C

CHEESE

Contents
Overview
Preparation of Cheese Milk
Starter Cultures: General Aspects
Starter Cultures: Specific Properties
Secondary Cultures
Rennets and Coagulants
Rennet-Induced Coagulation of Milk
Gel Firmness and Its Measurement
Curd Syneresis
Salting of Cheese
Mechanization of Cheesemaking
Membrane Processing in Cheese Manufacture
Microbiology of Cheese
Use of Microbial DNA Fingerprinting
Non-Starter Lactic Acid Bacteria
Public Health Aspects
Raw Milk Cheeses
Avoidance of Gas Blowing
Biochemistry of Cheese Ripening
Cheese Flavor
Cheese Rheology
Acid- and Acid/Heat Coagulated Cheese
Cheddar-Type Cheeses
Swiss-Type Cheeses
Dutch-Type Cheeses
Hard Italian Cheeses
Pasta-Filata Cheeses: Low-Moisture Part-Skim Mozzarella (Pizza Cheese)
Pasta-Filata Cheeses: Traditional Pasta-Filata Cheese
Smear-Ripened Cheeses
Blue Mold Cheese
Camembert, Brie, and Related Varieties
Cheese with Added Herbs, Spices and Condiments
Cheeses Matured in Brine
Accelerated Cheese Ripening
Enzyme-Modified Cheese
Pasteurized Processed Cheese Products
Cheese Analogues
Cheese as a Food Ingredient
Low-Fat and Reduced-Fat Cheese
Current Legislation for Cheeses

533
534 Cheese | Overview

Overview
P F Fox, University College, Cork, Ireland
ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction rennet and the enzymes from bacteria continue to act,

resulting in changes in the flavor, texture, and functionality
Cheese is the generic name for a group of fermented dairy of cheese. When controlled, this process is referred to as
products, produced throughout the world in a great diver- ripening (maturation), during which a great diversity of
sity of flavors, textures, and forms; there are more than characteristic flavors and textures develop. The principal
1000 varieties of cheese. It is commonly believed that traditional rennets used for the manufacture of long-
cheese evolved in the ‘Fertile Crescent’ between the ripened cheeses are extracts from the stomachs of young
Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in what is now Iraq, about mammals, in which the principal enzyme is chymosin.
8000 years ago, during the so-called ‘Agricultural However, increased production of cheese led to a shortage
Revolution’, when certain plants and animals were of such rennets, necessitating the introduction of rennet
domesticated as sources of food. Milk is a rich source of substitutes.
nutrients for neonatal mammals, and adult humans soon
exploited it as a valuable component of the diet. However,
milk is also a rich source of nutrients for bacteria, which
contaminate milk and grow well under ambient condi- History of Cheesemaking
tions. Some contaminating bacteria (lactic acid bacteria
The advantages accruing from the conversion of milk to
(LAB), including the genera Lactococcus, Lactobacillus,
cheese are apparent from the viewpoints of storage stabil-
Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Leuconostoc, and Pediococcus) cata-
ity, ease of transport, and diversification of the human
bolize milk sugar, lactose, as a source of energy,
diet. Cheese manufacture accompanied the spread of
producing lactic acid as a by-product. When sufficient
civilization through Egypt, Greece, and Rome. There
acid is produced to reduce the pH to 4.6, the caseins, the
are several references to cheese in the Old Testament,
principal proteins in milk, coagulate to form a gel, which
in the tombs of ancient Egypt, and in classical Greek
occludes the fat and aqueous phases of milk. An acid-
literature. Cheese manufacture was well established dur-
induced milk gel is quite stable if left undisturbed and is ing the Roman Empire and was described by many
consumed as such in a wide range of fermented milk Roman writers, for example, Cato (about 150 BC),
products. However, if cut or broken, the gel separates Varro (about 40 BC), Pliny (AD 23–89), and especially
into curds and whey. The shelf life of the curds can be Columella (about AD 50). Movements of Roman armies
extended by dehydration and/or salting to yield acid- and administrators contributed to the spread of cheese
coagulated cheeses, for example, Cottage cheese, Cream throughout the Roman world. The great migrations of
cheese, and Quark, which represent 25% of total cheese peoples throughout Europe after the fall of the Roman
production and in some countries are the principal varie- Empire probably promoted the spread of cheese manu-
ties; they are consumed fresh and are used widely in other facture, as did the Crusaders and pilgrims of the Middle
food products, for example, cheesecakes and cheese-based Ages. However, the most important contributors to the
dips and sauces. development of cheese ‘technology’ and to the evolution
An alternative mechanism for coagulating milk was also of cheese varieties during the Middle Ages were the
recognized in prehistoric times. Many proteinases from monasteries and feudal estates. Monasteries were major
bacteria, molds, plants, or animal tissues (referred to as contributors to the advancement of agriculture in Europe
rennets) can modify the casein system, causing it to coa- and to the development and improvement of food com-
gulate under certain circumstances. Rennet-coagulated modities, including cheese; many current cheese varieties
curds have better syneretic properties (ability to exude were developed in monasteries, for example,
whey) than acid-coagulated curds, which makes it possible Wensleydale, Port du Salut or Saint Paulin, Fromage de
to produce lower-moisture, more stable cheese. Therefore, Tamie, Maroilles, Munster, and Trappist.
rennet coagulation has become the principal mechanism The great feudal estates of the Middle Ages were
for cheese manufacture; most modern cheese varieties and self-contained communities, which, in the absence of
75% of total world production of cheese are produced by an effective transport system, relied on locally produced
this mechanism. During the storage of rennet-coagulated foods. Surplus food was produced in summer and
curds, various bacteria grow and the enzymes in milk and preserved to meet the requirements of the community
 Cheese | Overview 535

throughout the year. Fermentation and/or salting, two of Roquefort, are produced in many farm-level dairies
the classical principles for food preservation, were used under the supervision of a producer consortium and the
to preserve meat, fish, beer, wine, vegetables, fermented cheeses ripened and marketed by central facilities.
milks, butter, and cheese. Cheese was traded when Research on the microbiology, chemistry, and technol-
amounts surplus to local requirements were available. ogy of cheese commenced toward the end of the
Within large estates, individuals acquired special skills, nineteenth century and continues today, as a result
which were passed on to succeeding generations. of which cheese science and technology are quite well
Because monasteries and feudal estates were essentially understood. However, there are still large gaps in our
self-contained communities with limited intercommu- knowledge, for example, the complete description of
nity travel, numerous varieties of cheese evolved. cheese flavor, cheese structure, and physicochemical prop-
Traditionally, many cheese varieties were produced in erties. With the gradual acquisition of knowledge on the
limited geographical regions, especially in mountainous chemistry and microbiology of milk and cheese, it became
areas of France, Spain, Italy, the Balkans, and Greece. possible to control the changes involved in cheesemaking.
The localized production of certain varieties is now Although relatively few new varieties have evolved as a
protected and encouraged through the Appellation result of this improved knowledge (notable examples are
d’Origine Contrôlée program, which legally defines the Jarlsberg and Maasdammer), existing varieties became
region and manufacturing technology for certain cheese better defined and their quality more consistent. There
varieties. has been a marked resurgence of farmhouse cheesemaking
Almost certainly, most cheese varieties evolved by in recent years; many of the cheeses being produced on
accident because of particular local circumstances, for farms might be regarded as new varieties.
example, species or breed of dairy animal, local vegeta-
tion, a peculiarity in the chemical composition or
microflora of the milk, or an ‘accident’ during the Overview of Cheese Production
manufacture or storage of the cheese, for example, growth
of molds or other microorganisms. Presumably, those The production of all varieties of cheese involves a gen-
accidents that led to desirable changes in the quality of erally similar protocol (Figure 1), various steps of which
cheese were included in the manufacturing protocol, are modified to give a product with the desired character-
which underwent a series of evolutionary changes and istics. The principal features of the manufacture and
refinements. characteristics of the principal cheese varieties will be
The colonization of North and South America, described in the following articles; the objective of this
Oceania, and Africa by Europeans introduced cheesemak- article is to present an overview of the cheesemaking
ing to these regions, and cheese, mainly European process so that the operations described in later articles
varieties, sometimes modified to meet local conditions, can be seen in an overall context.
has become an item of major economic importance in the
United States, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico,
Australia, and New Zealand. Selection of Milk
Cheesemaking remained a craft until relatively
recently. The first attempt to standardize Cheddar cheese The composition of cheese is strongly influenced by the
was made in England by John Harding in the composition of the milk, especially the content of fat,
mid-nineteenth century. Prior to that, ‘Cheddar cheese’ protein, and calcium, and pH. The constituents and com-
was that produced around the village of Cheddar, in position of milk, which are described in various articles
Somerset, England, and probably varied considerably, throughout this encyclopedia, are influenced by several
depending on the cheese maker and other factors. factors, including species, breed, individual animal varia-
Cheese manufacture was a farmstead enterprise until the tions, nutritional status, health, and stage of lactation of
mid-nineteenth century – the first cheese factory in the the milk-producing animals. Owing to major composi-
United States was established near Rome, New York, in tional abnormalities, milk from cows in the very early or
1851 and the first in Britain at Longford, Derbyshire, in late stages of lactation and those suffering from mastitis
1870. There were thousands of farm-scale cheesemakers should be excluded. Somatic cell (leukocyte) count is a
and there must have been great variation within any one useful index of milk quality. Some genetic polymorphs of
general type; even today, there is very considerable inter- the milk proteins have a significant effect on cheese yield
and intrafactory variation in the quality and characteris- and quality and there is increasing interest in breeding for
tics of well-defined varieties, in spite of the very desirable polymorphs, especially in the case of sheep and
considerable scientific and technological advances. The goats. Cheese milk should be free of chemical taints
curds for many famous varieties of cheese, for example, and free fatty acids, which cause off-flavors in the cheese,
Parmigiano Reggiano, Grana Padano, Emmental, and and antibiotics, which inhibit bacterial cultures.
536 Cheese | Overview

therefrom. There are also significant differences in milk

composition between breeds of cattle, which influence
cheese quality. The milk of yak and reindeer is used for
local small-scale cheesemaking, but the milk of camel,
horse, and donkey yields a very weak, or no, gel and
cannot be used for cheese production.
The milk should be of good microbiological quality, as
contaminating bacteria are concentrated in the curd and
may cause defects or public health problems. However,
cheese milk is normally pasteurized or subjected to one or
more of the treatments described below (see section
‘Heat treatment of milk’), to render it free of pathogenic,
food poisoning, and certain spoilage bacteria.

Standardization of Milk Composition

The composition of cheese is prescribed in ‘Policy

Schemes and Trade in Dairy Products: Standards of
Identity of Milk and Milk Products’ with respect to
moisture and fat-in-dry-matter, which in effect defines a
certain fat:protein ratio. The moisture content of cheese,
and hence the level of fat and protein, is determined
mainly by the manufacturing protocol, but the fat:protein
ratio in cheese is determined mainly by the fat:casein ratio
in the milk. Depending on the ratio required, it can be
modified by

• removing some fat by natural creaming or

centrifugation,
• adding skimmed milk,
• adding milk
adding cream, and
• (UF) retentate;
powder, evaporated milk, or ultrafiltration
such additions also increase the total
solids content of the milk and hence increase the yield
Figure 1 General protocol for cheese manufacture.
of cheese curd per unit volume.
Reproduced from Fox PF, Guinee TP, Cogan TM, and Calcium plays an essential role in the coagulation of milk
McSweeney PLH (2000) Fundamentals of Cheese Science.
Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.
by rennet and in the subsequent processing of the coagu-
lum; hence, it is common practice to add CaCl2
(e.g., 0.01%) to cheese milk.
A major cause of variation in the characteristics of The pH of milk is a critical factor in cheesemaking.
cheese is the species of dairy animal from which the The addition of 1.5–2% starter culture to cheese milk
milk is obtained. The principal dairying species are cattle, reduces its pH by 0.1 units; starter concentrates (direct -
water buffalo, sheep, and goats, which produce 85, 11, 2, to- vat set (DVS)) have little or no direct acidifying effect.
and 2% of commercial milk, respectively. Goats and Previously, it was standard practice to add the starter to
sheep are significant producers of milk in certain regions, the milk 30–60 min before rennet addition. The objective
for example, around the Mediterranean, where their milk of this operation, referred to as ‘ripening’, was to allow the
is used mainly for the production of fermented milks and starter bacteria to enter the exponential growth phase and
cheese. Many world-famous cheeses are produced from become highly active during cheesemaking; ripening is
sheep’s milk, for example, Roquefort, Feta, Pecorino not necessary with modern high-quality starters. Some
Romano, and Manchego; traditional Mozzarella acid was produced during ripening, which favored rennet
(Mozzarella di buffalo) is made from buffalo milk. There action and gel formation. However, ripening increases the
are very significant interspecies differences in the com- risk of bacteriophage infection of the starter because
position and physicochemical properties of milk, which phage become distributed throughout the liquid milk;
are reflected in the characteristics of cheese produced following coagulation, bacteriophage are fixed in position
 Cheese | Overview 537

and therefore their destructive effect becomes localized There are four alternatives to pasteurization for redu-
and reduced. Although ripening is still practiced for some cing the number of microorganisms in milk, but it is
cheese varieties, it has been discontinued for most important to realize that these methods may not produce
varieties. pathogen-free milk:
The pH of milk on reception at the dairy is higher
1. Treatment with H2O2: not practiced in developed
today than previously owing to improved hygiene during
dairying countries.
milking and the widespread use of refrigeration at the
2. Activation of the lactoperoxidase–H2O2–thiocyanate
farm and factory. In the absence of acid production by
system (see Enzymes Indigenous to Milk:
contaminating bacteria, the pH of milk increases slightly
Lactoperoxidase): very limited or no application in
during storage due to the loss of CO2 to the atmosphere.
the cheese industry.
The natural pH of milk is 6.7 but varies somewhat
3. Bactofugation: frequently used to remove clostridial
(e.g., it increases in late lactation and during mastitic
spores as an alternative to the use of nitrate to prevent
infection).
late gas blowing in cheese.
As an alternative to ripening, the preacidification of
4. Microfiltration: very effective for removing bacteria
milk by 0.1–0.2 pH units, either through the use of glu-
and spores from milk but not yet widely practiced in
conic acid--lactone (GDL) or by limited growth of a
the cheese industry (see Cheese: Membrane Processing
lactic acid starter, followed by pasteurization (referred
in Cheese Manufacture. Liquid Milk Products:
to as prematuration), is recommended and is claimed to
Liquid Milk Products: Membrane-Processed Liquid
result in better and more uniform rennet coagulation
Milk).
characteristics and cheese quality.

Cheese Color
Heat Treatment of Milk
The principal pigments in milk are carotenoids, which are
Traditionally, cheese was made from raw milk, a practice obtained from the animal’s diet, especially from fresh
that was almost universal until the 1940s. Although cheese grass and clover. Cattle transfer carotenoids to adipose
made from raw milk develops a more intense flavor than tissue and milk, but goats, sheep, and buffalo do not.
that produced from pasteurized milk, the former is less Therefore, bovine milk fat and high-fat products, includ-
consistent and poses a public health risk. When cheese ing cheese, are yellow to an extent dependent on the
was produced from fresh milk on farms or in small, local carotenoid content of the animal’s diet, whereas their
factories, the growth of contaminating microorganisms counterparts made from sheep, goat, or buffalo milk are
was minimal but as cheese factories became larger, sto- very white in comparison. The yellowish color of dairy
rage of milk for longer periods became necessary and products produced from cows’ milk may make them less
hence the microbiological quality of the milk deteriorated acceptable than products produced from sheep’s, goats’,
and varied. Thermization (see Heat Treatment of Milk: or buffalo milk in regions where the latter are traditional.
Thermization of Milk) of cheese milk is fairly widely The carotenoids in bovine milk can be bleached by treat-
practiced on receipt at the factory to reduce the microbial ment with H2O2 or benzoyl peroxide, or masked by
load and extend the storage period. For public health chlorophyll or titanium oxide, if these additives are
reasons, it became increasingly popular from the begin- permitted.
ning of the twentieth century to pasteurize milk for liquid At the other end of the spectrum are individuals who
consumption (see Liquid Milk Products: Pasteurization prefer highly colored cheese, which is usually achieved by
of Liquid Milk Products: Principles, Public Health adding annatto, extracted from the seeds of Bixa orellana,
Aspects. Plant and Equipment: Pasteurizers, Design and a native of Brazil, which contains two apocarotenoid
Operation). The pasteurization of cheese milk became pigments, bixin and norbixin. Alternatively, synthetic or
widespread about 1940, primarily for public health rea- natural carotenoids may be used.
sons, but also to provide a milk supply of more uniform
bacteriological quality. Although a considerable amount
of cheese is still produced from raw milk, on both an Conversion of Milk to Cheese Curd
artisanal and factory scale, especially in southern
Europe (including such famous varieties as Swiss After the milk has been standardized and pasteurized or
Emmental, Gruyère de Comte, Parmigiano Reggiano, otherwise treated, it is transferred to vats (or kettles),
and Grana Padano), pasteurized milk is now generally which vary in shape (hemispherical, rectangular or
used, especially in large factories (see Cheese: Raw Milk cylindrical, vertical or horizontal), may be open or closed,
Cheeses). and may range in size from a few hundred liters to 30 000 l
538 Cheese | Overview

or more, where it is converted to cheese curd by a process and the activity of enzymes in the cheese; conse-
that involves three basic operations: acidification, coagu- quently, it strongly influences the rate and pattern of
lation, and dehydration. ripening and the quality of cheese,
• colloidal calcium phosphate in the casein micelles,
which dissolves as the pH decreases, as a result of
Acidification which the susceptibility of the caseins to proteolysis
during ripening is increased and the rheological prop-
Acidification is usually achieved through the in situ
erties, meltability, and stretchability of the cheese are
production of lactic acid by the fermentation of lactose
modified, and
by LAB. Initially, the indigenous milk microflora was
relied upon to produce acid, but since this was variable, • the growth of many non-starter bacteria in cheese,
including pathogenic, food poisoning, and gas-producing
the rate and extent of acidification were variable, result-
microorganisms; properly made cheese is a very safe
ing in cheese of variable quality. Cultures of LAB
product from the public health viewpoint.
(starters) for cheesemaking were introduced about 100
years ago and since then have been improved progres- Some cheese varieties, for example, Cheddar, are salted
sively and refined. The science and technology of LAB by mixing dry salt with chips of curd at the end of
and starters will be described in several articles in this manufacture; since the level of salt in the cheese moisture
encyclopedia (see Cheese: Starter Cultures: General rapidly reaches a value (5–6%) that halts the growth of
Aspects. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Lactobacillus spp.: starter bacteria, the pH of curds for these varieties at
General Characteristics; Lactococcus lactis). The acidifica- salting must approximate the ultimate value (pH 5.1).
tion of curd for some artisanal cheeses still relies on the However, most varieties are salted by immersing the
indigenous microflora. formed cheese in brine or by surface application of dry
Direct acidification using acid (usually lactic acid salt; the diffusion of NaCl into the interior of the cheese is
or HCl) or acidogen (GDL) is an alternative to bio- relatively slow and therefore there is ample time for the
logical acidification and is used commercially to a pH to decrease to 5.0 before the concentration of salt
significant extent in the manufacture of Cottage, becomes inhibitory throughout the cheese. The pH of the
Quark, Feta-type cheese from UF-concentrated milk, curd for most cheese varieties is 6.2–6.5 at molding and
and Mozzarella. Direct acidification is more control- pressing but decreases to 5.0–5.2 during or shortly after
lable than biological acidification and, unlike starters, pressing and before salting (see Cheese: Salting of
is not susceptible to bacteriophage infection. However, Cheese).
enzymes from starter bacteria are essential in cheese In a few cases, for example, Domiati, a high level of
ripening and hence chemical acidifcation is used NaCl is added to the milk, traditionally to control the
mainly for cheese varieties for which texture is more growth of adventitious microorganisms. This NaCl has a
important than flavor. major influence on acid development, rennet coagulation,
The rate of acidification depends on the amount and gel strength, and curd syneresis.
type of starter added and on the temperature profile of the
curd and ranges from 5 to 6 h for Cheddar and Cottage
Secondary Cultures
cheese and from 10 to 12 h for Dutch and Swiss types. The
ultimate pH of the curd for most rennet-coagulated The starter LAB dominate the microflora of cheese initi-
cheeses is 5.0–5.3 but the pH of acid-coagulated varieties, ally, but after reaching a maximum of 109 per gram,
for example, Cottage, Quark, and Cream, and some soft they die off and lyse, and are replaced by a secondary
rennet-coagulated varieties, for example, Camembert and microflora, which consists of
Brie, is 4.6.
1. non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB), mainly
The production of acid at the appropriate rate and
adventitious mesophilic Lactobacillus spp., which are
time affects several aspects of cheese manufacture and is
normally contaminants from the milk, equipment, or
critical for the production of good-quality cheese; it
environment, and hence are variable in type and num-
affects
ber. Because NSLAB dominate the viable microflora of
• coagulant activity during coagulation, long-ripened cheese and because of their variability,
• curd, which influences
denaturation and retention of the coagulant in the
the rate of proteolysis during
they are responsible for much of the inconsistency of
cheese quality; therefore, it is becoming increasingly
ripening and may affect cheese quality, common to add selected strains of Lactobacillus as part
• gel strength (curd tension), which influences cheese
yield,
of the starter and these will outcompete the adventi-
tious NSLAB.
• gel syneresis, which controls the moisture content of
cheese curd and hence regulates the growth of bacteria
2. cultures of non-LAB, which are added to perform
specific functions. These include Propionibacterium
 Cheese | Overview 539

freudenreichii in Swiss-type cheeses, Brevibacterium linens and composition of the milk, the amount and type of
in surface smear-ripened varieties, Penicillium roqueforti starter, and the amount and type of rennet are also sig-
in blue cheeses, and/or Penicillium camemberti and nificant in this regard.
Geotrichum candidum in surface mold-ripened varieties. The liquid expressed from the curds in the vat or in
These are very active microorganisms and dominate the molds is called whey, which contains about 50% of
the ripening of cheese in which they are used. They the solids in milk (98% of the lactose, 25% of the protein,
may be adventitious (from milk and environment) or and 10% of the fat). In the past, whey was regarded as
added as a culture to the milk or curd (becoming essentially worthless, to be disposed of as cheaply as
increasingly common). possible. However, whey is now the source of valuable
food products (see Whey Processing: Demineralization;
Utilization and Products).
Coagulation
A more or less unique protocol has been developed
The essential step in the manufacture of all cheese vari- for the manufacture of each cheese variety. These pro-
eties involves coagulation of the casein of milk to form a tocols differ mainly with respect to postcoagulation
gel, which entraps the fat, if present. Coagulation may be operations. The manufacture of the principal families
achieved by of cheese will be described in the articles Cheese: Blue
Mold Cheese; Camembert, Brie, and Related Varieties;
• limited proteolysis by selected proteinases (rennets),
Cheddar-Type Cheeses; Cheeses Matured in Brine;
• acidification toto pH
acidification 4.6, or
Dutch-Type Cheeses; Hard Italian Cheeses; Pasta-
• 
pH 5.2–5.5 and heating to 90 C.
Filata Cheeses: Low-Moisture Part-Skim Mozzarella
Most cheese varieties, and about 75% of total produc- (Pizza Cheese); Pasta-Filata Cheeses: Traditional
tion, are produced by rennet coagulation but some Pasta-Filata Cheese; Smear-Ripened Cheeses; Swiss-
acid-coagulated varieties, for example, Quark and Type Cheeses.
Cottage cheese, are of major importance (see Cheese:
Acid- and Acid/Heat Coagulated Cheese; Rennet-Induced
Coagulation of Milk). The acid/heat-coagulated
cheeses are relatively minor varieties, which are usually Salting
produced from rennet cheese whey or a blend of whey
and skim milk and evolved as a means for recovering Most, probably all, cheeses are salted at the end of curd
the nutritionally valuable whey proteins; they are manufacture by
usually used as food ingredients. Important varieties
are Ricotta (Italy), Anari (Cyprus), and Manouri
• mixing dry salt with curd chips, for example, Cheddar
and related varieties,
(Greece).
A fourth, minor, group of cheeses is produced, not by
• submersion in NaCl brine, for example, Gouda,
Emmental, and Camembert, and
coagulation, but by thermal evaporation of water from a
mixture of whey and skim milk, whole milk, or cream
• rubbing dry salt on the surface of pressed cheese, for
example, blue cheese.
and crystallization of lactose, for example, Mysost
and Gjetost. These cheeses, which are almost exclusive Salt, which varies from about 2 to 10% in the moisture
to Norway, bear little resemblance to rennet- or acid- phase, has a major influence on various aspects of cheese
coagulated cheese. ripening, quality, and safety (see Cheese: Salting of
Cheese).

Postcoagulation Operations
Applications of Ultrafiltration in
Rennet- or acid-coagulated milk gels are quite stable Cheesemaking
under quiescent conditions, but if cut or broken, they
synerese extensively, expelling whey. Syneresis concen- Since cheese manufacture is essentially a dehydration
trates the fat and casein of milk by a factor of 6–12, process, it was obvious that UF would have applications,
depending on the variety. The rate and extent of syneresis not only for standardizing cheese milk with respect to fat
are influenced, inter alia, by milk composition, especially and casein, but more importantly for the preparation of a
the concentrations of Ca2þ and casein, pH, cooking tem- concentrate with the composition of the finished cheese,
perature, rate of stirring of the curd–whey mixture, and referred to as ‘precheese’. Standardization of cheese milk
time. The composition of the finished cheese is deter- by adding UF concentrate (retentate) is now common but
mined mainly by the extent of syneresis, which initiates the manufacture of precheese has to date been successful
the differentiation of cheese varieties, although the type commercially for only certain cheese varieties, most
540 Cheese | Overview

notably UF Feta and Quark (see Cheese: Membrane Cheese as an Ingredient and Processed
Processing in Cheese Manufacture). Cheese Products

About 50% of cheese is consumed as such, referred to as

Ripening ‘table cheese’. A considerable amount of natural cheese is
used as a food ingredient, for example, Parmigiano
Acid-coagulated cheeses, which constitute a major pro- Reggiano or Grana Padano on pasta products,
portion of the cheese consumed in some countries, are Mozzarella on pizza, Quark in cheesecake, and Ricotta
ready for consumption at the end of curd manufacture. in ravioli (see Cheese: Cheese as a Food Ingredient). In
Although rennet-coagulated cheese may be consumed as addition, cheese is used in the production of a broad range
fresh curd, and a little is, most of these varieties are of processed cheese products, which in turn have a range
ripened (matured) for a period ranging from about of applications, especially as spreads, sandwich fillers, or
3 weeks to more than 2 years; generally, the duration of food ingredients. Other cheese-based products include
ripening is inversely related to the moisture content of the cheese powders and enzyme-modified cheese, both of
cheese. Many varieties may be consumed at any of several which are becoming increasingly important as food ingre-
stages of maturity, depending on the flavor preferences of dients (see Cheese: Cheese Analogues; Enzyme-Modified
consumers and economic factors. Cheese; Pasteurized Processed Cheese Products).
Although curds for different cheese varieties are
recognizably different at the end of manufacture (mainly
due to compositional and textural differences), the unique
Cheese Production and Consumption
characteristics of each variety develop during ripening as
a result of a complex set of biochemical reactions. The
World production of cheese is 16  106 tonnes per
changes that occur during ripening, and hence the flavor,
annum (35% of total milk production) and is increasing
aroma, and texture of the mature cheese, are predeter-
at a rate of 2–3% per annum. Europe, with an annual
mined by the manufacturing process, especially by the
production of 8  106 tonnes, is the principal producing
levels of moisture and NaCl and pH, residual coagulant
region, followed by North America (Table 1). Cheese
activity, the type of starter, and, in many cases, by the
consumption, which varies widely between countries
secondary microflora (added or adventitious).
(Table 2), has increased consistently in most countries
The biochemical changes that occur during ripening
for which data are available; along with fermented milks,
are caused by one or more of the following agents:
cheese is the principal growth product within the dairy
• coagulant, sector. There are many reasons for the increased con-
• indigenous milk enzymes, especially proteinase and
perhaps lipase,
sumption of cheese, including a positive dietary image,
convenience and flexibility in use, and a great diversity of
• starter bacteria or their enzymes, and flavors and textures. Cheese can be regarded as the quin-
• cultures) andmicroorganisms
secondary
their enzymes.
(NSLAB and secondary tessential convenience food: it can be used as a major
component of a meal, as a dessert, as a component of
other foods, or as a food ingredient; it can be consumed
Ripening is a very complex series of biochemical reac-
without preparation or subjected to various cooking pro-
tions, which may be divided into three principal groups:
cesses. The most rapid growth in cheese consumption in
• Catabolism of lactose, lactic acid, and, in some vari-
eties, citric acid; this results in changes in flavor and
recent years has been as a food ingredient (see Cheese:
Cheese as a Food Ingredient).
texture (through changes in pH) and in the production
of CO2, which causes eyes and other openings.
• Lipolysis and the catabolism of fatty acids; in some
varieties, for example, blue cheeses, these reactions
Classification of Cheese
dominate ripening.
There are at least 1000 varieties of cheese, 500 of which
• Proteolysis and modification of amino acids, which are
the most complex, and perhaps the most important,
are recognized by the International Dairy Federation. For
various reasons, a number of attempts have been made to
reactions in cheese ripening, especially in internal bac-
classify cheeses into meaningful groups. Traditional classi-
terially ripened varieties; they affect flavor, texture,
fication schemes have been based principally on moisture
and functionality.
content, that is, extra-hard, hard, semihard/semisoft, or soft.
An overview of the biochemistry of cheese ripening is Although used widely, this scheme suffers from serious
presented in the article Cheese: Biochemistry of Cheese limitations since it groups cheeses with widely different
Ripening. characteristics, for example, Cheddar and Emmental are
 Cheese | Overview 541

Table 1 Production of cheese (103 tonnes)

Europe
Austria 137 Belgium 67
Bulgaria 63 Czech Republic 109
Denmark 324 Estonia 36
Finland 107 France 1765
Germany 2032 Greecea 230
Hungary 73 Ireland 140
Italy 1064 Latvia 40
Lithuania 107 Netherlands 724
Norway 84 Poland 637
Portugal 57 Romania 65
Russia 425 Slovakia 34
Slovenia 20 Spain 119
Sweden 114 Switzerland 179
United Kingdom 339 Ukraineb 346
North, Central, and South America
Canada 402 Mexicob 154
United States 4463 Argentina 491
Brazilb 580 Chile 65
Uruguayb 48
Africa, Asia, and Oceania
Australia 343 New Zealand 355
Iranb 230 Israelb 112
Japanb 125 South Africab 42
a
From BarryWilso’s dairy Newsletter 21(13): 2009.
b
From Dutch Dairy Industry, 2008.
Data are mainly from the Dutch Dairy Board.

Table 2 Consumption (kg per head per annum) of cheese (in 2007)

Greecea 30.0 Argentina 11.2

France 24.3 Poland 10.7
Iceland 23.5 Portugala 10.5
Norway 23.5 Hungarya 10.4
Germany 22.2 Slovakiab 10.2
Switzerland 22.2 Estonia 10.0
Italy 20.5 Sloveniab 9.4
Finland 19.1 Croatia 8.2
Austria 18.8 Spain 7.2
Sweden 18.4 Russiaa 6.2
Netherlands 17.3 Irelandb 6.1
Czech Republic 17.0 New Zealand 6.1
Denmarkb 16.5 Bulgariab 5.6
Israel 16.5 Lithuaniab 4.9
United States 16.0 Chile 4.0
Belgiumb 14.6 Latvia 3.7
Canada 12.6 Mexicob 2.2
Luxembourgb 12.6 Japana 2.0
United Kingdom 12.2 South Africa 1.6
Australia 11.9 Ukraine 1.1
a
2006.
b
From Dutch Dairy Federation.
Data are from Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation, no. 432/2008,
Brussels, unless otherwise indicated.

classified as hard cheeses although they have quite different evaporated; hence, the composition of cheese changes as
textures and flavors, are manufactured by very different it ages and there is a moisture gradient from the surface to
technologies, and the microbiology and biochemistry of the center; the moisture content of long-ripened cheese
their ripening are very different. In addition, cheeses tradi- may decrease by 5–10% during ripening. The composi-
tionally developed a rind through which moisture tion-based scheme is made more discriminating by
542 Cheese | Overview

Figure 2 A scheme for the classification of cheese. Reproduced from Fox PF, McSweeney PLH, Cogan TM, and Guinee TP (2004)
Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology, 3rd edn., Vols. 1 and 2. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.

including information on the source of the milk, the coa- Cheeses; Enzyme-Modified Cheese; Hard Italian
gulant, principal ripening microorganisms, and the cook Cheeses; Membrane Processing in Cheese Manufacture;
temperature. On the basis of the method of milk coagula- Pasta-Filata Cheeses: Low-Moisture Part-Skim
tion, cheeses may be divided into four superfamilies: Mozzarella (Pizza Cheese); Pasta-Filata Cheeses:
Traditional Pasta-Filata Cheese; Pasteurized Processed
• rennet-coagulated
varieties;
cheeses: most major cheese
Cheese Products; Raw Milk Cheeses; Rennet-Induced
Coagulation of Milk; Salting of Cheese; Smear-Ripened
• acid-coagulated
Cream;
cheeses: for example, Cottage, Quark,
Cheeses; Starter Cultures: General Aspects; Swiss-Type
Cheeses. Enzymes Indigenous to Milk:
• heat/acid-coagulated cheeses: for example, Ricotta; and
Lactoperoxidase. Heat Treatment of Milk: Thermization
• tion of whey/skim milkbyblends
‘brown cheese’, prepared concentration/crystalliza-
fortified to varying
of Milk. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Lactobacillus spp.: General
Characteristics; Lactococcus lactis. Liquid Milk
degrees with cream: for example, Mysost.
Products: Pasteurization of Liquid Milk Products:
Owing to the great diversity of rennet-coagulated Principles, Public Health Aspects. Plant and Equipment:
cheeses, these can be classified further based on the char- Pasteurizers, Design and Operation. Policy Schemes
acteristic ripening agent(s), for example, internal bacteria, and Trade in Dairy Products: Standards of Identity of
internal mold, surface mold, or surface smear (bacteria), Milk and Milk Products. Whey Processing:
or manufacturing technology; such a scheme is shown in Demineralization; Utilization and Products.
Figure 2.

See also: Cheese: Acid- and Acid/Heat Coagulated Further Reading

Cheese; Biochemistry of Cheese Ripening; Blue Mold
Cheese; Camembert, Brie, and Related Varieties; Barthelemy R and Sperat-Czer A (2004) Cheeses of the World. London:
Hachette Illustrated UK.
Cheddar-Type Cheeses; Cheese Analogues; Cheese as a Davis JG (1965) Cheese, Vol. 1: Basic Technology, Vol. 2: Bibliography.
Food Ingredient; Cheeses Matured in Brine; Dutch-Type London: Churchill Livingstone.
 Cheese | Overview 543

Davis JG (1967) Cheese, Vol. 3: Manufacturing Methods, Vol. 4: Kosikowski FV and Mistry VV (1997) Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods,
Bibliography. London: Churchill Livingstone. 3rd edn., Vols. 1 and 2. Westport, CT: FV Kosikowski LLC.
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