 Cost
 Maintenance
 Energy efficiency
 Privacy

Window treatment should be:

 Durable
 Sun resistant
 Moisture resistant
 Insect resistant
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 PSYCHOLOGY OF COLOURS
Colour is an essential and versatile means of shaping space. It is far more than decoration; it is an
aid to interpretation and clarification. Colour can confer meaning, context and identity; it can
booth support architectural form or subversively work against it. Colour helps us comprehend the
character, the mood and the spatial hierarchies of architecture, and can be used to optimize
space; to give it individuality, to bring calm or add vitality. It reinforces or blurs spatial
boundaries, defines and accentuates surfaces and volumes within the composition. One can
create different moods in a single architectural space with the help of different colours. Colour
has been found to increase a person’s arousal. They have a subversive consequence on how
people feel both physically and psychologically. Colour, is one of the effective factors in a space
which imprints the way individuals express their emotions.

Colours are classified into two types

 WARM COLOURS
 COOL COLOURS

WARM COLOURS

In general there are two ways to classify colours, warm and

cool. Warm colours are defined as being bold and energetic, and
they have the susceptibility to advance in space. This innate both
positive and negative effects because while using them can make
something stick out, too much of them can be astounding in a sense
that it immerse out the other colours. Out of the seven hues that
make up our visible range of colour, red, orange, yellow, and some
shades of green are considered to be the warm colours. The warm
colours cause an increase in heart rate, respiration, and blood
pressure because it has a stimulating effect on the nervous system.

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COOL COLOURS

The green, blue, indigo, and violet hues from our visible
range of colour are considered to be the cool colours. They have
the opposite effect of warm colours and decrease the heart rate,
respiration, and blood pressure because they affect the nervous
system.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOURS

RED:

 True red is most vibrant, compelling colour in spectrum, expressing excitement, speed,
passion, power, joy, and danger.
 Red colour attracts immediate attention and brings objects or images to foreground,
because of its powerful effect on automatic nervous system.
 It can induce a feeling of warmth and cosiness, hence is often used on building where
show business is the aim.
 It is the strongest among warm colours therefore can change a space into looking
compact and stimulating.

BLUE:

 Blue has been a symbol of loyalty, hope and faith since ancient times.
 Best liked of all colours. It can be recognized as cold, unemotional and unfriendly.
 Light to medium range blues are specially pleasing and restful.
 Staring at blue actually reduces pulse and respiration and respiration rate and temporarily
lowers blood pressure.
 Some hues of blue can be sharp and demanding therefore needs to be used carefully.
 Blue can make space appear larger.
 Navy blue commands respect, representing loyalty, trustworthiness and dignity.

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YELLOW:

 Psychologically the happiest colour in the spectrum, associated with warmth, optimis m
and joy.
 Bright yellow hues can form interesting focal points in an interior scheme against
background of natural colours.
 The right yellow lifts our spirits and our self-esteem; it is the colour of confidence and
optimism.

ORANGE

 A stimulating, energisingcolour that appears friendly, outgoing, cheerful and

adventurous.
 It has the energy of red and the happy, friendly qualities of yellow.
 Orange is lively colour best used in areas which are not meant to relax in stimulating
colour, warm, dominating, intense and vivacious.
 Bright orange has very high visibility, making it ideal or warning signals and grabbing
attention, even when used in small amounts.
 The saffron hue has religious connections in our country.

GREEN

 Pale green physically the most relaxing and calming colour in the spectrum.
 The colour of nature, rest full refreshing and verdant placed between the cool and warm
colour in colour wheel.
 Have great healing powers.
 That is one of the reasons hospital walls are often painted sea foam, to literally sedate
worried patients and visitors.
 The lighter tint or green used in a room can produce impressions of spaciousness.
 Darker are associated with balance and growth, suggesting high productive status and
success.

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BLACK.

 Black is the mixture of all colours totally absorbed.

 It creates an air of mystery. In colour psychology the meaning of the colour black is
creating protective barriers from external emotional stress.
 Black means power and control. Black is frightening, unfriendly and unapproachable
because of the power it exudes.
 Black implies self-control and agitation, independence and a strong will, and giving an
impression of authority and power.
 Too much black can cause abasements and mood swings and create a adverse
environment.

WHITE

 It symbolizes purity, innocence, goodness and truth. It is clean, hygienic and sterile.
 Even though white is neutral, it is considered as a cool colour because of its association
with snow and ice.
 It offers a sense of reconciliation and creates soothing environment.
 It contains an equal balance of all the colours of the spectrum, representing both the
negative and positive aspects of all the colours.

COLOUR AND TEXTURE

 Colour and texture are inseparable twins.

 They are both part of the subjective emotion of the artist, and create an expressive
meaning that have an effect on the human feeling of the spectator.
 Texture represents the external image of the surfaces of the compositions and the
different object we look at.
 Adding texture to the surface as a textural cover will distinguish it from other surfaces of
the composition. Because every natural and artificial matter has its own texture, the
property of colour will be closely connected to texture.

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  There is a physical reason for that, as every matter, natural or artificial, has a colour.

COLOUR AND LIGHT

 Changes in an objects colour can also result from the effects of light. This factor is very
important as it can change any environment having colours.
 Light effects in colours can change the space drastically.
 Day light can be warm or cool, depending on the time of day and direction from which it
comes.
 Warm light tends to emphasize warm colours and alters cool hues, while cool light
intensifies cool colours and weakens warm hues.
 If light is tinted with a particular hue, it will raise the intensity of the colours of that
particular hue and neutralize colours of a complementary hue.
 The value of colour can also be altered by the amount of light used to illuminate it.
Lowering the amount of illumination will darken a colours value and neutralize its hue.
 High levels of illumination, however can also intend to make colours appear less
saturated or washed.

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