CHAPTER

GAS
EXCHANGE
PROCESSES

This chapter deals with the fundamentals of the gas exchange processes-intake
and exhaust in four-stroke cycle
engines and scavenging in two-stroke cycle
engines. The purpose of the exhaust and inlet processes or of the
scavenging
process is to remove the burned gases at the end of the power stroke and admit
the fresh charge for the next
cycle. Equation (2.38) shows that the indicated
power of an internal combustion engine at a
mass flow rate of air.
given speed is proportional to the
Thus, inducting the maximum air mass at wide-open throt-
tle or full load and
the gas
retaining that mass within the cylinder is the primary goal of
exchange processes. Engine gas exchange processes are characterized by
Overall parameters such as volumetric
efficiency (for four-stroke cycles), and scav-
enging efficiency and trapping efficiency (for two-stroke
parameters depend on the design of engine
cycles). These overall
and subsystems such as manifolds, valves,
ports, as well as engine operating conditions. Thus, the flow through individ-
ual
components in the engine intake and exhaust system has been
studied also. Supercharging and turbocharging are used to increase air flow extensively
through engines, and hence power density. Obviously, whether the engine is natu-
raly aspirated or supercharged (or
turbocharged) significantly affects the gas
exchange processes. The above topics are the subject of this chapter.
For spark-ignition engines, the fresh charge is fuel, air, and (if used for
enission control) recycled exhaust, so mixture
preparation is also an important
205
206 NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

goal of the intake process. Mixture preparation includes both achieving the
appropriate mixture composition and achieving equal distribution of air, fuel,
and recycled exhaust amongst the different cylinders. In diesels, only air (or air
plus recycled exhaust) is inducted. Mixture preparation and manifold flow
phenomena are discussed in Chap. 7. A third goal of the gas exchange processes
is to set up the flow field within the engine cylinders that will give a fast-enough
combustion process for satisfactory engine operation. In-cylinder flows are the
subject of Chap. 8.

6.1 INLET AND EXHAUST PROCESSES

IN THE FOUR-STROKE CYCLE
In a spark-ignition engine, the intake system typically consists of an air filter, a
carburetor and throttle or fuel injector and throttle or throttle with individual
fuel injectors in intake intake the
each port,and manifold. During induction
process, pressure losses occur as the mixture passes through or by each of these
components. There is an additional pressure drop across the intake port and
valve. The exhaust system typically consists of an exhaust manifold, exhaust pipe,
often a catalytic converter for emission control, and a'mufler or silencer. Figure
6-1 illustrates the intake and exhaust gas flow processes in a conventional spark
ignition engine. These flows are pulsating. However, many aspects of these flows
can be analysed on a quasi-steady basis, and the pressures indicated in the intake
system in Fig. 6-1a represent time-averaged values for a multicylinder engine.
The drop in pressure along the intake system depends on engine speed, the
flow resistance of the elements in the system, the cross-sectional area through
which the fresh charge moves, and the chargedensity. Figure 6-1d shows the inlet
and exhaust valve lifts versus crank angle. The usual practice is to extend the
valve open phases beyond the intake and exhaust strokes to improve emptying
and charging of the cylinders and make the best use of the inertia of the gases in
the intake and exhaust systems. The exhaust process usually begins 40 to 60
before BC. Until about BC the burned cylinder gases are discharged due to the
pressure difference between the cylinder and the exhaust system. After BC, the
cylinder is scavenged by the piston as it moves toward TC. The terms blowdo
and displacement are used to denote these two phases of the exhaust process.
Typically,the exhaust valve closes 15 to 30° after TC and the inlet valve opens 10
to 20° before TC. Both valves are open during an overlap period, and when
P/P. <1, backfilow of exhausted gas into the cylinder and of cylinder gasesinto
the intake will usually occur. The advantage of valve overlap occurs at hig
engine speeds when the longer valve-open periods improve volumetric effiieney
As the piston moves past TC and the cylinder pressure falls below the intake
pressure, gas flows from the intake into the cylinder. The intake valve remains
open until 50 to 70° after BC so that fresh charge may continue to fow into the
cylinder after BC.
In a diesel engine intake system, the carburetor or EFI system and the
throttle plate are absent. Diesel engines are more frequently turbochargea.
 GAS EXCHANGE PROCESSES 207

-Po 4 (IVC)
Exhaust
(TVO)
APair TC- BC
Po
P
2
(EVC) lntalke

(EVO)

AP

6)
Apvalve TC BC
P-

(a)

, Ly

Po
Lve

BC TC BC
(d)
FIGURE 6-1
Iotake and exhaust processes for four-stroke
cycle spark-ignition engine: (a) intake
ge pressures within it; (6) valve timing and pressure-volume diagrams; («) exhaust system and aver.
der pressure p and valve lift L, versus crank angle 0. Solid lines are for system; (d) cylin-
wide-open throttle, dashed
ines for part throttle; Po, To, atmospheric conditions; Apai pressure losses in air cleaner;
intake losses upstream of throttle; Ap= losses across throttle; Apav= losses across Ap.
valve the intake
208 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE FUNDAMENTALS

Exhaust

Po Intake

Pi

P
Po

P -V
TC BC

Pe T

FIGURE 6-2
Intake and exhaust process for turbocharged four-stroke cycle engine. The turbocharger compresso
C raises air pressure and temperature from ambient Po. To to pi» T. Cylinder pressure
during intake
the exhaust manifold to the turbo
is less than p,. During exhaust, the cylinder gases fow through
exhaust process and lies between cylin
charger turbine T. Manifold pressure p, may vary during the
der pressure and ambient.

turbo
similar set of diagrams illustrating the intake and exhaust processes for a
charged four-stroke diesel is shown in Fig. 6-2. When the exhaust valve opens,
which
the burned cylinder gases are fed to a turbine which drives a compressor
compresses the air prior to entry to the cylinder.
Due to the time-varying valve open area and cylinder volume, gas inerta
and propagation in the intake and exhaust systems, the pressures in
effects, wave
var
the intake, the cylinder, and the exhaust during these gas exchange processes
in a complicated way. Analytical calculation of these processes is dificult (s*
Secs. 7.6.2 and 14.3 for a review of available methods). In practice, these processe
volumetric en?
are often treated empirically using overall parameters such as

i y to define intake and exhaust system performance.