Contents i

Thermal Engineering
ii Contents

About the Author

Mahesh M Rathore is working as Professor and Head of the Mechanical Engineering

Department of Shri Neminath Jain Brahmacharyashram College of Engineering
(Jain Gurukul), Neminagar, Chandwad, (Nashik) Maharashtra, India. He is also an
Energy Auditor certified by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency, India, and a Chartered
Engineer. With a teaching experience of more than twenty-five years, he has
developed several teaching aids and learning materials for students and has guided
several credential projects. He has presented several research papers in national and
international conferences and has six books to his credit, besides the present one.
Professor Rathore is a life member of the Indian Society for Technical Education,
India, and the Institution of Engineers (India). He is also a faculty of PRINCE
(Promoters and Researchers In Non-Conventional Energy), Dhule, Maharashtra.
 Contents iii

Thermal Engineering

Mahesh M Rathore
Energy Auditor and Chartered Engineer
Professor and Head
Mechanical Engineering Department
S N J B’s KBJ College of Engineering, Chandwad
Nashik, Maharashtra

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iv Contents

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 Contents v

Dedicated to my Beloved Parents

vi Contents
 Contents vii
Contents vii

Contents
Preface xxiii
Nomenclature xxviii
Visual Walkthrough xxxii
1. Basic Concepts 1
1.1 Thermodynamics 1
1.2 Thermodynamic System 1
1.3 Macroscopic V/S Microscopic Views 7
1.4 Working Fluid 8
1.5 Continuum 8
1.6 Thermodynamic Properties of a System 8
1.7 State, Path, Process and Cycle 10
1.8 Point Function and Path Function 12
1.9 Quasi-Static Process 12
1.10 Equilibrium 13
1.11 Dimensions and Units 14
1.12 Pressure 15
1.13 Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 16
1.14 Measurement of Temperature 16
1.15 Temperature Scale 18
1.16 The International Practical Temperatures Scale 19
1.17 Entropy 20
Summary 24
Glossary 24
Review Questions 25
Problems 26
Objective Questions 26
2. Energy and Work Transfer 28
2.1 Energy 28
2.2 Sources of Energy 28
2.3 Classification of Energy Sources 29
2.4 Forms of Energy 30
viii Contents

2.5 Enthalpy 32
2.6 Heat 32
2.7 Specific Heat 33
2.8 Work 35
2.9 Forms of Work Transfer 37
2.10 First Law of Thermodynamics 43
2.11 First Law of Thermodynamics for a Cyclic Process—Joule’s Experiment 45
2.12 Energy—A Property of the System 46
2.13 Perpetual Motion Machine of the First Kind 46
Summary 50
Glossary 51
Review Questions 51
Problems 51
Objective Questions 54
3. Working Substances 55
3.1 Pure Substance 55
3.2 Phases of a Pure Substance 55
3.3 Phase-Change Phenomenon of a Pure Substance 56
3.4 Terminology of Pure Substances 58
3.5 Property Diagrams 59
3.6 The p–v–t Surface 62
3.7 Critical Point and Triple Point 62
3.8 T–s and h–s Diagrams 63
3.9 Enthalpy Changes during Formation of Steam 65
3.10 Wet Steam 66
3.11 Superheated Steam 67
3.12 Specific Volume of Steam 67
3.13 Entropy of a Pure Substance 68
3.14 External Work Done during Evaporation 69
3.15 Internal Latent Heat 69
3.16 Internal Energy of Steam 70
3.17 Steam Tables 70
3.18 Points to Consider before Solving the Problems 71
3.19 Advantages and Applications of Use of Steam 71
3.20 Measurement of Dryness Fraction of Steam 77
3.21 Ideal Gas Model 82
3.22 Equation of State 83
3.23 Characteristic Gas Equation 83
3.24 Internal Energy and Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas 87
3.25 Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 88
3.26 Relation Between Specific Heats for an Ideal Gas 89
3.27 Real Gases 90
3.28 Other Equations of State 92
 Contents ix

3.29 Analytical Test for Equation of State 94

Summary 98
Glossary 99
Review Questions 99
Problems 100
Objective Questions 101
4. First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 103
4.1 Ideal-Gas Processes 103
4.2 Vapour Process 131
Summary 139
Glossary 140
Review Questions 140
Problems 141
Objective Questions 144
5. First Law Applied to Flow Processes 145
5.1 Flow Process and Flow Energy 145
5.2 Mass and Energy Analysis of an Open System 146
5.3 Energy Balance in Steady Flow 147
5.4 Some Steady-Flow Devices 148

Ú
5.5 Significance of – vdp 152

5.6 Relation Between Non-Flow Work Ú pd v and Flow Work – Ú vdp 152
5.7 Transient Flow Processes 176
Summary 178
Glossary 179
Review Questions 179
Problems 180
Objective Questions 184
6. Second Law of Thermodynamics 185
6.1 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics 185
6.2 Thermal Reservoir 186
6.3 Heat Engine 187
6.4 Refrigerator 188
6.5 Heat Pump 189
6.6 Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 189
6.7 Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind 190
6.8 Reversible Process: Ideal Process 191
6.9 Irreversible Processes: Actual Processes 191
6.10 Carnot Cycle, or Carnot Engine 192
6.11 Reversed Carnot Cycle 194
6.12 Carnot Theorem 194
x Contents

6.13 Thermodynamic Temperature Scale 196

Summary 217
Glossary 218
Review Questions 219
Problems 219
Objective Questions 222
7. Entropy 223
7.1 Definition 223
7.2 Two Isentropic Lines Cannot Intersect Each Other 223
7.3 Clausius’ Theorem 224
7.4 Clausius, Inequality 225
7.5 Entropy: A Property of the System 227
7.6 Change of Entropy in a Reversible Process 228
7.7 Temperature–Entropy Diagram 228
7.8 The Increase of Entropy Principle 229
7.9 Entropy Transfer 230
7.10 Entropy Generation 230
7.11 Entropy Balance 231
7.12 Physical Concept of Entropy 231
7.13 Tds Relations 232
7.14 Third Law of Thermodynamics 233
Summary 243
Glossary 243
Review Questions 244
Problems 244
Objective Questions 245
8. Availability and Irreversibility 247
8.1 Sources of Energy 247
8.2 Available and Unavailable Energy 248
8.3 Availability of Energy Entering a System 250
8.4 Availability of a Closed System 254
8.5 Availability in a Steady Flow Process 256
8.6 The Second-Law Efficiency 266
Summary 270
Glossary 271
Review Questions 271
Problems 272
Objective Questions 275
9. Thermodynamic Relations 276
9.1 Helmholtz and Gibbs Function: Gibbsian Equations 276
9.2 Principal Exact Differentials 276
 Contents xi

9.3 Partial Derivative Relations 277

9.4 Maxwell Relations 277
9.5 Thermodynamic Square 278
9.6 Volumetric Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility 279
9.7 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy 280
9.8 Specific Heats 283
9.9 Joule–Thompson Coefficient—The Porous Plug Experiment 285
9.10 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 286
Summary 294
Review Questions 295
Problems 295
Objective Questions 296
10. Compressible Fluid Flow 298
10.1 Static Properties 298
10.2 Stagnation Properties 298
10.3 Velocity of Sound: Sonic Velocity 301
10.4 Mach Number 303
10.5 Property Relations for Isentropic Flow Through a Duct 308
10.6 Property Relations at Stagnation Conditions 309
10.7 One -Dimensional Isentropic Flow 312
10.8 Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 315
10.9 Mass Flow Rate Through an Isentropic Nozzle 317
10.10 Shock Wave 320
10.11 Flow Through Actual Nozzles and Diffusers 323
10.12 Effect of Irreversibilities on Nozzle Efficiency 325
Summary 326
Glossary 327
Review Questions 328
Problems 329
Objective Questions 330
11. Gas Power Cycles 332
11.1 Definitions 332
11.2 Air Standard Analysis 334
11.3 Carnot Cycle 334
11.4 Stirling Cycle 335
11.5 Ericsson Cycle 336
11.6 Otto Cycle 337
11.7 Diesel Cycle 338
11.8 Dual Cycle 339
11.9 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles 340
11.10 Lenoir Cycle 361
11.11 Atkinson Cycle 362
xii Contents

11.12 Brayton Cycle 364

Summary 373
Glossary 373
Review Questions 374
Problems 374
Objective Questions 377
12. Vapour Power Cycles 380
12.1 Modelling a Steam Power Plant 380
12.2 Performance Parameters of Vapour Power Cycle 381
12.3 Carnot Vapour Power Cycle 382
12.4 Rankine Cycle 385
12.5 Comparison Between Carnot and Rankine Cycles 395
12.6 Difference Between Carnot and Rankine Cycles 396
12.7 Irreversibilities and Losses in Vapour Power Cycle 398
12.8 Effect of Operating Variables on Rankine Cycle 401
12.9 Reheating of Steam 405
12.10 Super Critical Rankine Cycle 407
12.11 Mean Temperature of Heat Addition 415
12.12 Regenerative Rankine Cycle 415
12.13 Modified Rankine Cycle 433
12.14 Characteristics of the Working Fluid in Vapour Power Cycle 434
12.15 Cogeneration 435
12.16 Binary Vapour Cycle 438
12.17 Combined Gas-Vapour Power Cycle 438
Summary 441
Glossary 442
Review Questions 442
Problems 443
Objective Questions 445
13. Refrigeration 447
13.1 Refrigeration 447
13.2 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 448
13.3 Refrigeration Terminology 449
13.4 Types of Refrigeration Systems 450
13.5 Gas Refrigeration Systems 450
13.6 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle: Bell Coleman Cycle 452
13.7 Ideal Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle 456
13.8 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Cycle 469
13.9 Comparison of Vapour Absorption System with Vapour Compression System 471
13.10 Steam Jet Refrigeration 472
13.11 Heat Pump 472
 Contents xiii

13.12 Refrigerant 473

Summary 476
Glossary 477
Review Questions 477
Problems 478
Objective Questions 479
14. Ideal Gas Mixtures 481
14.1 Mass and Mole Fractions 481
14.2 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 482
14.3 Amagat–Leduce Law of Additive Volumes 482
14.4 Density and Gas Constant of Gas Mixture 483
14.5 Properties of Gas Mixture—Gibbs Theorem 487
14.6 Mixing of Ideal Gases 491
14.7 Mixture of Real Gases 496
14.8 Compressibility Factor 497
Summary 497
Glossary 498
Review Questions 498
Problems 498
Objective Questions 500
15. Psychrometry 502
15.1 Psychrometer 502
15.2 Dry, Moist and Saturated Air 502
15.3 Properties of Moist Air 503
15.4 Partial Pressure of Air and Vapour 505
15.5 Adiabatic Saturation Temperature 508
15.6 Psychrometric Chart 510
15.7 Air-Conditioning Process 512
15.8 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams 522
15.9 Air Washer 525
Summary 526
Glossary 526
Review Questions 527
Problems 527
Objective Questions 528
16. Fuels and Combustion 530
16.1 Fuels 530
16.2 Characteristic of an Ideal Fuel 530
16.3 Coal 531
16.4 Liquid Fuels 533
16.5 Gaseous Fuel 533
xiv Contents

16.6 Conversion of Volumetric Analysis to Gravimetric Analysis 534

16.7 Conversion of Gravimetric Analysis to Volumetric Analysis 535
16.8 Combustion 535
16.9 Composition of Dry Air 538
16.10 Amount of Air Required for Combustion 539
16.11 Air–Fuel Ratio 540
16.12 Air–Fuel Ratio from Analysis of Flue Gases 540
16.13 Flue Gas Analysis—Orsat Apparatus 553
16.14 Heat Generated by Combustion 557
16.15 Calorific Value, or Heating Value of Fuel 561
16.16 Bomb Calorimeter 563
16.17 Junker’s Gas Calorimeter 566
Summary 568
Glossary 568
Review Questions 569
Problems 569
Objective Questions 572
17. Steam Generators 574
17.1 Indian Boiler Regulation (IBR) 574
17.2 Boiler Systems 575
17.3 Comparison Between Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers 577
17.4 Fire-Tube Boilers 577
17.5 Water Tube Boilers 583
17.6 Some Industrial Boilers 584
17.7 High-Pressure Boilers 587
Summary 592
Glossary 592
Review Questions 592
Objective Questions 593
18. Boiler Mountings and Accessories 594
18.1 Boiler Mountings 594
18.2 Boiler Accessories 599
Summary 604
Review Questions 605
Objective Questions 605
19. Boiler Draught and Performance 607
19.1 Boiler Draught (Draft) 607
19.2 Natural, or Chimney, Draught 607
19.3 Artificial Draught 616
19.4 Performance Evaluation of Boilers 619
19.5 Energy Balance in a Boiler 630
 Contents xv

19.6 Energy-Conservation Opportunities 637

Summary 639
Glossary 639
Review Questions 639
Problems 640
Objective Questions 642
20. Steam Engines 644
20.1 Classification of Steam Engines 644
20.2 Construction of Steam Engine 645
20.3 Working of a Double-Acting Steam Engine 646
20.4 Hypothetical Indicator Diagram of Steam Engine 646
20.5 Actual Indicator Diagram 650
20.6 Cylinder Condensation 651
20.7 Mass of Steam in Cylinder 651
20.8 Missing Quantity 651
20.9 Steam Consumption 652
20.10 Steam Compression in the Cylinder 653
20.11 Governing of Steam Engines 653
20.12 Power Output of Steam Engine 655
20.13 Efficiencies of a Steam Engine 656
20.14 Compound Steam Engines 667
Summary 668
Glossary 669
Review Questions 669
Problems 669
Objective Questions 670
21. Steam Nozzles 673
21.1 Types of Steam Nozzles 673
21.2 Steam Flow Through a Nozzle 674
21.3 Flow Through Actual Nozzles 678
21.4 Supersaturated Expansion of Steam 691
Summary 695
Glossary 696
Review Questions 696
Problems 696
Objective Questions 698
22. Steam Turbines 699
22.1 History of Steam Turbines 699
22.2 Working Principle of a Steam Turbine 700
22.3 Classification of Steam Turbines 700
22.4 The Simple Impulse Turbine 702
xvi Contents

22.5 Optimum Operating Conditions from Blade-Velocity Diagram 705

22.6 Effect of Blade Friction on Velocity Diagram 710
22.7 Condition for Axial Discharge 711
22.8 Compounding of Impulse Turbine 719
22.9 Reaction Turbine (Impulse Reaction Turbine) 728
22.10 Comparison Between Impulse and Reaction Turbines 737
22.11 Losses in Steam Turbines 738
12.12 Governing of Steam Turbine 739
22.13 Special Forms of Turbines 743
Summary 744
Glossary 744
Review Questions 745
Problems 745
Objective Questions 748
23. Steam Condensers 750
23.1 Condenser 750
23.2 Functions of a Condenser 750
23.3 Elements of a Condensing Plant 751
23.4 Types of Condensers 751
23.5 Jet Condenser 751
23.6 Surface Condenser 754
23.7 Estimation of Cooling Water Required 757
23.8 Condenser Efficiency 757
23.9 Analysis of Condenser Operation 760
23.10 Air Extraction 769
23.11 Cooling Towers 772
23.12 Cooling Pond 773
Summary 774
Glossary 775
Review Questions 775
Problems 775
Objective Questions 777
24. Internal Combustion Engines 779
24.1 Classification of IC Engines 779
24.2 Components of Engines 780
24.3 Otto Cycle Engines: Petrol Engines 781
24.4 Diesel Engines 786
24.5 Comparison Between Petrol and Diesel Engines 791
24.6 Comparison Between Two-Stroke and Four-Stroke Engines 791
24.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Cycle Engines 792
24.8 Air–Fuel Mixture 792
24.9 Carburation 794
 Contents xvii

24.10 Fuel-Injection System 796

24.11 Combustion 800
24.12 Governing of IC Engines 803
24.13 Ignition System 804
24.14 Firing Order 808
24.15 Engine-Cooling System 808
24.16 Engine Lubrication 811
24.17 Lubrication Systems 812
24.18 Performance of Internal Combustion Engines 814
24.19 Efficiencies of IC Engines 816
24.20 Supercharging 832
Summary 833
Glossary 833
Review Questions 834
Problems 835
Objective Questions 836
25. Reciprocating Air Compressor 838
25.1 Uses of Compressed Air 838
25.2 Classification 839
25.3 Reciprocating Compressor Terminology 839
25.4 Compressed Air Systems 840
25.5 Reciprocating Air Compressor 840
25.6 Minimizing Compression Work 846
25.7 Clearance Volume in a Compressor 849
25.8 Actual Indicator Diagram 852
25.9 Volumetric Efficiency 852
25.10 Free Air Delivery (FAD) 854
25.11 Limitations of Single-Stage Compression 864
25.12 Multistage Compression 864
25.13 Cylinder Dimensions of a Multistage Compressor 874
Summary 883
Glossary 885
Review Questions 885
Problems 886
Objective Questions 888
26. Rotary Compressor 890
26.1 Classification of Rotary Compressors 891
26.2 Roots Blower Compressor 891
26.3 Vane-Type Compressor 894
26.4 Lysholm Compressor—A Screw Compressor 897
26.5 Centrifugal Compressor 898
26.6 Axial Compressor 910
xviii Contents

26.7 Difference Between Centrifugal and Axial Flow Compressors 916

Summary 920
Glossary 921
Review Questions 921
Problems 921
Objective Questions 922
27. Gas Turbine Plant 924
27.1 Applications of Gas Turbines 925
27.2 Classification of Gas Turbines 926
27.3 Comparison Between Close-Cycle Gas Turbine and Open-Cycle Gas Turbine 927
27.4 Modelling a Gas Turbine Plant 928
27.5 Deviation of Actual Gas Turbine Cycle from Brayton Cycle 928
27.6 Methods for Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of Gas Turbine Plant 935
Summary 959
Glossary 960
Review Questions 960
Problems 960
Objective Questions 961
28. Jet and Rocket Propulsions 963
28.1 Jet Propulsion 963
28.2 IC Engine-Driven Propulsive System 964
28.3 Ramming Effect Propulsion Systems 964
28.4 Gas Turbine Propulsion Systems 966
28.5 Turbojet Engine 966
28.6 Turboprop Engine 967
28.7 Turbofan 968
28.8 Terminology Used with Turbojet Engine 969
28.9 Analysis of Turbojet Cycle 970
28.10 Thrust Augmentation in Turbojet Engines 972
28.11 Rocket Propulsion 986
28.12 Solid Propellant Rocket 988
28.13 Liquid Propellant Rockets 988
28.14 Hybrid Propellant Rocket 989
28.15 Nuclear Prolellant Rocket 989
28.16 Propellants 990
28.17 Analysis of Rocket Propulsion 993
Summary 996
Glossary 997
Review Questions 997
Problems 998
Objective Questions 999
 Contents xix

29. Air-Conditioning 1001

29.1 Applications of Air-Conditioning 1001
29.2 Comfort Air-Conditioning 1002
29.3 Effective Temperature 1003
29.4 Air-Conditioning Systems 1005
29.5 Air-Conditioning Cycle 1005
29.6 Summer Air-Conditioning System 1006
29.7 Winter Air-Conditioning System 1006
29.8 Year-Round Air Conditioning System 1007
29.9 Unitary System 1007
29.10 Central Air-Conditioning System 1009
29.11 Classifications of Central Air-Conditioning System 1010
29.12 Rating of Air-Conditioning 1010
29.13 Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 1010
29.14 Sensible Heat Factor 1012
29.15 Water Coolers 1017
29.16 Ice Plant 1017
29.17 Air Coolers 1018
29.18 Difference Between Air Cooler and Air-Conditioner 1021
Summary 1022
Glossary 1022
Review Questions 1023
Problems 1023
Objective Questions 1024
30. Elements of Heat Transfer 1025
30.1 Modes of Heat Transfer 1025
30.2 Fourier Law of Heat Conduction 1025
30.3 Thermal Conductivity 1026
30.4 Convection Heat Transfer: Newton’s Law of Cooling 1026
30.5 Radiation Heat Transfer: Stefan–Boltzmann Law 1027
30.6 Steady-State Heat Conduction in Solids 1027
30.7 Combined Modes of Heat Transfer 1029
30.8 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient 1032
30.9 Log Mean Area 1033
30.10 Principle of Heat Convection 1037
30.11 Convection Boundary Layers 1038
30.12 Physical Significance of the Convection Dimensionless Parameters 1039
30.13 Dimensional Analysis 1040
30.14 Summary of Dimensionless Parameters and their Correlations 1042
30.15 Flow Through Ducts 1043
30.16 Free Convection 1045
30.17 Empirical Relations for Free Convection 1045
xx Contents

30.18 Radiation Heat Transfer 1047

30.19 Theories of Radiation 1047
30.20 Black-Body Radiation 1047
30.21 Surface Absorption, Reflection and Transmission 1048
30.22 Kirchhoff’s Law 1050
30.23 Heat Exchangers 1053
30.24 Heat Exchanger Analysis 1055
Summary 1057
Glossary 1058
Problems 1058
Objective Questions 1060
Appendix A Thermophysical Properties of Matter 1062
A-1 Atomic mass and critical constants
A-2 Properties of selected solids at 25ºC
A-3 Properties of selected liquids at 25ºC
A-4 Thermo physical properties of selected substances at 25ºC and 1atm
A-5 Constants for van der Waals, Redlich-Kwong and Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equations of state
A-6 Variation of Cp with temperature of selected ideal gases
A-7 Ideal gas specific heats for some common gases
A-8 Ideal gas Properties of air
A-9 Ideal gas Properties of selected gases
A-10 One dimensional isentropic compressible flow function for an ideal with constant specific heat
and molecular mass and g = 1.4
A-11 One dimensional normal shock function for an ideal with constant specific heat and molecular
mass and g = 1.4
A-12 Properties of saturated water: Temperature entry
A-13 Properties of saturated water: Pressure entry
A-14 Properties of superheated water vapor.
Appendix B Properties of Refrigerants 1088
B-1 Properties of Saturated refrigerant 22 (Liquid-vapor): Temperature entry
B-2 Properties of Saturated refrigerant 22 (Liquid-vapor): Pressure entry
B-3 Properties of Superheated refrigerant 22 vapor
B-4 Properties of Saturated refrigerant 12 (Liquid-vapor): Temperature entry
B-5 Properties of Superheated refrigerant 12
B-6 Properties of Saturated refrigerant 134a (Liquid-Vapor): Temperature entry
B-7 Properties of Saturated refrigerant 134a (liquid-Vapor): Pressure entry
B-8 Properties of Super heated refrigerant 134a vapor
B-9 Properties of Saturated Ammonia (Liquid-Vapor): Temperature entry
B-10 Properties of Saturated Ammonia (liquid-Vapor): Pressure entry
B-11 Properties of Super heated Ammonia vapor
B-12 Properties of Saturated Propane (Liquid-Vapor): Temperature entry
B-13 Properties of Saturated Propane (liquid-Vapor): Pressure entry
B-14 Properties of Super heated Propane vapor
 Contents xxi

B-15 Properties of Saturated Nitrogen (Liquid-Vapor): Temperature entry

B-16 Properties of Super heated Nitrogen vapor
Appendix C Figures 1118
C-1 Temperature entropy diagram for water
C-2 Mollier diagram for water
C-3 Pressure enthalpy diagram for Refrigerant 134a
C-4 Psychrometric chart
References and Suggested Readings 1122
Index 1124
xxii Contents
 Contents xxiii

Preface
It gives me immense pleasure to present this book on ‘Thermal Engineering’. This text is intended for
undergraduate students of Mechanical, Automobile and Aeronautical engineering as well as AMIE courses and
competitive examinations. It integrates thermodynamics, applied thermodynamics and thermal engineering
and hence covers the syllabi of almost all subjects pertaining to thermal engineering taught from the first year
to the final year of engineering curriculum.

Aim
During my teaching span of more than two decades, I felt that the subjects based on thermal engineering are
often perceived as difficult by students. I observed that customarily, major problems are faced by students
in understanding the text and illustrations. They need a text written in a simple and interesting way which
exposes the subject systematically along with a variety of illustrative examples supporting the theoretical
concepts.
Through this book I am making an attempt to overcome the problems of students as well as to impart
sound knowledge. The presentation is simple, lucid and easy to understand. The topics are explained right
from the fundamentals with the help of illustrative figures, enabling even a beginner to understand the subject
very easily. Solutions for the problems also are explained with the help of illustrative figures so that the logic
behind them is easily understood.
This book discusses the basic concepts first and then supports the theory with applications and solved
numerical problems. This approach will help the students in developing an analytical mind. An engineer with
an analytical mind and approach would be able to face any problems encountered in the actual engineering
field. Moreover, it is my earnest hope that this book will provide a unique combination of features that will
make it inviting and effective for both faculty and students.

Salient Features
The salient features of the book are the following:
Complete coverage of both courses (a) Engineering Thermodynamics (b) Applied Thermodynamics
Tutorial Approach of problem solving
Solved Examples based on questions from numerous universities all across India as well as competitive
examinations like GATE, IES etc
Diverse and useful pedagogical features like Summary, Glossary, Review Questions, Problems and
Objective Questions
Well-labeled and apt schematic diagrams supporting theoretical and mathematical explanations
xxiv Preface

Organisation
Principally, the book is divided into three parts.
The First Part of the book deals with the subject of thermodynamics, which is a core course taught to the
first-year students of all disciplines in almost all the engineering colleges and universities. It includes the first
eight chapters—chapters 1 to 8.
The Second Part of the book is designed for an applied thermodynamics course. This part includes the
next eight chapters—chapters 9 to 16.
The Third Part provides the foundation learning material on thermal engineering. This part covers steam
engineering, internal combustion engines, air compressors, gas turbines, jet and rocket propulsions, air
conditioning and an introduction to heat transfer it includes remaining chapters—chapters 17 to 30.
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the basic concepts of thermodynamics. Concepts are an essential part
of any science and in the case of thermodynamics, experience has shown that this is an area students find
difficult. Several illustrations and day to day examples are provided in support of definitions and concepts to
help the students have a thorough understanding of the topics.
Energy is a basic requirement for work transfer. Chapter 2 gives a detailed treatment of energy and its
forms, work and heat transfer. Chapter 3 deals with the properties of pure substances. The properties of
common working substances, steam and ideal gases are worked out in this chapter.
The first and second laws of thermodynamics are regarded as pillars of thermodynamics. The first law
speaks of energy and its conservation (quantity), while the second law deals with the quality aspect of
energy. Applications of the first law of thermodynamics to non-flow processes (for closed systems) and flow
processes (open systems or control volume) are explained with support of several examples in Chapters 4
and 5, respectively. The second law of thermodynamics is treated in a comprehensive manner in Chapter 6
and prolonged in Chapter 7 with the concept of entropy. Entropy is an abstract property of the second law
and can be thought of as a measure of disorder in the system responsible for energy degradation taking place
in real processes. Other second-law concepts, availability and irreversibility, are introduced in Chapter 8
along with the development of a procedure for performance evaluation of a system.
Chapter 9 deals with thermodynamic relations. Maxwell’s relations, volumetric expansivity, isothermal
and isentropic compressibility, Joule—Thomson coefficient and Clausius—Clapeyron equations are
explained in this chapter. Chapter 10 deals with compressible fluid flow. It uses the concept of the first and
second laws for a moving fluid. The comprehensive thermodynamic analysis of gas power cycles (Chapter
11), vapour power cycles (Chapter 12), refrigeration cycles (Chapter 13), ideal gas mixtures (Chapter
14) and psychrometry (Chapter 15) are carefully considered. Chapter 16 deals with fuels and combustion.
Various types of fuels and determination of their calorific value are explained in this chapter.
Emphasis is given to steam engineering from Chapter 17 to Chapter 23. Chapter 17 gives an overview
of different types of boilers. Chapter 18 incorporates various important boiler mountings and accessories.
The boiler draught and performance are discussed in Chapter 19. Even though steam engines are obsolete
nowadays, still the concept and preliminary analysis of steam engines are taken up in Chapter 20. The
relevance of compressible fluid flow to steam nozzles are explained in Chapter 21. The concept and analysis
of impulse and reaction steam turbines are incorporated in Chapter 22. Chapter 23 gives an elementary
treatment to steam condensers. The internal combustion engines are discussed in Chapter 24. Chapters
25 and 26 take up the analytical treatment to reciprocating and rotary air compressors. Chapter 27 gives
an elementary treatment to gas turbines. Chapter 28 provides an outlook to jet and rocket propulsions.
Chapter 29 takes up theoretical and analytical treatment to air conditioning and lastly, Chapter 30 provides
an elementary introduction of heat transfer.
 Preface xxv

Dependency Chart

Chapter 1

Basic Concepts

Chapter 2
First Law
Energy & Work

Chapter 3, 14 Chapter 4, 5

Working Applications of
Substances First Law

Chapter 6 Chapter 30

Elements of Heat
Second Law
Transfer

Chapter 7, 8 Chapter 9, 15
Thermodynamic
Entropy & Exergy
Relations &
Chapter 11–13 Psychrometry
Chapter 29
Power &
Refrigeration Chapter 10 Air Conditioning
Cycles
Compressible
Chapter 24 Fluid Flow

I.C. Engines

Chapter 16

Fuel &
Combustion
Chapter 25, 26

Air Compressors
Chapter 17-19 Chapter 21

Steam Systems Steam Nozzles

Chapter 27, 28 Chapter 20

Gas Turbines &
Jet Propulsions Steam Engines

Chapter 23 Chapter 22
Steam
Steam Turbines
Condenser
xxvi Preface

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Acknowledgements
On completion of this version of the book Thermal Engineering, I express my heartiest gratitude to my
students, past and present, whose inquisitive queries and feedback motivated me to write this book. I am
indebted to all authors who shaped my thoughts on the subject and whose work has been freely consulted in
preparation of this text. I also owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my colleagues and students who helped
me directly or indirectly in preparation of this treatise.
I would also like to mention the names of the reviewers whose valuable inputs have gone a long way in
shaping this text.
Akhilesh Gupta Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Roorkee, Uttar Pradesh
Pradyumna Ghosh Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (ITBHU)
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
M K Das Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology (MNNIT)
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh
P Srinivasan Birla Institute of Technolgy and Science (BITS)
Pilani, Rajasthan
S K Soni Punjab Engineering College (PEC), University of Technology,
Chandigarh, Punjab
Sunil Punjabi Government Engineering College
Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh
K P Tyagi Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology
Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh
Sudarshan Singh National Institute of Technology (NIT)
Patna, Bihar
Ranjan Basak Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology (SMIT)
Rangpo, East Sikkim
Kanchan Chatterjee Dr B C Roy Engineering College
Durgapur, West Bengal
Santanu Banerjee Birbhum Institute of Engineering and Technology
Suri, West Bengal
V Venkat Raj Bharati Vidyapeeth College of Engineering and Technology
Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra
 Preface xxvii

D A Warke J T Mahajan College of Engineering,

Jalgaon, Maharashtra
R G Kapadia Shri Sad Vidya Mandal Institute of Technology (SVMIT)
Bharuch, Gujarat
K Senthil kumar School of Mechanical and Building Sciences
VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu
M Ganapathy Dr MGR University
Periyar, Tamil Nadu
P Chitambarnathan Dr Sivanthi Adithanar College of Engineering
Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu
Appukuttan National Institute of Technology, Karnataka (NITK)
Surathkal
B Srinivas Reddy G Pulla Reddy Engineering College
Kurnod, Andhra Pradesh
P I Urgan K L E Society’s College of Engineering and Technology
Belgaum, Karnataka
I take the opportunity to express my sincere thanks to the TMH editorial team: Ms Surabhi Shukla, Ms
Devshree Lohchab, and Ms Sohini Mukherjee who put their consistent and pre-eminent efforts for making
the text as best as it could be. My special thanks to Mr Sagar Divekar, whose repeated persuasion made it
possible to prepare the text for TMH. He has provided required support from time to time. I am pleased to
acknowledge the contribution of Mr P L Pandita and the whole production staff.
I would like to extend my gratitude to administration and Executive Management of SNJB’s K B J
College of Engineering, Chandwad, (Nashik) who extended all the facilities and full cooperation during the
preparation of this manuscript.
Above all, I wish to place on record my earnest gratitude to my parents, caring wife—Mrs Meera; sons—
Dr Ankit and Prateek, for their wholehearted support and patience, which helped me indirectly in completing
the project.
A human creation can never be perfect. Some mistakes might have crept in the text. My efforts in writing
this book will be rewarded if readers send their constructive suggestions and objective criticism with a view
to improve the usefulness of the book. For any suggestion, query or difficulty, you are most welcome to write
to me at [email protected].

M M Rathore

Publisher’s Note
Tata McGraw Hill Education looks forward to receiving views, comments and suggestions from
readers, all of which may be sent to [email protected] mentioning the title and author’s
name in the subject line. Piracy related issues may also be reported.
xxviii Contents

Nomenclature
A area,
Ac cross-sectional area
a linear acceleration, specific Helmhotz function, accoustic velocity
b constant
BP brake power
Bsfc brake specific fuel consumption
bwr back work ratio
C specific heat, constant
CV calorific value
Cp specific heat at constant pressure
CT constant temperature coefficient
Cv specific heat at constant volume
c clearance ratio
D dimeter, constant
d bore; diameter
E total energy
e energy per unit mass
F force
FP friction power
G Gibbs function, H-TS
g gravitational acceleration, specific gibbs function, h-Ts,
H enthalpy, chimney height
HCV higher calorific value
h specific enthalpy, heat transfer coefficient, draught in water column
I irreversibility
i specific irreversibility
IP indicated power
k thermal conductivity, spring constant, number of cylinders, blade velocity coefficient
KE total kinetic energy
ke kinetic energy per unit mass
L stroke, length, thickness, length dimension
LCV lower calorific value
M mass dimension, Mach number
 Nomenclature xxix

M molecular weight
m mass
m rate of mass flow
N rotational speed
n polytropic index, number of moles
P power
p absolute pressure
PE total potential energy
pe potential energy per unit mass
pm mean effective pressure
Q heat transfer
Q rate of heat transfer
q heat transfer per unit mass, heat flux
R gas constant, radius
Ru universal gas constant
r radius, compression ratio
rw work ratio
S entropy
s specific entropy, displacement
T absolute temperature; torque, temperature dimension
t time, time dimension
U internal energy
u specific internal energy
V volume
Vc clearance volume
Vs swept volume
V velocity
v specific volume
v– molar volume
W. weight, work transfer
W rate of work transfer, power
Wsh shaft power
w specific weight, workdone per kg
wsh shaft work/kg
x dryness fraction; length
xi mass fraction
yi mole fraction
Z compressibilty factor
z elevation.

Greek Symbols
a absorptivity
b coefficient of volumetric expansion
D finite change in quantity
xxx Nomenclature

e emissivity, effectiveness
g ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv,
F avaialability of closed system
f specific avaialability of closed system, relative humidity
y specific availability of flow system
v kinematic viscosity
m Joule–Thomption coefficient
h efficiency
q temperature difference, angle, total energy of flow system
r density, cutoff ratio, reflectivity
s Stefan’s–Boltzmann constant
t transmissivity,
w specific humidity, angular speed.

act actual
atm atmosphere
c cross section, clearance
cr critical point
g, gauge gauge
d diameter
db dry bulb
dp dew point
f liquid state, of formation
fg liquid vapour mixture
i initial state, ice point, intermediate state in multistage, ith component in a mixture
g gaseous state
H high (temperature, TH)
HP heat pump
L low (temperature, TL)
O exit state
p constant pressure
prop propulsive
R reaction
r reduced coordinates
REF refrigerator
ref referenece temperatures
s, sat saturated state
sup superheated state
t total
th throat, theoretical, thrust
tp triple point
v constant volume
 Nomenclature xxxi

w water
wb wet bulb
wet wet state
0 dead state, stagnation state
1 initial state
2 final state

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

Base Units
Quantity Units Dimensions
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K

Derived Units
Acceleration a metre per second squared m/s2
Angular acceleration w radiation per second squared rad/s2
Area A square metre m2
Electric current I ampere A
Electric potential difference V volt W/A
Electric resistance Re ohm
Energy E joule J or N.m
Entropy s joule per kelvin J/K
Force F newton kg.m/s2
Frequency v hertz Hz or 1/s
Heat energy Q joule J or N.m
Power P watt W or J/s
Radiation Intensity I watt per steradian W/sr
Specific heat Cp joule per kilogram kelvin J/kg-K
Stress s pascal N/m2
Thermal conductivity k watt per metre-kelvin W/m-k
Velocity U metre per second m/s
Volume V cubic metre m3
Work W Joul J or N./m
xxxii Contents
VISUAL WALKTHROUGH

Basic Concepts 1 Each chapter begins with an

1 chapter importance.

Basic Concepts

Introduction
The definition of the basic concepts forms a sound foundation for understanding of any subject. We start
this chapter with an overview of thermodynamics, and a discussion of some basic concepts such as closed
and open systems, isolated and adiabatic systems, working substance, continuum, property, state, path,
process, cycle, and equilibrium. Then we discuss the pressure, pressure measurement, temperature and its
measurement in this chapter. A careful study of these topics is necessary for understanding the following
chapters.

Ú
- 5.6 RELATION BETWEEN NON

ment as well as graphical proof for con- -FLOW WORK Ú pdv AND FLOW
Ú vdp

The steady-flow energy equation for unit mass-flow

rate
V2 V2
q – w = h2 - h1 + 2 - 1 + ( z2 - z1) g
2 2
It can be written in differential form as
dq – dw = dh + VdV + gdz
Using h = u + pv and
dq = du + pdv
Inserting it above, we get
du + pdv – dw = d(u + pv) + VdV + gdz
or du + pdv – dw = du + d(pv) + VdV + gdz
\ pdv – dw = d(pv) + VdV + gdz
or pdv = dw + d(pv) + VdV + gdz
p

1
c

Process 1-2

d 2

0 v
e f

Fig. 5.18
Ú pdv
Ú vdp
 Visual Walkthrough xxxiii

For easy understanding of the topics, a

In some chapters, the whole concept is

xxxiv Visual Walkthrough

The boiler produces dry and satu-

rated steam at 30 bar. The steam expands in the turbine
sg = 6.1869 kJ/kg
At p2 = 20 kPa;
Numerous Worked examples are pro-
to a condenser pressure of 20 kPa. Compare the cyclic vf = 0.001017 m3/kg
work done and thermal efficiency of Carnot and Rankine TL = 60.06°C
cycles for these conditions. hf = 251.38 kJ/kg
hfg = 2358.33 kJ/kg
Solution
sf = 0.8319 kJ/kg ◊ K text material.
Given Dry saturated steam pressure sfg = 7.0766 kJ/kg ◊ K
Boiler pressure p1 = 30 bar The specific enthalpies
Condenser pressure; p2 = 20 kPa h1 = 2804.2 kJ/kg
h4 = 1008.42 kJ/kg
To find
(i) Work done by Carnot cycle,
Carnot Cycle
methodology.
(ii) Work done by Rankine cycle, Analysis
(iii) Thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle, The efficiency of Carnol cycle is given by
(iv) Thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle. TL (60.06 + 273)
hCarnot = 1 - =1-
Properties of steam TH ( 233.9 + 273)
At p1 = 30 bar; = 0.343 or 34.3%
hf = 1008.42 kJ/kg The heat supplied per kg of steam
hg = 2804.2 kJ/kg qin = h1 – h4 = 2804.2 – 1008.42
TH = 233.9°C = 1795.78 kJ/kg

summary
Summary
system is used on two wheelers, racing cars and
that converts chemical energy of fuel into aircrafts.
mechanical energy. internal combustion engines are subjected
to very high temperature during combustion of
cycle in two strokes of the piston. The three charge. Due to overheating of engine, there may
ports; inlet, transfer, and exhaust ports are used be uneven expansion in some parts, burning of
for suction, transfer and discharge of charge, lubricant, valve seats, etc. Therefore, the engine
respectively. A deflector-shapped piston is used should be provided with adequate cooling
to direct the charge inside the cylinder. arrangement.

cycle in four strokes of the piston as suction, maintenance-free and is widely used on two
compression, expansion and exhaust stroke. They wheelers and light-duty engines.
are widely used on motor cycles, cars, buses,
trucks and aeroplanes. Due to good thermal of heat during combustion, and therefore, they
efficiency of four-stroke engines, the specific fuel are water cooled. The water-cooling arrangement
consumption is less. consists of a pump, a fan, a water jacket around
Petrol engines use low compression ratio in the engine and a radiator.
the range of 4 to 10, while Diesel engines use
high compression ratio usually in the range of moving parts. The mist lubrication system is
14 to 21. The petrol engines induct carburetted used in two-stroke engines, while all four-stroke
homogeneous air–fuel mixture as charge into engines use wet or dry sump lubrication system.
the cylinder while Diesel engines induct only air
during suction, and diesel is injected at the end supplies the charge to the cylinder above
of the compression stroke. The fuel burns in the atmospheric pressure. Thus, the volumetric
presence of hot air. Therefore, the Diesel engines efficiency of the engine improves and the engine
are also called compression ignition (CI) engines. produces more power.
-
gines, while Diesel engines are quality-governing cylinder of the engine where the admitted charge
engines. The hit-and-miss governing is used for pushes the combustion products out of the
high speed gas engines. cylinder. Scavenging takes place in two-stroke
 Visual Walkthrough xxxv

A list of commonly used terms in the chap-

Glossary
Triple point The point where the solid, liquid and va- Critical state The peak of the saturation curve form of a glossary
pour phases coexist in thermal equilibrium Quality (x) The ratio of mass of vapour present to the
Vaporization The transformation of liquid into vapour total mass of steam
by supplying heat Wetness fraction The ratio of mass of liquid present to
Evaporation The transformation of liquid into vapour the total mass of steam (= 1 – quality = 1 – x)
when liquid itself exacts its latent heat Wet steam A mixture of moisture and vapour, it is a
Condensation The transformation of a vapour into a substances that exists under the saturation curve.
liquid Phase The physical state of matter
Melting The transformation of a solid into a liquid, also Dry steam Steam at saturation temperature, which is
known as fusion free from moisture
Solidification The transformation of a liquid into a Superheated steam Dry steam at a temperature greater
solid, also called freezing than the saturation temperature
Sublimation The transformation of solid into vapour Ideal gas An ideal working substance for thermody-
Saturation The condition that exists when two or more namic cyles
phases coexist in equilibrium

Each chapter contains a set of Review

to recall the essence of the con-
1. What are the limitations of the first law of 15. List suitable examples of reversible and irrevers-
cepts discussed in the chapter. thermodynamics? ible processes.
2. State the importance of the second law of thermo- 16. What are the conditions to be a reversible process?
dynamics. 17. What is a thermodynamic temperature scale?
3. Define thermal reservoir, heat engine, refrigerator 18. Explain the establishment of a thermodynamic
and heat pump. temperature scale. Why is the thermodynamic
4. What is a thermal energy reservoir? Define in temperature scale called absolute temperature
terms of heat source and heat sink. scale?
5. What are the characteristic features of a heat 19. Sketch the Carnot cycle on a p–v diagram.
engine? 20. Explain Carnot cycle and prove that
6. What is a heat pump. How does it differ from a T
h carnot = 1 - L .
refrigerator? TH
7. What do you mean by coefficient of performance? 21. Is it possible to operate a heat engine on a Carnot
Show that (COP)HP = (COP)R + 1. cycle? What purpose does a Carnot cycle serve?
8. What do mean by thermal efficiency? Derive an 22. State and prove the Carnot theorem.
expression for thermal efficiency of a heat engine. 23. Prove that a reversible engine is more efficient
9. State the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements than an irreversible engine operating between the
of the second law of thermodynamics. same temperature limits.

problems with answer(s)

Problems
1. A rigid tank of volume 2 m3 is filled with saturated reduced by using helium instead of air in the
steam at 2 bar. It contains 0.2 m3 of moisture and tyres? What other considerations are involved in -
the rest is vapour. Calculate the mass of moisture, deciding whether to use helium?
mass of vapour and the quality of steam. 10. A tank with a volume of 50 m3 is being filled with
[(i)188.5 kg (ii) 2.032 kg (iii) 0.01066] air. At a particular instant, the air in the tank has a
2. Steam at 0.75 bar and 150°C is condensed revers- temperature of 400 K and a pressure of 1380 kPa.
ibly. Find the heat removed and change in entro- For this system, the pressure is increasing at the
py. Sketch the process on a T–s diagram. rate of 138 kPa/s and temperature is increasing at
[2393.8 kJ/kg, 6.536 kJ/kg ◊ K] a rate of 25 K/s. Calculate the air flow rate into
3. Determine the increase in entropy of 1 kg of the tank in kg/s. [21.25 kg/s]
water when it is heated at atmospheric pressure
11. A spherical vessel of 3-m diameter contains steam
from –23°C to 152°C. Take sp. heat of fusion and
at a pressure of 7 bar (gauge) and a temperature of
superheating as 2.093 kJ/kg ◊ K and for water as
4.187 kJ/kg ◊ K. [9.0403 kJ/kg] 200° C, Find
4. Obtain specific volume, specific enthalpy, entropy (a) Total enthalpy of steam
of 2 kg of water at 1 bar and 60°C. (b) Total internal energy of steam
5. A perfect gas of 0.01 –kg mass occupies a volume (c) Total mass of steam
of 0.02 m3 at a pressure of 286.4 kPa and 30°C re- Take atmospheric pressure as 1 bar.
spectively. The gas is allowed to expand until the [(a) 156.16 MJ (b) 144.85 MJ (c) 55.16 kg]
xxxvi Visual Walkthrough

enable the user to

Objective Questions
Choose the correct answer: 9. At the critical point, the temperature of water is
- 1. The specific volume of water during freezing equal to
(a) increases (b) remains constant (a) 0°C (b) 100°C
(c) decreases (d) none of the above (c) 374°C (d) –100°C
2. The latent heat of vaporization with increase in 10. The total enthalpy of steam at 10 bar is
pressure of water 2000 kJ/ kg. The condition of steam is
(a) increases (b) remains constant (a) wet (b) dry and saturated
(c) decreases (d) none of the above (c) superheated (d) none of the above
3. With increase in pressure, the saturation tempera- 11. Dryness fraction of steam is given by
ture of water Mass of dry steam in a sample
(a)
(a) increases (b) remains constant Mass of water particles in thee sample
(c) decreases (d) none of the above
Mass of water particles in the sample
4. The specific volume of wet steam is given by (b)
vg Mass of dry steam in the sample
(a) (b) xvf Mass of wet steam in the sample
x (c)
(c) xvg (d) x 2vg Mass of dry steam in the sam
mple

A and C.
Appendices—A, B,

Appendix
Table A.1

Chemical M R r Tc pc pc vc
Formula (kg./kmol) kJ/kg-K kg/m3 (K) (bar) Zc =
Substance RTc
Acetylene C2H2 26.04 0.3193 –1.05 309 62.8 0.274
Air (equivalent) – 28.97 0.287 1.169 133 37.7 0.284
Ammonia NH3 17.03 0.4882 0.694 406 112.8 0.242
Argon Ar 39.94 0.2081 –1.613 151 48.6 0.290
Benzene C6H6 78.11 0.1064 — 563 49.3 0.274
Butane C4H10 58.12 0.1430 2.407 425 38.0 0.274
Carbon C 12.01 — — — — —
Carbon dioxide CO2 44.01 0.1889 1.775 304 73.9 0.276
Carbon monoxide CO 28.01 0.2968 1.13 133 35.0 0.294

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1200 1200
h = 5000 kJ/kg
00
5500

50

5000
4500
1100 4900 1100
4800
h = 4200 kJ/ 4700
kg
1000 4600
1000
/m 3

4000
= kg

4500
3800
sity

/m 3

900 4400 900

Den

300 kg

3600 4300
15 000 ar

3400 4200
20 00 b

800 800
/m 3
4 00 6000
100 000

4100
300

80000
0

100 kg

3200
P=

30 000

4000
20 0
50

0
15 00

700 3000 700

/m 3
00

3900
Temperature, °C

30 kg

2800
00

3800
10

/m 3

0
600 2600 80 3700 600
10 kg

0
60
0
2400 50 3600
3 kg/m 3

0
40 0
500 kJ/
2200 kg 35 00 3500 500
1 kg/m 3

h= 3 0
25 0 3400
2000
20
kg/m 3

g/m 3

0
1800 15 3300
400 400
3k

0
10
0.3

kg/m 3

0.0

3200
1600 80
60
kg/m 3
40

0
0.1

3100
140
30

300 Sa 300
20

.01

id tu
15

qu
10

0 ra
120 d li
=0

te d 3000
ate va
tur
sity

0 Sa p
100 or
8
6

1.5
4

1.0

2900
3
2

Den

200 200
1 20

14

h=
1 00 0

20
0.4
0.8
0.6

0.2

0.1
16

0.3

0%
0.1

22 2800
00

26
18

00 00 24
=1
00
0

00 00 00
k J/k
80 0

ty
15

%
08

ali 20 g
0.02
0.08
6

3
0.04

Qu
0.0
0.0
%

0.0
0.0
40%

100 100
30

Qu
h = 40

2650
50%
60 0

a lit
60%

70 80% y= h = 2600 kJ/kg

0 06

% 90 %
0.0.004
0.0

0.0 03
0k

02
20 0

2550
J/ k

0 0
g

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Entropy, kJ/kg · K

Fig. C.1
 Basic Concepts 1

1
Basic Concepts

Introduction
The definition of the basic concepts forms a sound foundation for understanding of any subject. We start this
chapter with an overview of thermodynamics, and a discussion of some basic concepts such as closed and
open systems, isolated and adiabatic systems, working substance, continuum, property, state, path, process,
cycle, and equilibrium. Then we discuss the pressure, temperature and its measurement in this chapter. A
careful study of these topics is necessary for understanding the following chapters.

nuclear power plants. An energy-efficient home is

designed for minimum heat loss in winter and mini-
Thermodynamics can be defined as the ‘science mum heat gain in summer. The size, location and
of energy’. In fact, the name ‘thermodynamics’ power input to an air-conditioner is decided after
originates from two Greek words, threme (heat thermodynamic analysis of a room.
energy) and dynamics (motion or power). Thus,
the subject of thermodynamics deals with energy
and its transformation, including heat, work and
physical properties of substances. It also deals A thermodynamic system, or simply a system, is
with thermodynamic equilibrium and feasibility of defined as a certain quantity of matter or a pre-
processes. scribed region in space considered for thermody-
namic study.
Every engineering activity involves an interac-
tion between energy and matter, and it is hard to The region outside the system is called the
find an area which does not relate to thermodynam- surroundings or environment. The real or
ics in some respect. An ordinary house has a gas imaginary surface that separates the system from its
stove, an electric iron, fans, a cooler, a refrigerator, surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary
pressure cooker and televisions. The design of each of the system may be fixed or movable. The system
item requires the knowledge of thermodynamics. and its surroundings constitute the universe. These
terms are illustrated in Fig 1.1.
In the engineering field, thermodynamics plays
an important role in the design of automobile The thermodynamic systems
engines, compressors, turbines, refrigerators, rock- can be classified as
ets, jet engines, solar collectors, conventional and
2 Thermal Engineering

Fig. 1.1

1. Closed and open systems

2. Homogeneous and heterogeneous systems
Fig. 1.3

2. Food Items in a Pressure Cooker, Fig. 1.4

A closed system (also known as control mass) has
the following characteristics: (i) The inside surface of the pressure cooker
and its cover forms the boundary.
(i) It consists of a fixed amount of mass, and (ii) The boundary of the system is fixed.
no mass can cross its boundary, i.e., no mass
(iii) No mass of the food can cross the boundary,
can enter or leave a closed system.
unless by the process of whistling.
(ii) The volume of a closed system may vary and
(iv) Energy as a heat can leave or enter the
hence its boundary is movable.
boundary of the system.
(iii) The energy in the form of heat or work can
cross the boundary.
Figure 1.2 shows the representation of a close
a system. Some examples of closed system are
discussed below.

Heat
Heat
Mass (No)
Control Fig. 1.4
Energy (Yes)
mass
3. Refrigerator and Ice-cream F Figure 1.5
(b) shows the basic components of a refrigerator
as a system along with its boundary. The working
Fig. 1.2
substance is the refrigerant.
1. Gas Trapped within a Piston–cylinder Device,
Fig. 1.3
(i) The compressor, condenser, capillary tube
and condenser together constitute a system.
(i) The inside surface of the cylinder and piston
(ii) No mass of the working substance can leave
forms the boundary.
the system.
(ii) With the movement of the piston, a part of
(iii) The boundary of the system is fixed.
the boundary can move.
(iv) The energy as electrical work enters the
(iii) The movement of the piston is restricted by
compressor, and energy as heat leaves the
a stopper, so no mass of gas can leave the
condenser and enters the evaporator. Thus,
system.
energy crosses the boundary.
(iv) The energy, as heat and work, can cross the
Hence, the refrigerator is a closed system.
boundary.
 Basic Concepts 3

Evaporator Capillary
coils tube

Kitchen air
Heat in
-10°C Heat out
Evaporator

Condenser Compressor
coils

5°C

Condenser
Expansion
Compressor device

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.5

4. Steam (Thermal) Power Plant Figure 1.6 shows 5. Electrolytic B

the basic components of a steam power plant as a (i) The acid and lead plates in a plastic box
closed system along with its boundary. The working make up the system.
substance is water vapour. (ii) The boundary of the system is fixed.
(i) The boiler, turbine, condenser, and feed (iii) No mass of the acid can leave the boundary.
pump together constitute a system. (iv) Energy in electrical form can leave or enter
(ii) No mass of the working substance can leave the boundary of the system.
the system.
(iii) The boundary of the system is fixed. +
I (current)
(iv) The energy as heat and work can cross the
– V2 – V1
boundary of the system.
Thus, the steam power plant is a closed system.
Electrolytic System
Heat supply Battery Boundary

Feed water
Boiler
Superheated Fig. 1.7
steam

Pump Wout 6. Bulbs and Lamps, Fig. 1.8

Win Turbine
(i) The mass of the inert gas remains fixed
inside bulbs and lamps.
Condenser
(ii) The boundary of the system is fixed.
Condensate Moist steam
(iii) Energy as electricity, heat and light can cross
Heat
the boundary of the system.
Rejection
An isolated system is a special
Fig. 1.6 case of a closed system, in which energy can also
4 Thermal Engineering

An open system (or a control volume) is a properly

selected region in space. It usually encloses a device
which involves mass flow, such as a compressor,
turbine or nozzle. Flow through these devices is
best studied by selecting a region within the devices
as control volume.
The boundary of the control volume is called the
control surface. Both mass and energy can cross the
Fig. 1.8 control surface. Thus, for an open system:
(i) The system has a selected region (fixed
not cross the boundary of the system. This system volume), called control volume.
is not in communication with its surroundings in (ii) The boundary of an open system is fixed.
any way. (iii) Mass can cross the control surface.
Thus, an isolated system neither exchanges (iv) The energy, in the form of heat and work,
energy in any form nor any mass with the can cross the control surface.
surroundings. Hence, by definition, the universe An open system can be represented by Fig. 1.11.
can be considered as an isolated system. The Some examples of open systems are discussed
representation of an isolated system is shown in below.
Fig. 1.9. Other examples are thermos flask
(Fig. 1.10) and ice box. Control surface
(boundary)
Mass in
Boundary
Control volume
Mass (Yes) or Energy (Yes)
Open system
Mass (No) Energy (No)
Mass out

Fig. 1.11
Fig. 1.9
1. Flow through Tubes and Nozzles, Fig. 1.12
(i) The interior surface of the tube or nozzle
forms the real boundary, and left and right
openings form the imaginary boundary.
(ii) The mass can enter and leave the imaginary
boundary of the control volume.
(iii) Energy as well as mass across the boundary
can enter or leave the system.
2. Water Boiler, Fig. 1.13
(i) The interior surface of the boiler shell forms
the real boundary, and the left and right
Fig. 1.10 openings form the imaginary boundary.
 Basic Concepts 5

(ii) Mass of air can enter and leave the control

Fluid in Flow through a tube Fluid out volume through the valves.
(a)
(iii) Energy as work and heat can cross the
control surface.
4. Internal combustion engines, gas turbine,
Fluid in
Convergent
Fluid Out
Fig. 1.15
nozzle
(i) The interior surface and openings form the
control surface.
(b)
(ii) Mass as air and fuel mixture enters and
Fig. 1.12 leaves as combustion products.
(iii) Some part of the combustion heat is
Steam converted into work and the remaining is
out
Steam discharged as waste heat from the system.

Control Energy as heat

Water in surface
Fuel
Heat Combustion
products
Air
Fig. 1.13

Energy as work
(ii) The mass of the water enters, and the mass (a) Internal combustion engine
of steam comes out the control surface. Heat
(iii) Energy as heat enters the control surface.
(iv) The energy in the form of heat or work can
Fuel Combustion
cross the boundary.
products
Figure 1.14
shows the reciprocating air compressor as an open Work
system. Combustion
Air products
(i) The interior surface of cylinder and piston
forms the control surface.
Stationary blades Rotating blades
Compressed
air out (b) Gas turbine engine
Fig. 1.15
Piston

An adiabatic system is a special

case of an open system, in which mass can cross the
Control Air Being
Compressed Work control surface, but energy in the form of heat is not
values
allowed to cross the control surface of the system.
However, energy in other forms can enter and leave
Cylinder
Fresh the system. Insulated turbines, throttle valves, water
air in
pumps, water turbines, insulated heat exchangers,
etc., are some examples of adiabatic systems.
6 Thermal Engineering

Some common features of these devices are the Fluid B

following: No heat transfer

(i) The interior surface of the device forms the Heat

control surface.
Fluid A Fluid A
(ii) Fluid enters and leaves the control surface.
(iii) The energy other than heat energy can enter Insulation

or leave the control surface.

(iv) Heat transfer is negligible at its outer control
Insulation
surface. Fluid B

Insulation Fig. 1.19

Hot fluid in
Q=0
Adiabatic
system Mass (Yes)
Heat
Cold Cold
fluid out fluid in

Fig. 1.16

Hot fluid out

Fig. 1.20

as shown in Fig.1.20 and it will not be treated as an

adiabatic system.
The thermodynamic relations that are applicable
to closed and open systems are different. Therefore,
Fig. 1.17 it is important that we must recognise the type of
system before analysing it.
Steam in

Control
Shaft work
volume
Closed system Open system
1. It is also called a non- It is also called a flow
flow system. system.
Steam out 2. A certain quantity of A certain region is
Fig. 1.18 matter is considered considered for study.
for study. Thus, a This region is called
If the heat exchanger considered above in closed system has a control volume.
Fig. 1.19 is not insulated at its outer boundary then control mass.
the heat transfer will take place across its boundary Contd.
 Basic Concepts 7

3. The system is An open system liquid or gas phase only. It is treated as one
surrounded by a real is surrounded by a constituent for its analysis. Thus, analysis becomes
boundary, which may control surface, which simple, for example, ice, water and steam (three
be fixed or movable. is a combination of distinct phases of water), sugar or salt dissolved in
real and imaginary water, air, oxygen gas and nitrogen gas.
boundaries.
4. No mass can cross the Mass as well as energy
boundary, while can enter or leave the When a system is a mixture of two or more than
energy can enter or control surface of the
two phases of matter, it is called a heterogeneous
leave the boundary of system.
system.
the system.
Since each constituent present in the system has
5. If energy transfer does If heat transfer does
its own properties independent of each other, the
not take place across not take place across
system cannot be analysed as a single constituent,
the boundary then the the control surface
closed system is called then an open system for examples, mixture of ice and water; mixture of
an isolated system. is called an adiabatic water and steam; dal, rice and water in a pressure
system. cooker, etc.
6. Examples of a closed Examples of an open
system are pressure system are scooter
cooker and refrigerator. engine, air compressor
and gas turbine.
It is well known that every substance is composed
of a large number of molecules. The properties
of the substance depend on the behavior of these
molecules. In the macroscopic approach, a certain
Isolated system Adiabatic system quantity of matter is considered without the events
1. It is a special type of a It is a special type of an occurring at the molecular level. The macroscopic
closed system. open system. approach in the study of thermodynamics is also
2. Mass and energy do Mass and energy, called classical thermodynamics. It provides a
not cross the boundary except heat energy, can direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
of the system. cross the boundary of problems. In the macroscopic approach,
the system.
1. The structure of the matter is not considered,
3. It is a closed system, It is an open system, 2. Only a few variables are needed to describe
which is insulated at which is insulated at its the state of the system,
its boundaries, thus it real boundaries, thus
3. The values of these variables can be mea-
becomes isolated from heat cannot cross it.
its surroundings. sured.
4. Examples of an Examples of an The microscopic approach is more elaborate.
isolated system are ice adiabatic system are We know that every system is composed of a large
box and thermos flask, water pump, throttle number of molecules. All have the same mass but
etc. valve and insulated each moves with a velocity independent of others.
steam turbine etc. Similarly, each molecule has its own position,
temperature, etc. The microscopic approach of such
a system will involve a large number of equations,
specifying three location coordinates and three
A system is called a homogeneous system, if it
velocity components for each molecule. It is
consists of a single physical phase, either solid,
8 Thermal Engineering

very difficult to adopt in practice even with high- r

speed computers. The properties of the system are Region of Region of

based on the average behavior of a large group of molecular effect continuum

molecules under consideration. Thus, this approach Dm P

is also called statistical thermodynamics. In the P
DV
microscopic approach,
1. The knowledge of the structure of the matter DV¢ DV
is necessary
Fig. 1.21
2. A large number of variables are needed to
describe the state of the system smaller than this volume will lead to discontinuity
3. The values of the variables cannot be in the particles, atoms and electrons, etc., and the
measured easily. density becomes unpredictable.
The variation in density is tentatively shown in
Fig. 1.21. When the volume approaches zero, the
density becomes uncertain.
The matter contained within the system boundaries
is called working fluid. It is used in thermodynamic Ê Dm ˆ
r = lim Á ˜ ...(1.1)
devices as a medium for energy transport between DV Æ DV ' Ë DV ¯
the system and surroundings, while undergoing a
thermodynamic process or cycle. A working fluid Similarly, the definition of pressure is also
may be gas, vapour, liquid or any non-reactive required for a minimum area DA¢ at the which force
mixture of these constituents. The working fluids DFn acts.
frequently absorb, store or release energy. For Ê D Fn ˆ
r = lim Á
DA ˜¯
examples, water vapour is the working fluid in a ...(1.2)
DAÆ DA ' Ë
steam power plant, and a refrigerant is the working
fluid in a refrigerator. The continuum is not applicable when the
number of molecules in a system becomes
negligible, e.g., a system under high vacuum.

Matter is made up of discrete particles, called

atoms. These atoms are widely spaced (free path)
in a gaseous phase and matter may also have some
voids. The macroscopic approach is applicable Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
when the smallest unit of the matter is large enough Every system has certain characteristics by which
compared to the mean free path of the atoms. its physical condition may be described, e.g.,
Under such circumstances, the matter in a system volume, temperature, pressure, etc. The list can
is considered as continuous and homogeneous be extended to include velocity, viscosity, thermal
without any hole. This is called the concept of conductivity, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of
continuum. thermal expansion, resistivity and elevation, etc.
Let us consider the mass Dm in a volume DV The salient features of a thermodynamic
surrounded the point P as shown in Fig. 1.21. The property are the following:
ratio of Dm/DV is the average mass density of the (a) A property is a measurable characteristic,
system within the volume DV. The volume DV ¢ is describing the state of a system.
the smallest volume about the point P, for which the (b) It has a definite value when the system is in
mass can be considered continuous. Any volume a particular state.
 Basic Concepts 9

(c) It also helps to distinguish one system from properties are independent of the mass also.
another. Properties such as pressure, temperature, density,
(d) The magnitude of a property depends on the velocity, etc., are examples of intensive properties.
state of the system, and it is independent These are properties that
of the path or route followed by a system vary directly with the extent of the system. These
during a process. properties depend on the mass of the system. The
(e) A property is an exact differential. properties such as mass, area, volume, total energy,
The differential quantity of a property P is etc., are examples of extensive properties.
designated as dP, and its integral between states 1 An easy way to distinguish whether a property
and 2 of the system is is intensive or extensive is to divide the system
2 into two equal parts with a partition as shown in
Ú1
dP = P2 – P1 …(1.3) Fig. 1.22.
For a given expression of a property,
dP = Mdx + Ndy E (kJ) ½E ½E
m (kg) ½m ½m
A simple check can be a useful tool to recognize V(m3/s) ½V ½V
whether a quantity is a property or not. r (kg/m3) r r
V (m/s) V V
Ê ∂M ˆ Ê ∂N ˆ o

ÁË ∂y ˜¯ = ÁË ∂x ˜¯ ….(1.4) T ( C) T T
p (kPa) p p
x y

Properties may be classified Fig. 1.22

as
1. Intrinsic and extrinsic properties according
to their origin, and After partition, each part will have the same
value for the intensive properties as of the original
2. Intensive and extensive properties according
system, but half the value for extensive properties.
to their dependability.

An extensive property expressed

These are the basic properties,
per unit mass of the system is called a specific
and cannot be defined in terms of other properties.
property. Examples include specific volume,
Their values can be assigned independently for
specific energy, specific enthalpy, specific internal
example, length, mass, time, area volume, pressure,
energy, etc. and thus are intensive properties.
temperature, electric current, etc.
Mass density or simply density is a measure
These are those properties of the amount of working substance contained in
whose values cannot be assigned independently. a given volume and is defined as mass per unit
These are characteristic of the motion or position volume.
of a system and are measured in reference to certain
Mass of substance m
datum such as velocity, acceleration, potential r= = (kg/m3) ...(1.5)
energy, kinetic energy, enthalpy, entropy, etc. Volume occupied V
Similarly, , or relative density, is
defined as the ratio of density of a substance (rs) to
These the properties that the density of water at 4°C (rwater = 1000 kg/m3). It
do not depend on the extent of the system. These is designated by SG.
10 Thermal Engineering

rs Solution
SG = (A dimensionless quantity)
rwater v p
or rs = SG ¥ rwater = SG ¥ 1000 (kg/m3) ...(1.6)
Given The quantity dp + d v.
T T
The ( ) is the reciprocal of To find Whether the given quantity is a property or not.
mass-density and is defined as the volume per unit
Analysis Comparing the given quantity with M dx +
mass of a system. N dy, we get
V 1 v
= = (m3/kg) ...(1.7) M= and x=p
m r T
The (g) is defined as the weight p
and N= and y=
of a substance per unit volume, or T
mg Obtaining the partial differentials, we get
g = ...(1.8)
V Ê ∂M ˆ ∂ Ê vˆ 1
The relation between specific weight and mass ÁË ∂v ˜¯ = ∂v ÁË T ˜¯ = T
p
density is given as
g = rg ...(1.9) Ê ∂N ˆ ∂ Ê pˆ 1
and ÁË ∂p ˜¯ = ∂p ËÁ T ¯˜ = T
v
Example 1.1 Recognise whether the following quan-
tities are properties or non-properties: Ê ∂M ˆ Ê ∂N ˆ
Since Á = , thus the given quantity is a
(a) pd + dp (b) pd Ë ∂v ˜¯ p ÁË ∂p ˜¯
v
(c) dp
property.
where p is the pressure and is the specific volume.

Solution
(a) The quantity is pd + dp.
Its differential is d(p ).
It is an exact differential, and thus the quantity pd +
dp, is a property. The thermodynamic state is the condition of the
(b) The quantity is pd .
system as characterised by certain thermodynamic
Here, p is functionally related with and its
properties like pressure, temperature, specific
intergration cannot be evaluated unless the relationship volume, etc.
between p and is known. Thus, the quantity pd is not If any system is not undergoing any change then
a property. all of its properties can be measured or calculated,
(c) The quantity is dp. which gives us a set of properties that completely
Here, is functionally related with p, and thus by the describe the condition or state of the system. At this
same reasoning as given in (ii), the quantity dp is not a state, all thermodynamic properties of the system
property. have the same value throughout the system. If the
value of even one property changes, the system will
If the pressure p, specific volume and change its state to a different one.
absolute temperature T are funtionally related as Consider a certain quantity of a gas as a system
v p in a piston–cylinder device as shown in Fig.1.23
dp + d v , examine whether the quantity is a
T T (a). At the position 1 of the piston at any instant,
property. the condition of the system can be described by
pressure p1, temperature T1 and volume V1. The
 Basic Concepts 11

system is said to exist at the state 1. After expansion The system may reach from state 1 to state 2
of the gas, the system will reach a new position 2 by a number of paths depending on the type of
(state 2) as shown in Fig.1.23 (b). expansion.

Cylinder Piston

The transformation of a thermodynamic system

from one thermodynamic state to another is called
Gas
a process.
A series of states through which a system passes
Position 1 Position 2 during a process is called the path of the process.
(a) Piston at two positions within a cylinder The processes are classified as follows:
p 1. A process undergone by a fluid in a closed
system, is referred as a non-flow process.
p1 State 1 2. A process undergone by a fluid in an open
system is referred as a flow process.
3. When a process proceeds in such a
p2 State 2 manner that the system remains almost
infinitesimally close to equilibrium, such a
process is called a quasi-static process.
V 4. A process is called a reversible process if
V1 V2
it once has been taken place between two
(b) Representation of states on a plot
states, can be reversed to restore the system
Fig. 1.23 to initial conditions without leaving any
effect on the surroundings. It passes through
a series of equilibrium states.
5. A process which cannot be reversed by the
When a gas expands in the cylinder, the piston
same path, and follows in one direction only
moves outward, the properties of a system change
is called an irreversible process. It passes
and the system reaches to the new state 2. It is
through a series of non equilibrium states.
called a change of state. A locus of series of states
through which a system passes between initial and 6. When a system undergoes a process, while
final states is called a path as shown in Fig.1.24. enclosed by an adiabatic wall (ideal insu-
lator), the system does not experience any
p heat exchange between the system and its
1
p1 surroundings. Such a process is called an
Pa
th
2
adiabatic process.
Pa The prefix iso- is often used to designate a type
th
1
p2 2 of process for which a particular property remains
constant.
() P The temperature remains
V constant during the process.
V1 V2
( ) P The pressure remains
Fig. 1.24 constant during the process.
12 Thermal Engineering

( ) P The volume rection to represent the quantity on any plot, e.g.,

remains constant during the process. heat, work, etc. The path functions have inexact
differentials represented by the symbol d.
( ) P The entropy remains
constant during the process. Therefore, a differential amount of work or heat
is written as dW or dQ. A typical representation of
( ) P The enthalpy remains expansion work (a path function quantity) is shown
constant during the process. in Fig. 1.26.

If a system undergoes a series of processes in such

a way that its initial and final states are identical
then the system is said to have undergone a cyclic
process or simply a cycle. A thermodynamic cycle is
a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the
same state as shown in Fig. 1.25. At the conclusion
of a cycle, all properties of the fluid have the same
values as they had at the initial state.
Fig. 1.26
p 3

2 When a process proceeds in such a manner that

4
the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-
1 static, or quasi-equilibrium process. A quasi-static
V
process is viewed as a sufficiently slow process in
Fig. 1.25 which system changes its state very slowly under
the influence of an infinitesimally small driving
force. The system adjusts itself internally, so that
the properties in one part of the system do not
change any faster than those in the other part.
When a system undergoes a change from one state Figure 1.27 illustrates a quasi-static process.
to another, the properties of the system also change, The system consists of a gas initially at equilibrium
which depend only on end states and not on the under the piston in a cylinder. The piston is loaded
path followed between these two states. Therefore, by a number of small masses. As one mass is
these properties are called state functions or point removed, the gas expands slightly, allowing the
functions. Point functions can be represented by a piston to move slowly upward. During such
point on any plot, e.g., temperature, pressure, vol- expansion, the molecules get sufficient time to
ume, etc. These properties have exact differentials redistribute, and thus the gas would depart only
designated by the symbol d. Therefore, change slightly from equilibrium and as the pressure and
in volume or pressure is represented by dV or dp, other intensive properties become uniform, it will
respectively. attain a new equilibrium state. Moreover, if the
A quantity, whose value depends on the par- same mass is put on the piston, the gas would be
ticular path followed during the process is called restored to its initial state.
a path function. It requires a particular path and di-
 Basic Concepts 13

A quasi-static process is an ideal process and it

is not a true representation of actual processes. But
Incremental masses
removed during an many actual processes closely approximate it and
expansion of a gas they can be modeled as quasi-equilibrium-process
with negligible error. Engineers are interested
in quasi-equilibrium processes for two reasons.
Boundary First, these are easy to analyse; and second, work-
Gas
producing devices deliver the maximum work, and
work-absorbing devices require minimum work
(a) Illustration of quasi-equibrium expansion when they operate on quasi-equilibrium processes.
p Therefore, quasi-static processes serve as standard
1 for other processes.
Process
path

2 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states or

state of balance. A system is said to be in equilibrium
V
V1 V2 state when there is no unbalance potential (driving
force) within the system. It means that the intensive
p
properties are same throughout the entire system
and there is no tendency for a change of state. If
two systems are in the same intensive state, they are
(b) Work of quasi-equilibrium process
in equilibrium with each other. If the system and its
Fig. 1.27 surroundings are in the same intensive state, they
are also in equilibrium state.
If several masses were removed from piston
one after an other, the gas would pass through a Thermodynamic equilibrium consists of many
series of equilibrium states without ever being far types of equilibrium, like thermal, mechanical,
away from equilibrium. If the increments of mass chemical, etc.
are made negligibly small, the gas would undergo A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium,
a quasi-equilibrium expansion process. A quasi- if its temperature is the same throughout the entire
equilibrium compression can also be visualized in system, because temperature difference is potential
the similar way. for heat flow.
However, if in actual process, a gas in a A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium,
piston–cylinder device is compressed suddenly, in the absence of any unbalance force. The force is
the molecules near the face of the piston do not directly related with pressure. Thus, if there is no
have enough time to escape and they pile up in a pressure difference (driving force for mechanical
small region in front of the piston, thus creating work) throughout the system then the system would
a high pressure region. Because of this pressure be in mechanical equilibrium.
variation, the system can no longer be said to be If a system involves two phases, it is in phase
in equilibrium and this makes the entire process equilibrium, when the mass of each phase reaches
go in non quasi-static equilibrium. For an actual an equilibrium level and stays there.
process, the system does not pass through a series Finally, a system is in chemical equilibrium
of equilibrium intermediate states, and thus its path when a system does not undergo any chemical
cannot be recognized. reaction or its chemical composition does not
change with time.
14 Thermal Engineering

An isolated system has no interaction with its

surroundings and is always in internal equilibrium.
When any one of the above conditions of equilibrium Qunatity Unit Symbol
are not satisfied, the system is not considered to be Acceleration metre per m/s2
in thermodynamic equilibrium. second
Angular radian per rad/s2
acceleration second square
Angular velocity radian per rad/s
Any physical quantity may be characterized second
by dimensions. The reference standard used to Area square metre m2
measure the dimensions of a physical quantity is Electric resistance ohm W
called a unit. In the tenth and eleventh General Frequency hertz Hz or 1/s
Conference of Weight and Measures, it was decided Specific volume kilogramme per kg/m3
to use the single universally accepted system cubic metres
of units throughout the world and a system of Velocity metre per
measurement called the International System of Volume second m/s
Units was introduced. This system of units is called cubic metre m3
Système International d ‘Unités and is abbreviated
as SI units.
The seven units used for the seven fundamental
quantities, considered as basic units, are given in
Table 1.1. Qunatity Unit Symbol Expression in terms
of basic units
Force newton N kg ◊ m/s2
Pressure pascal Pa kg/m ◊ s2
Energy, joule J kg ◊ m2/s2
Qunatity Unit Symbol work, heat
Length metre m Power watt W kg ◊ m2/s3
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s capital letter. For example, the unit of force
Electric current ampere A named after Sir Isaac Newton is written as
Temperature kelvin K ‘newton’ (not Newton). Similarly, the unit
Amount of light candela cd of temperature named after Lord Kelvin is
Amount of matter mole mol written as ‘kelvin’ (not Kelvin).
2. Symbols of unit names derived after
A list of some derived physical quantities, their
scientist’s names are always written with an
symbols, units and dimensions are given in Table 1.2.
initial capital letter. For example, the symbol
Table 1.3 shows a list of some secondary units ‘N’ is used for newton and ‘K’ for kelvin.
and their expressions in terms of basic units.
3. If the symbol of a unit is not derived from
Guidelines for Writing Units and their Symbols a scientist’s name, it is written with a small
The following guidelines should strictly be followed letter. For example, ‘m’ for metre and ‘kg’
for writing correct units and their dimensions: for kilogram.
1. All unit names derived from scientist’s 4. The symbols of units do not take a plural
names are not to be written with an initial form. However, the full name of the unit
 Basic Concepts 15

may be pluralized. For example, the length

of an object can be written as 5 m or 5 metres
but not 5 ms. Similarly, the mass of an object (i) Atmospheric It is the pressure exerted
can be written as ‘5 kg’ or ‘5 kilograms’ but by the envelope of air surrounding the earth’s
not ‘5 kgs’ . surface. The standard atmospheric pressure is equal
5. No full stop or other punctuation mark is to the pressure produced by a 760 mm high column
placed after symbols, unless they appear at of mercury, the density of mercury being 13,595
the end of a sentence. For example, metre is kg/m3 and the acceleration due to gravity being
written as ‘m’ not ‘m.’. 9.80665 m/s2 at sea level.
6. For better appearance, a single space must patm = 101325 N/m2 =1.01325 bar
always be provided between a numerical
value and a symbol of a unit. (ii) Absolute The actual pressure at a
given position is called absolute pressure. It is
designated as pabs, or simply p, and it is measured
by a barometer above the absolute zero pressure.
Pressure is defined as the normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only when (iii) Gauge All pressure-measuring in-
we deal with a gas or liquid. The counterpart of struments and gauges are calibrated to read zero at
pressure in a solid is stress. If F is the force normal atmospheric pressure, and so they indicate the dif-
to the area A, then ference between the actual (absolute) pressure and
local atmospheric pressure (patm ). This difference
F is called gauge pressure. It is denoted by pgauge and
p= (N/m2) ...(1.10)
A is expressed as
where force, F = mass (m) ¥ acceleration due to pgauge = pabs – patm ...(1.12)
gravity (g)
mass, m = volume ¥ density = area (A) ¥ depth The pressure measured below atmospheric
(h) ¥ density (r) pressure is called vacuum (gauge) pressure and

or F = Ahrg p > 1 atm

Positive
Ah r g gauge
Absolute pressure above atmosphere

and pressure, p = = r g h (N/m2) pressure

A
...(1.11) p = 1 atm
Negative
gauge
Local atmospheric pressure

pressure
Pressure is measured in newtons per square metre, p < 1 atm
which is called pascal (Pa). The pressure unit
below atmosphere
Absolute pressure

pascal being too small, very often kilopascal (kPa),

megapascal (MPa), bar and standard atmosphere
(atm) are used. These are related as
1 kPa = 103 Pa
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 103 kPa
p = 0 (Perfect
1 bar = 100 kPa = 105 Pa Absolute vacuum)
zero pressure
1 atm = 101, 325 Pa = 101.325 kPa
1 Torr = 133.32 Pa Fig. 1.28
16 Thermal Engineering

is measured by vacuum gauges, which indicate the Adiabatic wall

difference between the atmospheric pressure and

actual (absolute) pressure. It is expressed as System S1 System S2
Diathermal wall
pvacuum = patm – pabs = – pgauge ...(1.13)

System S3 Isolation from

surroundings

Fig. 1.29

Temperature can be defined as a measure of hotness S1 and S2 will also be in thermal equilibrium with
or coldness, but it is not the exact definition. each other, even though they are not in contact.
Temperature is a basic property, such as mass, length The zeroth law serves a basis for the validity of
and time thus cannot be defined precisely.Based on temperature measurement, by replacing the third
our sensation, we express the level of temperature system by a thermometer. The zeroth law can be
qualitatively with words like ‘cold’, ‘freezing cold’, restated as two systems are in thermal equilibrium
‘warm’, ‘hot’ and ‘red hot’. However, a numerical if both have the same temperature reading even if
value cannot be assigned to these feelings, because they are not in contact.
our sensations may be misleading. For example, a
metal chair will feel much colder than a wooden
one, even when both are at the same temperature.
The measurement of temperature depends upon
the establishment of thermal equilibrium between
a system and the device used to measure the
If a hot system and cold system are brought into temperature. The sensing device should have at
contact with each other, isolated from their sur- least one measurable property that changes with
roundings, the hot system gives its heat energy to change in temperature. Such a property is called a
the cold system till they reach a common tempera- thermometric property. The substance which shows
ture, which is the requirement for thermal equilib- the changes in the thermometric property is called
rium. Two systems attain equal temperature if no thermometric substance.
changes occur in any property when they remain
Fortunately, several properties of materials
in contact.
change with temperature and this forms the basis
for temperature measurement. A list of some
1.13.3
properties is given below.
It states that when two systems are in thermal
(i) Change in dimension Expansion or
equilibrium with a third system, they in turn have
contraction of material, such as mercury in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
glass thermometer.
Consider two systems S1 and S2 which are
(ii) Change in electrical resistance of metals
separated by an adiabatic wall, and a third system
and semiconductors, such as resistance
S3 is in communication with both the systems as
thermometers and thermistors.
shown in Fig. 1.29.
(iii) Thermoelectric emf between cold and hot
If systems S1 and S2 are individually in thermal
junctions, such as thermocouples.
equilibrium with a third system S3, then the systems
(iv) Change in intensity and colour of emitted
radiations, such as pyrometers
 Basic Concepts 17

The above properties are calibrated into

corresponding temperatures through comparison The schematic diagram of a constant-volume gas
with established standards. The commonly used thermometer is shown in Fig. 1.31. The volume of
thermometers are an ideal gas in the sensing bulb D is kept constant
(a) Liquid-in-glass thermometer, and by adjusting the level of mercury in the arm B
(b) Constant volume gas thermometer. of the manometer. The arm B and the arm A are
connected by a flexible tube to form a U-tube
manometer. The arm B is also connected to the gas
bulb D via a capillary tube C, while the other arm A
The most commonly used thermometer is the
of the manometer is open to atmosphere and can be
liquid-in-glass type as shown in Fig. 1.30. It works
moved vertically to adjust the mercury level, so the
on the expansion or contraction of a thermometric
mercury just touches the mark L of the capillary.
substance with temperature. It consists of a uniform-
The pressure in the bulb B is used as a thermometric
diameter glass capillary tube connected to a bulb
property and can be given by
filled with a liquid at one end. The assembly is
sealed to preserve a partial vacuum in the capillary. p = patm + r g h ...(1.14)
As the temperature increases, the liquid expands in where, patm = atmospheric pressure
volume and rises in the capillary. r = density of the mercury
h = mercury column in manometer
The gas bulb D is first placed in a constant-
temperature bath at the triple point temeprature
Ttp of water and the level of mercury is adjusted to
touch the mark L by moving the manometer arm A
up and down. As the volume of the bulb becomes

Fluid in

Fig. 1.30

The height of the liquid column is calibrated

into a temperature scale, which may then be read.
Mercury is widely used for measuring ordinary
temperatures; alcohol, ether, and other liquids are
also employed for this purpose. Fig. 1.31
18 Thermal Engineering

constant and the height difference of the mercury applications to monitor temperature of liquids and
in the two arms is recorded as htp, the pressure, ptp gases in storages and flowing pipes and ducts.
corresponding to the mercury column at the triple The commonly used thermocouple materials are
point is calculated by Eq. (1.14). tabulated below.
Now the bulb is brought in contact with a system
whose temperature T, is to be measured. Again, in a
similar manner, by keeping the volume of gas in the
bulb constant, the height difference of the mercury
in the two arms is recorded and the corresponding Materials Type Range Range
new pressure p is calculated by Eq.(1.14). 1 Cooper constantan T −220°C to ± 0.75%
From the ideal gas equation, the new temperature 371°C
is given by 2 Iron constantan J −190°C to ± 1.0%
760°C ± 0.75%
p 3 Chromel–Alumel K −190°C to
T = 273.15 ¥ ...(1.15)
ptp 1260°C ± 0.75%
where 273.15 K is the triple point temperature of 4 Chromel– E − 100°C to
constantan 1260°C
water.
5 Platinum (90% ) 0°C to
+ rhodium (10%,) S 1482°C ± 0.5%

The thermocouple works on the principles of

Seebeck effect, Peltier effect, and Thomson effect. Inexpensive and has high output.
When two dissimilar metals are joined together as Inexpensive; iron oxidizes rapidly
shown in Fig. 1.32, an emf will exist between the above 760°C.
two points A and B. The Seebeck emf is caused by
Good resistant to oxidation
the junction of dissimilar metals, the Peltier emf
within specified temperature limit. It should not be
is caused by flow of current in the circuit and the
used in reducing atmosphere.
Thomson emf is caused by the temperature gradient
existing in the material. The emf generated at the Highest output with good
junction is the function of temperature of two stability.
dissimilar metals. This emf generated is calibrated
Thermocouple is expensive,
in temperature scale for temperatre measurement.
low output, but most accurate. It is very stable
The temperature is measured by a thermocouple
and resistant to oxidation. It is used only for high
by inserting the probe into a stream of hot gas,
temperature application.
hot liquid or attaching it to a hot solid. The
thermocouples are widely used in industrial
External
circuit Several temperature scales have been introduced
Material 1
A so far. All temperature scales are based on easily
i
reproducible states, such as freezing and boiling
Junction
point temperatures of water, which are also called
B ice point and steam point, respectively.
Material 2
The temperature scale used in SI units is Celsius
Fig. 1.32 scale (formerly, Centigrade scale). On the Celsius
 Basic Concepts 19

373.15

671.67
Further, it should be noted that the temperature

100.0
K °C °R °F

212
Steam magnitude of each division of 1 K and 1°C are
point
identical. Therefore, when we are dealing with
temperature difference, the temperature scale on
Ice point 0.00
both the scales is same.

32.0
491.67
273.15

DT (K) = DT (°C) ...(1.20)

Similarly, DT (R) = DT (°F) ...(1.21)

Fahrenheit
Rankine
Celsius

If a relation involves temperature difference

Kelvin

(such as q = CpDT), it makes no difference and

either scale can be used. But when the relation is in

–459.67
–273.15

temperature only (as p = RT ), then the temperature

0.00

00.0

Absolute in kelvin scale (K) must be used.

zero

Fig. 1.33

scale, ice point and steam point are assigned the In the seventh General Conference on Weights and
numerical values of 0 and 100°C, respectively. The Measures held in 1927, a more convenient scale,
English system today uses the Fahrenheit scale known as International Practical Temperature
which assigns 32 and 212°F as the ice point and Scale was formulated to be used for calibration of
steam point, respectively. temperature-measuring instruments. It was revised
A more useful temperature scale in thermody- in the Thirteenth General Conference in 1968. It
namics is the absolute temperature scale (no nega- consists of reproducible reference temperatures,
tive temperature is possible on this scale). This defined by triple point, boiling point and melting
scale is also called the Kelvin scale. The temper- point of pure substances.
ature unit on this scale is kelvin designated as K, It is a state of equilibrium, where all
without the degree symbol. three phases (solid, liquid and gas) of a substance
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale coexist simultaneously. The triple point of water is
by 0.01°C (271.16 K).
T (K) = T (°C) + 273.15 ...(1.16)
It is a state of equilibrium, where
In the English system, the absolute temperature liquid and gaseous phases of a substance coexist
scale is the Rankine scale and it is related to simultaneously. For water, it is 100°C (373.15) at
Farhenheit scale by 1 standard atm.
T (R) = T (°F) + 459.67 ...(1.17)
It is a state of equilibrium, where
The two temperature scales and corresponding
solid and liquid phases of a substance coexist
absolute temperature scales are shown in Fig. 1.33.
simultaneously. More often, all metals have their
The values 273.15 and 459.67 are often replaced by
specific melting point.
approximate values of 273 and 460, respectively.
The temperature scales on two unit systems are The whole temperature scale is divided into four
related by ranges:
T (R) = 1.8 T (K) ...(1.18) (i) From −259.34°C (triple point of hydrogen)
T (°F) = 1.8 T (°C) + 32 ...(1.19) to 0°C
20 Thermal Engineering

Solution

Given Absolute pressure at triple point

Equilibrium state Assigned value of
temperature ptp = 752 + 32 = 784 mm of Hg

K °C Absolute pressure at given pressure,

1. Triple point of 13.81 –259.34 p = 752 + 76 = 828 mm of Hg
hydrogen Triple point temperature ,
2. Normal boiling point 20.28 –252.87
Ttp = 273.15 K
of hydrogen
3. Normal boiling point 27.10 –246.05 To find Temperature T at pressure p.
of neon
4. Triple point of 54.36 –218.79 Analysis For constant volume gas thermometer:
oxygen ptp p
Normal boiling point 90.19 –182.96 =
5. Ttp T
of oxygen
Triple point of water 273.16 0.01 p 828
6. or T = ¥ Ttp = ¥ 273.15
7. Normal boiling point 373.15 100.00 ptp 784
of water = 288.48 K
8. Normal freezing 630.74 357.59
Unknown temperature,
point of antimony
Normal freezing 692.73 419.58 T = 288.48 − 273.15 = 15.33°C
9.
point of zinc
Calculate the temperature at which the
10. Normal freezing 1235.08 961.93
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales agree.
point of silver
11. Normal freezing 1337.58 1064.43 Solution
point of gold
Given Condition for two temperature as T (°F) = T (°C)
(ii) From 0°C to 630.74°C (antimony point), To find Temperature at which the Celsius and Fahrenhiet
(iii) From 630.74°C to 1064.43°C (gold point) scales becomes equal.
(iv) Above 1064.43°C Analysis The temperature at the two scales is related as
T (°F) = 1.8 T (°C) + 32
Using the given condition T (°F) = 1.8 T (°C) = T say
It is an abstract property of the second law of T = 1.8 T + 32
thermodynamics. It is considered as a measure of or 0.8 T = −32
degree of the molecular disorder in the matter. The
or T = − 40°C
change in value is calculated as
2 dQ 2 dT Example 1.5 The resistance of the windings in a cer-
DS = Ú1 T
= Ú
1
mC
T
...(1.22) tain motor is found to be 100 ohms at a room temperature
of 27°C. When operating at full load under steady condi-
tions, the motor is switched off and the resistance of the
Example 1.3 The pressure in a constant gas ther-
winding is found to be 120 ohms. The windings are made
mometer is measured as 32 mm of Hg above atmospheric
of copper wire, whose resistance at t°C is given by
pressure at triple point. Determine the temperature in °C,
when the pressure is 76 mm of Hg above atmospheric Rt = R0 (1 + 0.004 t)
pressure. The barometer reads 752 mm of Hg.
 Basic Concepts 21

where R0 is the resistance at 0°C. Find the temperature Using A and B for thermometric property at 3.5,
attained by the coil during full load. t = 62.13 ¥ ln (3.5) − 25.2 = 54.64°C

Solution Two Celsius thermometers A and B

Given Resistance, R1 = 100 W, with temperature readings TA and TB agree at ice point
Temperature, t1 = 27°C and steam point, but else where they are related by
Resistance, R2 = 120 W TA = p + qTB + rTB2, where p, q and r are constants.
To find The temperature at full load When the thermometers are immersed in an oil bath,
A shows a temperature of 51°C, while B shows 50°C.
Analysis The relation between resistance at any
Determine the temperature TA, when TB is 25°C.
temperature is given by
Rt = R0(1 + 0.004t) Solution
Using values at the state 1
Analysis The relation for temperature is given as
100 = R0 (1 + 0.004 ¥ 27)
TA = p + qTB + rTB2
or R0 = 90.25 W At ice point, 0 =p+q¥0+r¥0
The temperature corresponds to 120 W; or p =0
120 = 90.25 (1 + 0.004t2) At steam point, 100 = p + 100 q + (100)2 r
or t2 = 82.4°C or 100 = 100q + 10000 r ...(i)
Further, 51 = p + 50 q + (50)2 r
Example 1.6 The temperature scale of a certain ther- or 51 = 50q + 2500 r ...(ii)
mometer is given by the relation t = Aln p + B, where A Solving these equations, we get,
and B are constants and p is the thermometric property
q = 1.04 and r = − 4 ¥ 10 − 4
of the fluid in thermometer. At ice point and steam point,
if the thermometric property is found to be 1.5 and 7.5 Using p, q and r at TB = 25°C,
respectively, what will be the temperature corresponding TA = 0 + 1.04 ¥ 25 − 4 ¥ 10 −4 ¥ (25)2 = 25.75°C
to the thermometric property of 3.5 on celsius scale?
A thermocouple with a test junction at
Solution t°C on a gas thermometer scale gives the emf as
Given Initial property, p1 = 1.5, e = 0.22 t − 5.5 ¥ 10−4 t2 mV
Final property, p2 = 7.5, The milivoltmeter is calibrated at ice point and steam
Ice-point temperature, T1 = 0°C, points. What will be the reading on this thermometer,
Steam-point temperature, T2 = 100°C, when the gas thermometer reads 60°C?
Thermometric property, p3 = 3.5
To find The temperature corresponding to the thermo- Solution
metric property of 3.5 Given The relation for emf at t°C
Analysis The relation for temperature is given as e = 0.22t − 5.5 ¥ 10−4 t 2 mV
t = Aln p + B, with ice point, t1 = 0°C
At ice point, 0 = A ln (1.5) + B Steam point, t2 = 100°C
or 0 = 0.405 A + B ...(i) To find The reading of temperature on the scale cor-
At steam point, 100 = A ln (7.5) + B responding to 60°C
or 100 = 2.015 A + B ...(ii)
Analysis The emf is generated according to
Solving these equations, we get,
e = 0.22t − 5.5 ¥ 10 −4 t2 mV
A = 62.13 and B = − 25.2
22 Thermal Engineering

at ice point e1 = 0.22 ¥ 0 − 5.5 ¥ 10 −4 ¥ (0)2 = 0 mV Substituting the value of constants a and b in
at steam point e2 = 0.22 ¥ 100 − 5.5 ¥ 10−4 ¥ (100)2 Eq. (i), we get
= 16.5 mV 100 100
at 60°C e3 = 0.22 ¥ 60 − 5.5 ¥ 10−4 ¥ (60)2 T(°C) = p- pi
ps - pi ps - pi
= 11.22 mV
The reading of the temperature on the gas thermometer Ê p - pi ˆ
= 100 Á
scale corresponds to 60°C. Ë ps - pi ˜¯
(100∞C)
t= ¥ (11.2 mV) = 68°C T (°C) Ê p - pi ˆ
(16.5 mV) or = Á ...(iv)
100 Ë ps - pi ˜¯
Example 1.9 It is proposed to construct a new scale
Similarly, on the new scale °N at steam and ice
with the value 5°N assigned to ice point and 20°N to
points, with constants c and d;
steam point. The pressure of an ideal gas at constant
volume is considered as a thermometric property. 20 = c ps + d ...(v)
5= cpi + d ....(vi)
(a) Set up a linear relationship between pressure and
temperature in °N on a new scale. What is the Substracting Eq. (vi) from Eq. (v), we get
kelvin absolute zero on this scale? 15
(b) Derive an expression between °N and K. c =
ps - pi
Solution 15
and constant d = 5- ¥ pi
Given The construction of a new scale with °N. ps - pi
Ice-point temperature, Ti = 5°N and 0°C, Substituting the value of constants c and d in
Steam-point temperature, Ts = 20°N and 100°C, Eq. (i), we get
To find (a) (i) Linear relationship between pressure 15 15
T (°N) = p + 5- pi
and temperature on a new scale, °N, ps - pi ps - pi
(ii) Absolute zero on new scale.
Ê p - pi ˆ
(b) Relationship between new scale in °N and = 5 + 15 Á
kelvin scale. Ë ps - pi ˜¯
T (°N) - 5 p - pi
Analysis or = ...(vii)
15 ps - pi
(a) (i) Linear relationship between pressure and tem-
Equating Eq. (iv) and (vii), we get
perature with two constants a and b as
T = ap + b ...(i) T (°N) - 5 T (°C)
=
Assuming pressure ps at steam point and pi at 15 100
ice point, then on Celsius scale; 15
or T(°N) = T (°C) + 5 ...(viii)
100 = aps + b ...(ii) 100
0= a pi + b ....(iii)
It is the linear relationship between celsius and
Subtracting Eq. (iii) from Eq. (ii), we get the new temperature scale on °N.
100 = a(ps − pi) (ii) At absolute zero on Celsius scale
100 0 K = −273°C
or a =
ps - pi 15
Therefore, T (°N) = (- 273) + 5
100 100
and constant b = - pi
ps - pi = −35.95°N
 Basic Concepts 23

(b) Relationship between new scale and Kelvin scale Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get
T (K) = T(°C) + 273 100
a =
or T(°C) = T (K) − 273 pi - ps
100
Using in Eq. (viii); and b = 100 - pi
pi - ps
15
T (°N) =
100
[T (K) - 273] + 5 Using this, we get
100 100
t¢ = p + 100 - pi
100 pi - ps pi - ps
or T (K) = [T (°N) - 5] + 273
15 Ê p - pi ˆ
= 100 ¥ Á + 100
20 Ë pi - ps ˜¯
or T (K) = 273 + [T(°N) - 5] p - pi
3 t ¢ - 100
or = ...(A)
pi - ps 100
Example 1.10 Consider a particular Celsius scale
Similarly, using 0°C for ti and 100°C for ts on
assigned the value of 0°C to steam point and 100°C to
normal temperature scale with constants c and d;
ice point.
(a) Using ideal gas as the thermometer medium, 0 = cpi + d ...(iii)
set up a relationship between 0°C and pressure 100 = cps + d ...(iv)
for a constant volume thermometer. Proceed to Subtracting (iii) from (iv),
derive the correlation between the two celsius 100 100
scales. At what temperature are the two scales c= and d=− pi
ps - pi ps - pi
are numerically equal?
(b) What is the numerical value of obsolute zero for Then normal temperature scale
the particular scale? What is 200 K in °C? 100 100
t = ¥ p- ¥ pi
ps - pi ps - pi
Solution Ê p - pi ˆ
= 100 ¥ Á
Given Two Celsius scales. Ë ps - pi ˜¯
t p - pi
To find (a) (i) Correlation between the two celsius or = ...(B)
scales, 100 ps - pi
(ii) Temperature at which two scales are Equating (A) and (B), we get
numerically equal, t t ¢ - 100
=
(b) (iii) Numerical value of absolute zero, 100 100
(iv) Temperature in °C corresponding to or two Celsius scales are related by
200 K. t = t¢ − 100
(ii) If t = t¢
Analysis then t = 100 − t
(a) (i) Let the temperature scale relate the pressure or 2t = 100
linearly: or t = 50°C
t ¢ = ap + b (b) (iii) At absolute zero
where p is thermometric property, and a and b t = −273°C
are two constants. −273 = 100 − t¢
Then for a constant-volume gas thermometer or t¢ = 373°C
100 = api + b ...(i) (iv) At 200 K, t = 200 − 273 = −73°C
0 = aps + b ...(ii) Therefore t¢ = 100 − t = 100 − (−73) = 173°C
24 Thermal Engineering

Summary
from one state to another is called a process. A
with energy and its transformation. process with identical states at the end and start
is called a cycle. During a quasi-equilibrium, the
certain fixed region in space. A system of fixed system remains practically in equilibrium at all
mass is called a closed system or control mass, times.
and a system that involves the mass transfer Pressure is defined as force per unit normal area.
across its boundary is called an open system. It is measured in Pascal, kPa, bar. The absolute,
property is called an gauge and vacuum pressure are related as
extensive property, while a property independent pgauge = pabs − patm
of mass is called an intensive property. and pvacuum = patm − pabs = −pgauge

called total energy, which consists of internal, two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, if both
kinetic and potential energy. Internal energy have a common temperature even is they are not
represents the molecular energy of the system in contact.
and may exist in sensible, latent, chemical and unit system are
nuclear form. Celsius and Kelvin scales. These are related as
T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15
equilibrium, if it maintains thermal, mechanical, DT(K) = DT(°C)
phase and chemical equilibrium. Any change

Glossary
Thermodynamics Science of energy that deals with Homogeneous system A system containing only a
heat energy and power single physical phase of a substance
System Certain quantity of matter or prescribed region Heterogeneous system A system of mixture of two or
in space considered for analysis more than two phases of matter
Surroundings Every thing external to a system Macroscopic Gross or overall behavior
Boundary Real or imaginary surface that separates a Microscopic Average behavior of molecules making up
system from its surroundings a system
Universe Combination of a system and its surroundings Thermodynamic State Condition of system described
Closed system Particular quantity of matter under study by independent thermodynamic properties
Isolated system A closed system that does not interact Properties A characteristic of a system
with its surroundings Intensive property Any property, which is independent
Open system Prescribed region in space under study of mass and size of the system
Adiabatic system An open system in which heat is not Extensive property Any property, which depends on
allowed to cross the boundary mass and size of the system
Physical phase A molecular configuration of matter Equilibrium State of balance
categorized as either solid, liquid or gas Thermal equilibrium A situation in which the system
Working substance A medium for energy transport does not have variation in temperature throughout
between a system and its surroundings, while undergoing Mechanical equilibrium A situation in which all
a thermodynamic process within a device mechanical forces within the system are balanced
 Basic Concepts 25

Phase equilibrium A system without phase change Quasi-static process A process which is always close
Chemical equilibrium A situation in which a system to thermodynamic equilibrium
does not interact chemically Pressure Force acting per unit area of a fluid
Process Transformation of a system from one Internal energy Sum of all microscopic forms of
equilibrium state to another energies of a system
Cycle Sequences of processes that begins and ends at
the same state

Review Questions
1. Define thermodynamics and write its importance 12. State and differentiate between extensive,
and applications. intensive and specific properties.
2. How does classical thermodynamics differ from 13. What do you mean by thermodynamic
statistical thermodynamics? equilibrium? How does it differ from thermal
3. Explain the concept of macroscopic and equilibrium?
microscopic view points applied to the study of 14. Define thermodynamic equilibrium. What are the
thermodynamics. conditions necessary to establish thermodynamic
4. What is meant by classical and statistical equilibrium to a system?
thermodynamics ? Explain. 15. Define quasi-static process. State its salient
5. Define thermodynamic systems. Classify them. features.
6. Differentiate between closed system and open 16. State different types of processes according to
system. their natures.
7. Define isolated and adiabatic systems and 17. Define state function and path function.
differentiate them. 18. What is the concept of continuum? How are
8. Recognize whether the system is open or closed: density and pressure defined using this concept?
(i) A tube of a bicycle filled with air, 19. Define zeroth law of thermodynamics. Write its
importance in thermodynamics.
(ii) A jet engine in flight,
(iii) A household refrigerator in operation, 20. Define temperature. How is it measured?
(iv) Water pump, 21. State and explain zeroth law of thermodynamics
(v) Pressure cooker without whistling, used for temperature measurement.
(vi) Steam turbine, 22. What do you mean by thermodynamic property
(vii) Car battery, and thermodynamic substance?
(viii) An electric geyser. 23. Establish a relationship between Celsius scale
9. Define control volume and control surface. and Fahrenheit scale.
10. Differentiate between homogeneous and hetero- 24. What do you mean by absolute scale of
geneous systems. temperature? How does the Celsius scale differ
from the absolute Kelvin scale?
11. Define thermodynamic property, state, path,
process and cycle. 25. State the operating principle of gas thermometer.
Explain its working.
26 Thermal Engineering

Problems
1. Convert the following temperatures from °C to (c) Find a relation between the new scale and
°F: Kelvin scale.
(a) 21°C (b) − 17.78°C (d) If the pressure at the steam point is 10 atm,
(c) − 50°C (d) 300°C what is the pressuire at 0 degree at new ?
(e) 100°C
T ( °C) T( ° N) – 4 p – pi
2. Convert the following temperatures from °F to [(a) = =
100 12 ps – pi
°C:
(b) – 28.8°N (c) T(K) = 273
(a) 212°F (b) 68°F
(c) 32°C (d) − 40°F + 25
3 (T ( °C) – 4 ) (d) – 24.3°N]
(e) − 460°F
3. The resistance of a platinum wire is found to be 5. A new absolute temperature scale is proposed
11.00 W at ice point, 15.247 W at steam point and with ice point as 150°S and steam point as 300°S.
27.949 W at the zinc point (692.73 K). Find the Determine the temperature in °C that corresponds
constants in the equation to 100°S and 400°S, respectively.
R = R0(1 + AT + BT 2) where T is in °C 6. A tank which is 4 m long, 3 m wide and 2 m deep
Find the resistance at a temperature of 250°C. is half full of water. How much work is required
[A = 3.915 ¥ 10–3, B = 5.959 ¥ 10–7, 21.36 W] to raise all the water over the top edge of the
4. It is proposed to develop a temperature scale with tank? [117.72 kJ]
values 4°N and 16°N assigned as ice and steam 7. A rectangular tank measuring 0.6 m ×1 m at the
points, respectively. The pressure of an ideal gas base is filled half to a depth of 15 cm with water.
at constant volume is used as a thermometric Calculate the following:
property. (a) Total gravitational force exerted on the base
(a) Obtain a linear relationship between the of the tank
pressure and temperature. (b) The pressure exerted by water at the base of
(b) What is Kelvin absolute zero on this scale? the tank

Objective Questions
1. The unit of force in SI units is 4. 1 pascal in SI units is
(a) joule (b) newton (a) 1 N/m² (b) 100 kPa
(c) watt (d) calorie (c) 1 ¥ 105 N/m² (d) 1 ¥ 103 N/m²
2. The unit as kN/m2 is called 5. A closed system is one in which
(a) kW (b) kJ (a) both energy and mass cross the boundary of
(c) kPa (d) kcal the system
3. 1 bar in SI units is (b) the mass does not cross the boundary, but
(a) 1 ¥ 105 Pa (b) 100 kPa energy interaction takes place
(c) 0.987 atm (d) All of above. (c) neither mass nor energy cross the boundary
of the system
 Basic Concepts 27

(d) the mass crosses the boundary but energy 9. Which of the following is an intensive property?
does not (a) Volume (b) Temperature
6. An isolated system is one in which (c) Energy (d) Work ransfer
t
(a) both energy and mass cross the boundary of 10. Which of the following is not a property?
the system (a) Volume (b) Temperature
(b) the mass does not cross the boundary, but (c) Energy (d) Work ransfer
t
energy interaction takes place 11. Which of the following is an extensive property?
(c) neither mass nor energy cross the boundary (a) Volume (b) Temperature
of the system (c) Pressure (d) Density
(d) the mass crosses the boundary but energy 12. Mercury in glass thermometer works on the
does not principle of
7. An open system is one in which (a) fusion
(a) both energy and mass cross the boundary of (b) thermo-electric effect
the system (c) expansion of fluid
(b) the mass does not cross the boundary, but (d) change in radiation intensity.
energy interaction takes place 13. A 70-kg woman walks on snow with a total foot
(c) neither mass nor energy cross the boundary imprint area of 500 cm². What pressure does she
of the system exert on the snow?
(d) the mass crosses the boundary but energy
(a) 0.5 kPa (b) 12.5 kPa
does not
(c) 13.73 kN/m² (d) 25.46 kN/m²
8. An adiabatic system is one in which
14. When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with
(a) both energy and mass cross the boundary of a third body, then they are in thermal equilibrium
the system with each other. This statement is called
(b) the mass does not cross the boundary, but
(a) first law of thermodynamics
energy interaction takes place
(b) second law of thermodynamics
(c) neither mass nor energy cross the boundary
(c) third law of thermodynamics
of the system
(d) zeroth law of thermodynamics.
(d) mass crosses the boundary, heat energy
15. A sequence of processes, in which initial and
does not cross the boundary of the system
final states of a system are identical, is called a
(a) path function (b) point function
(c) cycle (d) none of the above

15. (c) 14. (d) 13. (c) 12. (c) 11. (a) 10. (d) 9. (b)
8. (d) 7. (a) 6. (c) 5. (b) 4. (a) 3. (d) 2. (c) 1. (b)
Answers
28 Thermal Engineering

2
Energy and Work Transfer

Introduction
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of developing
countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever-increasing energy needs
requiring huge investments to meet them.
Work is a high-grade energy and of prime interest as it is the output from a system, when energy is the
input. The rate of work transfer is referred as power. High power generation is the need of any developing
country.
Sources and forms of energy, enthalpy, forms of work transfer, concept of thermodynamic work transfer,
heat, specific heat, sign convention for work and heat transfer are discussed in this chapter as a foundation
to the following chapters. The first law of thermodynamics is explained with the help of Joule’s experiment
and other examples.

ENERGY SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It is a The sources of energy can be divided into four
scalar quantity. It is measured in kJ in SI units, and categories according to their availabilty:
kcal in MKS units. Energy can have many forms as
(i) Transitional Energy The energy in motion, i.e.,
shown in Fig. 2.1.
wind energy, hydel energy, etc.

Transitional Capital Celestial Stored

energy energy energy energy

Energy

Electrical Mechanical Chemical Nuclear Thermal Electromagnetic

energy energy energy energy energy energy

Fig. 2.1
 Energy and Work Transfer 29

(ii) Capital Energy The energy derived from fuels Non-commercial forms of energy are not avail-
existing in the earth, i.e., fossile fuels, nuclear able in the commercial market for a definite price.
fuels, etc. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such
as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes,
(iii) Celestial Energy The energy coming from which are traditionally gathered, and not bought
outer atmosphere, i.e., sun, moon, etc. at a price, and used especially in rural house-
(iv) Stored Energy The energy existing in various holds. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-
masses, i.e., flywheel, tides, geothermal, hydraulic commercial energy is often ignored in energy ac-
energy, etc. counting.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY Energy

SOURCES
Renewable energy is obtained from sources that are
The sources and forms of energy can be classified not exhaustible. These are freely available in nature
into several types based on the following criteria: and can be continuously used.
Examples of renewable resources include wind
power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power,
ocean thermal energy, fuel cells, energy from bio-
mass and hydraulic energy. The most important
Energy feature of renewable energy is that it can be har-
nessed without the release of harmful pollutants.
Primary forms of energy are those that are either
Non-renewable energy is obtained from conven-
tional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, nuclear
sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such
fuels, and heat traps which are accumulated in the
as wood). Other primary energy sources available
earth crust. These have been in use for several de-
include nuclear energy from radioactive substanc-
cades. The sources of non-renewable energy are
es, thermal energy stored in the earth’s interior
depleting at a fast rate and may not be sufficient
(geothermal energy), and potential energy due to
to meet the inceasing energy demand in future.
the earth’s gravity.
Therefore, these sources are also called exhaustible
Secondary forms of energy are those forms sources of energy and they cannot be replenished
which are derived from the primary forms of en- immediately.
ergy; for example, coke, oil or gas converted into
steam and electricity. R
Non-R Energy S
Energy and Non-
Energy Renewable sorces of energy
These are inexhaustible.
Commercial forms of energy are available in the
market for a definite price. The most important These are freely available.
forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal These are environment-friendly.
- Energy concentration varies from region to
gy serves the basis of industrial, agricultural, trans- region.
port and commercial development in the modern
world. high, but maintenance and operational costs are
minimum.
30 Thermal Engineering

elevation in a gravitational field is called potential

be designed. energy (PE ) and is expressed as
Non-renewable sources of energy PE = mgz ( joules) ...(2.1)
These are exhaustible. on unit mass basis pe = gz (J/kg) ...(2.2)
These are available at definite prices. where g is the acceleration due to gravity and z is
the elevation of the system relative to some outside
Energy concentration does not vary. reference.

Energy
are high.
- The energy that a system possesses, as a result of
rily. motion relative to some reference is called kinetic
energy (KE ). When all parts of a system move with
ENERGY the same velocity, the kinetic energy is expressed as
1
Energy can exist in numerous forms, such as inter- KE = mV2 ( joule) ...(2.3)
2
nal, thermal, electrical, mechanical, kinetic, poten- 1
tial, wind, and nuclear energy, on unit mass basis ke = V2 (J/kg) ...(2.4)
2
In thermodynamic analysis, all forms of energy where V is the velocity of the system with respect
can be put into two groups: to some reference.
(a) Stored energy, and
(b) Transit energy. Energy

(a) Stored The stored form of energy can The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy
further be classified as is called internal energy. The internal energy
of a system is the energy stored within the body
(i) Macroscopic forms of energy: potential en- resulting from the kinetic and potential energy
ergy and kinetic energy, and of its molecules. Thus, it is related to molecular
(ii) Microscopic forms of energy: internal en- structure and degree of molecular activities. The
ergy. molecules of any system may possess both kinetic
The macroscopic forms of energy are defined as and potential energy. Thus, the internal energy of
energy with respect to some outside reference. any system may be viewed as the sum of kinetic
The microscopic forms of energy are those and potential energy of molecules. It is denoted by
which are related to the molecular structure of a U and is measured in joules.
system and degree of molecular activities and are U = K + P ( joules) …(2.5)
independent of the outside reference. where K = internal kinetic energy of molecules,
and
(b) Transit Transit energy means energy in
P = internal potential energy of molecules.
transition. It is the energy possessed by a system,
which is capable of crossing the boundaries. Heat (a) Internal Kinetic Energy All molecules in a
energy and work transfer are transit forms of energy. system move around with some velocity, vibrate
about each other, and rotate about an axis during
Energy their random motion as shown in Fig. 2.2. The
internal kinetic energy is the sum of all these
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
motions of molecules. When energy passes into a
 Energy and Work Transfer 31

Energy
Mechanical energy can be defined as a form of en-
ergy that can be converted directly and completely
into mechnical work by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine or pump. The kinetic and
potential energies are the common forms of me-
Molecular translation Molecular rotation chanical energy. Thermal (heat) energy is not a
form of mechanical energy since it cannot be con-
verted to work directly and completely.
An ideal turbine extracts mechanical energy
from a flowing fluid by reducing its pressure, while
a pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by
raising its pressure. The pressure force acting on
a fluid through a distance produces flow work ( pv
per unit mass). It is the energy of a flowing fluid,
Molecular vibrations Molecular spins and is thus called flow energy. Therefore, the me-
chanical energy of a flowing fluid on a unit mass
basis is viewed as
system, it increases the motion of molecules, thus V2
emech = pv + + gz ...(2.6)
the internal kinetic energy of system is increased, 2
and this change is reflected by an increase in V2
temperature of the system. Sometimes, kinetic where pv is the flow energy, is the kinetic en-
2
internal energy of molecules is referred as sensible ergy and gz is the potential energy of unit mass of
energy. The average velocity and the degree of a fluid. It can also be expressed in the rate form as
activities of molecules are proportional to the
Ê V2 ˆ
temperature of a gas. Thus, at higher temperature, a Emech = m Á pv + + gz ˜ ...(2.7)
system will possess higher internal energy. Ë 2 ¯
where m is the mass flow rate of fluid. The me-
(b) Internal Potential Internal potential
chanical energy change of a fluid is
energy of a system is the energy of molecular sepa-
ration. It is the energy that the molecules have as Ê V22 - V12 ˆ
Demech = ( p 2v2 – p1v1) + Á ˜
a result of their position in relation to one another. Ë 2 ¯
The greater the degree of molecular separation, the
greater is the internal potential energy. + g(z2 – z1) ...(2.8)
When a system expands or changes its physical and D Emech
state with addition of energy, a rearrangement of È Ê V 2 - V12 ˆ ˘
molecules takes place that increases the mean dis- = m Í( p2 v2 - p1v1 ) + Á 2 ˜ + g ( z2 - z1 ) ˙
ÍÎ Ë 2 ¯ ˙˚
tance between them. An internal work is required
to pull the molecules against the forces of attraction ...(2.9)
between them. An amount of internal potential en- In the absence of any losses, the mechanical en-
ergy equal to the amount of internal work done for ergy change represents the mechanical work sup-
rearrangement of molecules is called latent energy plied to the fluid (if Demech > 0); or extracted from
or latent heat. the fluid (if Demech < 0). The shaft work, spring
work, aceleration work, gravitational work, work
32 Thermal Engineering

done on a solid elastic bar are also some mechani- Q

cal forms of work. q= (kJ/kg) ...(2.13)
m
In electrical work, the force is voltage (potential
difference) and displacement is electrical current;
in magnetic work, the force is the magnetic field The heat or heat energy is generally referred as
strength and displacement is magnetic dipole mo- heat transfer. The transfer of heat into a system is
ment and are not mechanical forms of work. called heat addition or heat supply and the transfer
of heat from the system is called heat rejection. It

example, a hot potato rejects its internal energy as

The sum of the internal energy U and the product heat at its boundary to its surroundings as shown in
of pressure p and volume V appears frequently in Fig. 2.3(b).
many thermodynamic analyses. Therefore, it is
Heat
convenient to give a name to this combination, en-
thalpy. It is also called total enthalpy and is desig-
nated by H. By definition, Baked potato
at 100°C Surroundings
H = U + pV ...(2.10) at 30°C

Since U, p and V all are properties, the enthalpy

is also a property of the system. It is measured in (a) Heat transfer by virtue of temperature difference
units of internal energy, i.e., kJ in SI units. The
enthalpy for unit mass system is referred as specific 2 kJ
enthalpy and is denoted by h (kJ/kg),
2 kJ
h = u + pv ...(2.11) Baked
potato
The enthalpy per mole basis is expressed as 2 kJ
at 100°C

h = u + pv ...(2.12)
It should be noted that the enthalpy is a com-
bination of other properties and it is not a form of (b) Energy as heat crossing the boundary
energy. Fig. 2.3

A process during which there is no heat transfer

is called an adiabatic process as shown in Fig. 2.4.
It is a transfer form of energy that flows between In an adiabatic process, energy content and the tem-
two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by perature of a system can be changed by other pro-
virtue of the temperature difference between them.
cesses, such as work.
The temperature difference is the potential for heat
transfer. There would be no heat transfer between Control surface
two systems if they are at the same temperature.
The amount of heat transferred from the state 1
System Q=0
to the state 2 is designated Q1–2 or Q and it is mea-
sured in joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ) in SI units and
calories (cal) or kilocalories (kcal) in MKS units.
Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is de- Fig. 2.4 -
noted by q and is expressed as
 Energy and Work Transfer 33

Q = 30 kJ 1. Heat transferred to a system (heat supply) is

m = 2 kg considered positive.
t=5s
2. Heat transferred from a system (heat rejec-
tion) is considered negative.
In other words, the quantity of heat which in-
.
Q = 6 kW creases the energy content of a system is positive
q = 15 kJ/kg and any heat transfer that decreases the energy con-
tent of a system is negative.

The quantity of heat transferred in unit time is It is defined as heat energy required to change the
called heat-transfer rate. It is designate as Q and temperature of the unit mass of a substance by
is measured in kJ/s or kW. It is given as one degree. It is designated as C and is measured
Q in kJ/kg ◊ K or kJ/kg ◊ ◊K
Q= ... (2.14) in MKS units. In general, the specific heat can be
Dt
calculated as
Energy 1 Ê dQˆ dq
C = Á ˜ = …(2.15)
m Ë dT ¯ dT
In thermodynamics, heat and internal energy are
two different forms of energy. Internal energy is Since the heat transfer is a path function, the
a property, while heat is not. A body may contain specific heat also becomes path function and it de-
energy (in stored form) but not heat. The internal pends on how the process is executed. The value of
energy is associated with a state, while heat is as- energy storage capacity of the substance depends
sociated with a process. Therefore, heat or heat en- upon specifc heat. The value of specific heat de-
ergy is defined as a form of energy in transit. Heat pends upon
is a path function. It requires a specific direction in (i) molecular arrangement of the system,
its representation on a plot. -
curs,
(iii) How the system executes the process
Heat is a directional quantity, and its specification
requires magnitude and direction. Universally ac- S Liquids
cepted sign conventions for heat energy are shown Essentially, gases have two specific heats, Cp and
in Fig. 2.6: Cv. But for liquids and solids, the specific volume
is very small and its change with pressure and
Surroundings

d ( pv) is neglected from the differential form of

Qout (–)
Eq. (2.11), and thus
System dh ª du
Qin (+)
It indicates that for solids and liquids, the en-
thalpy is equal to internal energy. Thus they have
Boundary only one specific heat designated as C. Therefore,
for any process of solids and liquids,
Fig. 2.6
dq = dh = du ∫ C dT ...(2.16)
34 Thermal Engineering

Q 981m
or DT = = = 0.233°C
The product of mass and specific heat is defined as mC m ¥ 4200
heat capacity of the system. It is measured in kJ/K
Example 2.3 An automobile vehicle of 1500 kg is
running at a speed of 60 km/h. The brakes are suddenly
Example 2.1 4 kg of solid material is heated from applied and the vehicle is brought to rest. Calculate
15°C to 115°C with addition of 750 kJ of heat in a fur- the rise in temperature of brake shoes, if their mass is
nace. Calculate its specific heat. 15 kg. Take the specific heat of brake shoe material as
0.46 k J/ kg ◊ K.
Solution
Solution
Given Mass of system, m = 5 kg
Initial temperature, T1 Given A running automobile vehicle is brought to rest.
Final temperature, T2 Initial vehicle speed, V1 = 60 km/h = 16.67 m/s,
Heat added Q = 750 kJ Final vehicle speed V2 = 0
Mass of vehicle, mvehicle = 1500 kg,
To find The specific heat of the solid system Mass of brake shoes, mbrake = 5 kg,
Analysis The heat supplied to a system is expressed as Specific heat C = 0.46 kJ/kg ◊ K
Q = mC (T2 – T1) To find The temperature rise of brake shoes
Q
\ C = All the heat generated is absorbed by
m (T2 - T1 )
Assumption
brake shoes.
750 kJ
= Analysis The deceleration work of vehicle
(1 kg) ¥ (115° C - 15° C)
1
= 7.5 kJ/kg ◊ °C Wdeceleration = DKE = mvehicle ( V22 - V12)
2
1
Example 2.2 Estimate the rise in temperature of wa- = ¥ (1500 kg) ¥ ((0 m) 2 - (16.67 m) 2 )
2
ter when it falls through a height of 50 m. Assume that
= –208417 J = –208.417 kJ
all the heat generated stays in water. The specific heat of
water may be taken as 4.2 kJ/kg ◊ °C. When brakes are applied, this deceleration work con-
verts into heat energy and is transferred to brake shoes.
Solution That is,
Q = 208.417 kJ
Given A running automobile vehicle is brought to rest
and Q = mbrake CDT
Height of water h = 100 m,
(208.417 kJ )
Specific heat of water C = 4.2 kJ/kg ◊ \ DT =
= 4200 J/kg ◊
(15 kg) ¥ (0.46 kJ / kg ◊ K )
= 30.2°C
To find The temperature rise of water
Assumption Acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2. Example 2.4 During a certain process, the specific
heat capacity of a system is given by C = (0.4 + 0.004 T)
Analysis The potential energy change of water when it kJ/kg°C. Find the heat transferred and mean specific
falls through 100 m heat of gas, when the temperature changes from 25°C to
DPE = mgh = m ¥ (9.81 m/s2) ¥ (100 m) = 981m J 125°C. The mass of the system is 5 kg.
Decrease in potential energy will convert into heat
energy, thus Solution
Q = DPE = 981 m J Given Initial temperature, T1
and Q = m C DT Final temperature, T2
 Energy and Work Transfer 35

C = (0.4 + 0.004T) kJ/kg ◊

Mass of system, m = 5 kg
To find The heat-transfer rate
Analysis The relation for specific heat is given as
C = (0.4 + 0.004T
The heat transfer can be calculated as Fig. 2.7
T2
Q = m
ÚT1
C dT

125
= 5¥
Ú 25
(0.4 + 0.004T ) dT
125
È T2 ˘
or Q = 5 ¥ Í0.4T + 0.004 ¥ ˙
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
25
125
È (125) 2 - ( 25) 2 ˘
= 5 ¥ Í0.4 ¥ (125 - 25) + 0.004 ¥ ˙
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚ 25
= 5 ¥ (40 + 30) = 350 kJ
The heat transfer can also be expressed in terms of
mean specific heat as the system boundary as the insulated wall and the
Q = mC (T2 – T1) moving blades add internal energy to the system.
350
Thus C = = 0.7 kJ/kg°C
5 ¥ (125 - 25) D
In thermodynamics, force and distance are not easily

to the thermodynamic definition of work, an energy

Work like heat is also a form of energy in transit. interaction between a system and its surroundings
It is defined as the energy transfer associated with during a process can be considered as work trans-
force acting through a distance. It is an interaction fer, if its sole effect on every thing external to the
between a system and its surroundings. system could have been to raise a weight.
Energy can cross the boundary of the system as Thermodynamic work refers to transfer of en-
heat or work. Therefore, if the energy crossing the ergy due to potential difference other than tempera-
boundary is not heat, then it must be work. A mov- ture difference, without transfer of mass across the
ing piston, a rotating shaft, a rising weight are all system boundary. It is an extension of the concept
associated with work interaction. of work in mechanics.
Work is also measured in kJ. Work done during
a process from the state 1 to the state 2 is denoted battery, switch, and a resistance coil outside the
by W1–2 or W. The work done per unit mass (w) is system as shown in Fig. 2.9(a). When the switch
defined as is closed, the current flows through the resistance
W coil. Thus, electrical energy crossing the boundary
w= (kJ/kg) ...(2.17)
m of the system is converted into heat energy. At the
An insulated chamber containing a system of boundary of the system, force and motion are not
gas, and exchanging energy as work transfer only evident; and thus according to mechanics, this ener-
is shown in Fig. 2.7. The heat energy does not cross gy interaction cannot be regarded as work transfer.
36 Thermal Engineering

Boundary Sometimes the power is also expressed in horse

I power (hp). The relation between hp and kW is
Switch Resistance 1 hp = 0.746 kW
heater

V2 – V 1 +
–
Work Transfer
The complete specification of work transfer also
requires magnitude and direction. The universally
Electrolytic accepted sign conventions for work transfer are
battery
shown in Fig. 2.10.
1. The production of work is desirable, there-
(a) Battery work through a resistance fore, the work done by a system is consid-
ered positive.
Pulley
Switch I
Wpw
2. The consumption of work is always unde-
Motor sirable, therefore, work done on a system is
V2 – V 1 + considered as negative.
–

Raising
weight
Electrolytic
battery

Boundary

(b) Battery works through an electric motor-pulley

and weight
Fi
Fig. 2.9
By the sign convention, work produced by a car
However, an electric current is driven by an engine, hydraulic motor, steam, and gas turbines
electrical potential difference external to the system. is positive and work consumed in operation of a
Thus, the work is done by the battery according to compressor, a pump, a refrigerator, a fan, etc., is
thermodynamic definition. This concept can be negative.
illustrated by replacing the external resistance by
an imaginary motor-pulley and weight as shown in Work Transfer
Fig. 2.9(b). When the switch is closed, the battery The features of work transfer are given below:
drives the motor. The pulley rotates and in turn
raises the suspended weight. Thus, the sole effect
thus it is a boundary phenomenon.
external to the system becomes to raise a weight.
(ii) Work is transferred in specific direction in a
process; thus it is a path function.
(iii) If the nature of the process changes between
The quantity of work transfer per unit time is called two given states, the magnitude of work may
power. It is actually the rate of work transfer. It is change.
denoted by P and measured in kW (= kJ/s).
(iv) Magnitude of work transfer can also be ob-
dW tained by calculating the area under the path
P= (kW) …(2.18)
dt of the process.
 Energy and Work Transfer 37

Work
Transfer
Heat and work both are the interaction of energy 1. Electrical work 2. Mechanical work
between a system and its surroundings and they 3. Moving boundary work 4. Flow work
have some similarities between them. 5. Gravitational work 6. Acceleration
work
system as they cross it, thus, both heat and 7. Shaft work 8. Spring work
work are boundary phenomena.
2. A system may have energy, but not heat or
work, because, heat and work are transient Electrical work is the energy interaction due to
phenomena. crossing of electrons at the system boundary. In an
3. Both are associated with a process, not a electric field, the electrons in a wire move under
state. Therefore, unlike properties heat or the effect of electromotive forces for doing work
work has no meaning at a state. (driving a motor, fan, etc.). The resistance heating
4. Both are path functions. They are represented as an electrical work is shown in Fig. 2.11.
by a path followed during the process.
5. The equations for heat and work transfer
cannot be differentiated exactly. The differ-
ential quantities of heat and work are repre- Fig. 2.11
sented as dQ and dW, respectively.
electrical work transfer can be expressed
Work as
Transfer
WE = V I (watts) ...(2.19)
1. Heat is a low-grade energy, whereas the The work done WE in time Dt is
work is a high-grade energy. WE = V I Dt ( joules) ...(2.20)
2. Heat transfer takes place due to temperature
difference only, while work transfer may
take place due to any potential difference in
In mechanics, the work done by a system is expressed
pressure, voltage, height, velocity, tempera-
as a product of force (F ) and displacement (s)
ture, etc.
3. A stationary system cannot do work, while W = Fs ...(2.21)
such a restriction is not imposed on heat If the force is not constant, the work done is ob-
transfer. tained by adding the differential amounts of work,
2
Ú
4. The entire quantity of work can be converted W = F ds ...(2.22)
into heat or any other form of energy, while 1
conversion of the entire quantity of heat into
work is not possible. Boundary Work
work into heat or another In many thermodynamic problems, mechanical
form of energy is possible with a single work is the form of moving boundary work. The
process, while conversion of heat into work moving boundary work is associated with real en-
requires a complete cyclic process, like a gines and compressors. The pressure difference is
steam power plant. the driving force for mechanical work.
38 Thermal Engineering

- energy. The gravitation force Fg acting on a body

ton cylinder arrangement as shown in Fig. 2.12. Let of mass is
the gas pressure is p, volume V and piston cross- Fg = mg …(2.26)
sectional area is A. If the piston is allowed to move where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The
through a distance ds in a quasi-equilibrium man- gravitational work done to raise the body from the
ner, the force applied on piston is elevation z1 to z2 is
F = pressure ¥ cross-sectional area of piston 2 z2
= pA Wg = Ú 1
Fg dz = mg Ú z1
dz
= mg (z2 – z1) ( joules) ...(2.27)
It is an increase in potential energy of the body
due to gravitation work done on it.

The work associated with change in velocity of

a system is defined as the acceleration work.
Acceleration force, Fa according to Newton’s sec-
ond law of motion is
Fa = ma ...(2.28)
where a is the acceleration, which is defined in
Fig. 2.12 terms of the velocity V as
dV
a = ...(2.29)
dt
Then differential work transfer through a dis- and the velocity V in terms of the displacement s
placement of ds during this process is defined as
dW = pAds = pdV ...(2.23) ds
Thus, the moving boundary work of a system in V = ...(2.30)
dt
differential form is equal to the product of absolute the ds = Vdt
pressure and differential change in its volume dV
Thus, the acceleration work
(= A ds). 2 2 Ê dV ˆ V2
The total boundary work can be obtained by Wa = Ú1
Fa ds = Ú
1
mÁ
Ë dt ˜¯
( Vdt ) = m Ú V1
Vd V
adding all differential works from the initial state 1
to the final state 2 as = (1/2) m(V22 – V12) ( joules) ...(2.31)
2 where V1 and V2 are the initial and final velocities
W= Ú1
pdV (kJ) ...(2.24) of the moving mass m. The acceleration work is
This work transfer during a process is equal to recognised as the change in kinetic energy.
the area under the curve on a p–V diagram and the
work done by each kg of system is
2 The shaft work is the work associated with energy
w=
Ú 1
pdv (kJ/kg) ...(2.25)
transmission with a rotating shaft. It is the product
of torque (product of force and radius of shaft) and
angular displacement.
The work done against the gravitational force is r, rotating with N
called gravitational work or change in potential revolutions per minute as shown in Fig. 2.13. If the
 Energy and Work Transfer 39

Then the spring work

dWspring = k x dx
If the spring length changes from x1 (undisturbed
position) to x2 under the action of force, the spring
work is
x2
Wspring = k Ú x1
x dx

force F is acting through an arm radius r then the = (1/2) k (x 22 – x 12) ...(2.33)
torque is
Example 2.5 A gas is compressed from an initial
T volume of 0.38 m3 to a final volume of 0.1 m3. During
T = Fr or F =
r the quasi-equilibrium process, the pressure changes with
This force acts through a displacement per unit volume according to the relation, p = aV + b, where, a =
–1200 kPa/m3 and b = 600 kPa. Calculate the work done
time,
N during this process.
s = ( 2p r ) ¥
60 Solution
Then the shaft work per unit time (shaft power)
can be expressed as Given
V1 = 0.38 m3, V2 = 0.1 m3,
ÊNˆ T
Wsh = Fs = 2p r ¥ Á ˜ ¥ a 3
, b
Ë 60 ¯ r
and relation p = aV + b
2p N T
= (watts) ...(2.32) To find The work done by the system.
60
Analysis The work done by a system can be calculated
as
2 0.1
When the force is applied on a spring, its length W =
Ú
1
pdV =
Ú
0.38
(aV + b) dV
changes as shown in Fig. 2.14. If dx is the change in 0.1
È1 ˘
the length of a spring under the influence of a force = Í aV 2 + bV ˙
F then the work done by the spring is Î2 ˚ 0.38

dWspring = Fdx Using the numerical values

where the force F exerted can be defined in terms of 0.12 - 0.382
W = –1200 ¥ + 600 ¥ (0.1 – 0.38)
the spring constant k (N/m) as 2
F = k x (N) W = 80.64 – 168 = – 87.36 kJ

Example 2.6 In a reversible non-flow process,

Position at the work is done by a substance in accordance with
rest
2.80 3
V= m , where p is the pressure in bar. Find the
p
x1
work done on or by system as pressure increases from
x2
0.7 bar to 7 bar.

Solution
Given A reversible non-flow process with
F p1 p2
Fig. 2.14 2.80 3
and relation V = m
p
40 Thermal Engineering

To find The work interaction by the system K 10

or V2 = = = 0.223 m3
Analysis The initial and final volumes of the working p2 200
substance Now, the work done during the process
2.80 2.8
V1 = = = 4 m3 2 2 K È1 1˘
p1 0.7 W =
Ú1
pdV =
Ú
1 V 2
dV = K Í - ˙
V
Î 1 V2˚
2.80 2.8
V2 = = = 0.4 m3 È 1 1 ˘
p2 7 or W = 10 ¥ Í - ˙
From the given relation, the pressure p can be ex- Î 0.1 0.233 ˚
pressed as = 10 ¥ (10 – 4.29) = 57.1 kJ
2.80 2.80
p = bar = 100 ¥ kPa Example 2.8 A spherical balloon contains 5 kg of air
V V
at 200 kPa and 500 K. The balloon material is such that
The work done by a system can be calculated as
2 0.4
the pressure inside is always proportional to the square
1
W =
Ú1
pdV = 100 ¥ 2.8 ¥
Ú 4 V
dV of the diameter. Determine the work done when the vol-
ume of the balloon doubles as a result of heat transfer.
Ê 0.4 ˆ
= 280 ¥ ÈÎln (V )˘˚
0.4
= 280 ¥ ln Á
4 Ë 4 ˜¯ Solution
= – 644.72 kJ Given m = 5 kg, p1
T1 = 500 K, V2 = 2V1.
Example 2.7 In a piston–cylinder arrangement, the
pressure is inversely proportional to the square of the To find The work done by gas, when volume of balloon
volume. The initial pressure is 10 bar in the cylinder and doubles.
the initial volume is 0.1 m3. The volume is now changed
Assumption The gas constant for air is 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
so that the final pressure is 2 bar. Find the work done in
kJ. Analysis D is the diameter of the balloon.
According to the given condition,
Solution p μ D2 or p = KD2
1 It is the equation of state with a constant of propor-
Given The relation p μ ,
V2 tionality K.
p1 Further, from the relation for a perfect gas
V1 = 0.1 m3, p1v1 = RT1
p2 R T1 0.287 ¥ 500
v1 = =
To find Work done during the process p1 200
= 0.7175 m3/kg
Analysis The given relation
Thus, the volume of the balloon at initial state;
1 K V1 = m v1 = 5 ¥ 0.7175 = 3.5875 m3
pμ 2
or p=
V V2 Thus, the diameter of the balloon can be calculated as
1 K V1 = (1/6) ¥ p ¥ D13
At the state 1, p1 μ or p1 = 2
V12 V1 or D13 = 6.851
where K is the constant of proportionality and it is or D1 = 1.899 m
calculated by initial condition. Therefore, When the volume of the balloon doubles, the diameter
K = p1 V12 ¥ (0.1 m3)2 of balloon
6
V2 = (1/6) ¥ p ¥ D23
Now at the state 2, but V2 = 2 V1 = 7.175
K or D 23 = 13.703
p2 =
V2 2 or D2 = 2.393 m
 Energy and Work Transfer 41

Now from the given relation at the state 1 of volume (m3) is given by
p1 = K D12 0.86110 8.60673 ¥ 10 -5
p = -
or
p
K = 12 =
200
= 55.44 V V2
D1 (1.8993) 2 (a) Find the amount of work done in kJ.
The work done by a system; (b) If the atmospheric pressure, i.e., 1 bar acting on
2 2 2 Êp ˆ the other side of piston is considered, find the net
W =
Ú
1
pdV =
Ú1
KD 2 dV = K Ú1
D 2 d Á D3 ˜
Ë6 ¯ work done in kJ.

K 2
=
6
p¥
Ú 1
2
D ¥ 3D dD 2 Solution
Given V1 = 0.8611 m3, V2 = 0.17212 m3,
1 2
= p ¥ 55.44
2 Ú 1
4
D dD patm
0.86110 8.60673 ¥ 10 -5
and p = - (bar)
È D5 D5 ˘ V V2
= 87.08 ¥ Í 2 - 1 ˙
ÍÎ 5 5 ˙˚ To find
(i) The work done by the gas,
È ( 2.393)5 (1.8993)5 ˘ (ii) The work done by the gas when atmospheric
= 87.08 ¥ Í - ˙
ÍÎ 5 5 ˙˚ pressure on other side of piston is considered.
= 936.22 kJ Analysis
(i) Work done by the gas without considering
Example 2.9 The van der Waals equation is given by atmospheric pressure;
Ê aˆ V2
ÁË p + v ˜¯ (v - b) = RT W =
ÚV1
pdV
0.17212 Ê 0.86110
where a and b are constants and other terms have usual
meanings. Determine the work done in a reversible
= (100 kPa / bar ) Ú 0.8611
ÁË V

isothermal expansion. 8.60673 ¥ 10 -5 ˆ

- ˜ dV
V2 ¯
Solution The van der Waals equation is È
= 100 ¥ Í0.86110 ln (V ) - 8.60673
Ê aˆ Î Ê 1 ˆ˘
0.17212
ÁË p + v ˜¯ (v - b) = RT ¥ 10 -5 ¥ Á - ˜ ˙
Ë V ¯˚
0.8611
It can be rearranged as
È Ê 0.17212 ˆ
RT a = 100 ¥ Í0.86110 ¥ ln Á - 8.60673
p = - Î Ë 0.8611 ˜¯
v-b v
Ê 1 1 ˆ˘
The work done by the gas can be calculated as ¥ 10 - 5 ¥ Á - ˙
v2 Ë 0.8611 0.17212 ˜¯ ˚
w=
Ú v1
p dv = –138.6 kJ
v2 1 v2 a (ii) Work done on the atmosphere by the piston for its
or w = RT
Ú
v1 v-b
dv -
Ú
v1 v
dv volume change from V1 to V2
V2

or
Ê v - bˆ
w = RT ln Á 2 ˜
È1 1˘
+ a Í - ˙ (kJ/kg)
Watm =
ÚV1
pdV = p (V2 – V1)
Ë v1 - b ¯ Î v2 v1 ˚ = 100 ¥ (0.17212 – 0.8611)
= – 68.9 kJ
Example 2.10 A quantity of gas is compressed in a Net work done by the gas
piston–cylinder from a volume of 0.8611 m3 to a final Wnet = W – Watm = –138.6 + 68.9
volume of 0.17212 m3. The pressure (in bar) as a function = – 69.7 kJ
42 Thermal Engineering

Example 2.11 A system of 1 kg of gas expands from pressure is found to be 500 kPa. Determine the work done
an initial state at pressure of p1 bar and a volume of v1 m3/ by the gas. Take the atmospheric pressure as 1 bar.
kg to a volume of v2 m3/kg. Calculate the work done by
the gas, when expansion is (a) isobaric, (b) isothermal,
and (c) polytropic with the law pv n = constant.

Solution
Analysis
(i) When the process of expansion is isobaric
(constant pressure):
p1 (bar) = 100p1 (kPa)
v2 v2 Gas under spring force
w =
Úv1
pdv = 100 p1
Ú v1
dv
Solution
= 100 p1 (v2 – v1)
(ii) When the process of expansion is isothermal Given A cylinder with a piston connected to coil
(constant temperature): spring.
The law of process, V1 = 0.1 m3, p1 = 200 kPa,
100 C V2 = 2V1, p2 = 500 kPa.
pv = C or p =
v and Fspring μ x or Fspring = kx
v2 v2
Ú
1
Ú
The work done w = pdv = 100 C To find Work done by the gas.
dv
v1 v1 v
Analysis The force balance at any position of the piston
Êv ˆ
= 100 C ln Á 2 ˜ pA = patm A + kx
Ëv ¯ 1
V
Êv ˆ using di splacement x =
or w = 100 p1v1 ln Á 2 ˜ ( kJ /kg ) A
Ëv ¯ 1 kV
Then pA = patm A +
(iii) When the process of expansion is polytropic: A
The law of process, kV
or p = patm + ...(i)
100C A2
pvn = C or p =
vn
2 v2 The work done
1
The work done, w =
Ú pdv = 100 C Ú dv 2 2Ê kV ˆ
1

È v 1- n - v11- n ˘
v1 vn W =
Ú1
pdV =
Ú 1
ÁË patm + 2 ˜¯ dV
A
= 100 C Í 2 ˙ k
ÍÎ n -1 ˙˚ = patm(V2 – V1) + (V22 - V12 )
2 A2
n n
Now using C = p1 v1 = p2 v2
k
Ê p v - p1v1 ˆ
= patm(V2 – V1) + (V2 - V1 ) (V2 + V1 )
We get, w = 100 ¥ Á 2 2 2 A2
Ë n-1 ˜¯ kJ/kg
È k ˘
= (V2 – V1) Í patm + 2
(V2 + V1 )˙ ...(ii)
Î 2A ˚
Example 2.12 A cylinder with a frictionless piston
From Eq. (i), we get
contains 0.1 m3 of gas at 200 kPa. The piston is connected
to a coil spring which exerts a force proportional to the kV = A2 ( p – patm)
displacement from its equilibrium position. The gas È p - patm p1 + patm ˘
\ W = (V2 – V1) Í patm + 2 + ˙
is heated until the volume is doubled, at this state; the Î 2 2 ˚
 Energy and Work Transfer 43

È p + p2 ˘ In the absence of any work interaction between

On solving W = (V2 – V1) Í 1 ˙ a system and its surroundings, the amount of net
Î 2 ˚
Using numerical values; heat transfer is equal to the change in the energy
Ê 200 + 500 ˆ of a system.
W = (0.2 – 0.1) ¥ Á ˜¯ = 35 kJ
Ë 2 Q = DE when W = 0 ...(2.34)
Now consider a well-insulated room, heated by
an electric heater as shown in Fig. 2.17. As a result
of electrical work done, the energy of the room will
The first law of thermodynamics, also known increase. Since the room is adiabatic and cannot
as the conservation of energy principle. It states have any heat interaction with its surroundings,
that during any process, if the energy disappears the conservation of energy principle dictates that
in one form, it appears in other form, but its total electrical work done on the room must be equal to
quantity remains always constant. That is, the increase in energy of the room. That is,
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it can –W = DE
only change its form. For example, for the energy
interaction between a system and its surroundings,
DE = +10 kJ
the energy lost by a system must be exactly equal to
the amount of energy gained by the surroundings. Room as
a system W = –10 kJ
The first law can be proved mathematically, but no
process in nature is known to have violated the first
law of thermodynamics.
It is the relation of energy balance and is appli-
cable to any kind of system (open or closed) under-
going any kind of process.
For an adiabatic processes, the amount of work
Let us consider a process that involves only heat done is equal to the change in energy of the system.
transfer but no work interaction. A hot potato taken That is,
from an oven is exposed to room air as shown in
W = –DE when Q = 0 ...(2.35)
Fig. 2.16. As a result of heat transfer from the hot
potato, its energy will decrease. In absence of other Now consider work and heat transfer simultane-
effects, the decrease of total energy of the potato
becomes equal to the amount of heat transferred to gas in a piston cylinder device. The gas is heated
its surroundings. Therefore, the principle of conser- inside the cylinder as a result of heat supply. As the
vation of energy can be expressed as energy of the gas increases, its pressure and tem-
perature also increase. Then the gas will expand
–DE = –Q
and work will be done at the boundary of the sys-
where D E = E2 – E1
tem. The conservation of energy principle reveals
that
Q = W + DE
Potato Surroundings
at 100°C at 30°C or Q – W = DE (kJ) ...(2.36)
DE = –20 kJ where Q = net heat transfer across system
boundaries
Heat
Q = – 20 kJ W = net work transfer in all forms
DE = net change in total energy of the
Fig. 2.16
system (E2 – E1)
44 Thermal Engineering

W The energy of a system on unit mass basis is

denoted as e and is defined as
E
e = (J / kg) ...(2.43)
m
System
Q The magnetic, wind, thermal, electrical and me-
DE
chanical energy are transit forms of energy. Most
often, in thermodynamic analysis, the total energy
Fig. 2.18 of a system is considered as the sum of kinetic en-
ergy, potential energy and internal energy and is
The total energy of the system is the sum of expressed as
internal energy U, potential energy PE and kinetic E = U + KE + PE ...(2.44)
energy KE, i.e., On unit mass basis e = u + ke + pe ...(2.45)
DE = DU + DPE + DKE (kJ) ...(2.37)
Most closed systems in practice are stationary, Energy Transfer
i.e., they do not involve kinetic energy and potential The energy can be transferred to or from a system
energy during a process. Thus, the stationary sys- in three forms: heat, work and mass flow. The ener-
tems are called non-flow systems and the first law gy interactions are recognised at the system bound-
of thermodynamics is reduced to ary as they cross it, and direction of energy transfer
Q – W = DU (kJ) ...(2.38) represents the energy gain or loss by a system dur-
ing a process.
1. Heat transfer to a system
increases the energy of molecules and thus an in-
crease in the internal energy of the system, and heat
transfer from a system decreases the energy of mol-
Fig. 2.19 ecules and thus results in a decrease in the internal
energy of the system.
2. The work refers to transfer
For unit mass, of energy due to potential difference other than
q – w = Du ...(2.39) temperature difference, between a system and its
In rate form of energy, dividing Eq. (2.36), on boundary. A rising piston, rotating shaft, and an
both sides by the time interval dt electric wire carrying current crossing the system
dE boundary—all these energy transfers are associated
Q -W = ...(2.40)
dt with work interactions. The work transfer to a sys-
In differential form, tem (called work done on a system) increases the
dQ – dW = dE ...(2.41) energy of the system and work transfer from a sys-
tem (called work done by the system) decreases it.
Energy 3. When mass enters a system, the
The sum of all the forms of energy is called total energy of the system increases, because mass car-
energy or energy E of a system. Thus ries energy with it. Similarly, when some mass
E = PE + KE + IE leaves the system, the energy of the system de-
+ other forms of energy ...(2.42) creases, because the leaving mass takes some en-
ergy with it.
 Energy and Work Transfer 45

The net change in energy of a system is the In his experimental arrangement as shown in
difference between the amounts of heat, work and Fig. 2.20, he took a known quantity of water in
mass transferred in and out and the energy balance a rigid insulated tank fitted with a paddle wheel.
can be written more clearly as Water was agitated by a stirrer connected with the
DEsystem = (Qin – Qout) + (Win – Wout) paddle wheel (process A). The amount of work done
+ (Emass,in – Emass,out) ...(2.46) on the water by the stirrer was accurately measured
where quantity ‘in’ and ‘out’ denote qunatities that as a product of weight and its displacement. The
enter and leave the system, respectively. temperature rise of water during the process was
The heat transfer Q also recorded.
system, the work transfer W
that does not involve work interaction and the
energy transport with mass Emass
systems.
The net change in total energy of a system during
a process is equal to the difference between the
total energy entering and the total energy leaving
the system during that process.
Fig. 2.20 -
Ê Total energy ˆ - Ê Total energy ˆ
ÁË entering the system ˜¯ ÁË leaving the system˜¯

= ÊÁ
Net change in total ˆ
Ë energy of the system˜¯ Further, the insulation from the tank was
or Ein - Eout = D Esystem (kJ) removed and the whole system was placed in a
Net energy transfer Change in internal, kinetic, water bath. The heat was transferred from the
by heat, work and mass potential, etc., en
nergies
system (process B) in order to restore the system to
…(2.47)
the same initial state. Thus process A and process
In rate form B form a cycle. During process A, there was work
dEsystem
Ein - Eout = (KW) done on the system but no heat transfer; during the
dt
Rate of net energy transfer process B, there was heat transferred but no work
by heat, work and masss Rate of change in internal,
kinetic, potentiall, etc., energies done. During a complete cycle, there was net work
…(2.48) input and net heat output from the system.
For constant rates, the total quantities during a Joule repeated the experiment for different
time interval Dt are related to the quanties per unit systems, and for different amounts of work
time as interactions, and measured the corresponding
Q = Q D t , and amount of heat interaction in each case for restoring
W = W Dt , ...(2.49) the system back to its initial state. Joule found in
his experimental observations that,
“Whenever a closed system undergoes a cycle,
the work input to the system is proportional to the
net heat output”. It is expressed as

Joule conducted several experiments which led to Ú dW μ

Ú dQ
the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics. or
Ú dW Ú
= J dQ ...(2.50)
46 Thermal Engineering

where J is the constant of proportionality, called

mechanical equivalent of heat, whose value de- 2 2 2 2
pends on the units selected for W and Q. In SI units Ú 1
d QA - Ú 1
dW A = Ú 1
d QB - Ú 1
dWB ...(2.53)
its value is unity, therefore;
The quantity dQ – dW is dE according to
Ú dW = Ú d Q ...(2.51) Eq. (2.36). The integration of each side of Eq. (2.53)
leads to the energy transfer during the paths (pro-
When a system undergoing a cyclic process cesses) A and B, thus
comprises of more than one process, then DEA = DEB ...(2.54)
SW = SQ
Now consider another cycle 1–A–2–C–1. The
or SW – SQ = 0 ...(2.52) processes A and C together constitute a cycle, for
For a cyclic process, the net heat transfer is al- which,
ways equal to the net work transfer. 2 1 2 1
Ú
1
d QA + Ú 2
d QC = Ú
1
dW A + Ú dW
2
C

2 2 2 2
or
Ú 1
d QA - Ú
1
dW A = Ú
1
d QC - Ú
1
dWC

or DEA = DEC ...(2.55)

For any cyclic process, the first law of thermody-
From Eq. (2.54) and (2.55), we get
namics is given by Eq. (2.51). Many times we are
concerned with heat and work transfer during a DEB = DEC
single thermodynamic process. Thus, we formulate It indicates that the change in energy between
the first law of thermodynamics for a process. two states of the system does not depend upon the
path followed by the process, but depends on the
from 1 to 2, along a path A and returning from states between which the process proceeds. Thus,
state 2 to 1, along the path B, thus completing a the energy is a state function and property.
cycle 1–A–2–B–1 as shown in Fig. 2.21.
p

1 A device that violates the first law of thermodynam-

A
C ics by producing work from nothing is called a per-

2 Fig. 2.22. It is proposed to produce steam by a re-

v sistance heater placed inside the boiler, instead of

Applying the first law for the cyclic process

1–A–2–B–1;
2 1 2 1
Ú
1
d QA + Ú 2
d QB = Ú
1
dW A + Ú dW
2
B

2 2 2 2
or
Ú
1
d QA - Ú1
d QB = Ú
1
dW A - Ú 1
d WB

Fig. 2.22
 Energy and Work Transfer 47

by combustion of fuel. The part of electricity gen- Solution For any process;
erated by the plant is to be used for the resistance Q = W + DU
heating and pump work. The rest of the electricity Q1–2 = W1–2 + DU1–2
is the net output of the plant. The inventor claims, Using the values;
once the system is started, the power plant produces 400.0 kJ/min = 150.0 kJ/min + DU1–2
the electricity for an infinite time without requiring or DU1–2 = 250.0 kJ/min
any energy input from the outside. Q2–3 = W2–3 + DU2–3
Here, the inventor tries to solve the world energy Using the values;
crisis, if it works. Unfortunately, such a proposal 200.0 kJ/min = W2–3 + 300.0 kJ/min
is not possible in practice, because the device only or W2–3 = –100.0 kJ/min
produces energy output as electrical work, WE and Since there are two unknowns in the process 3–4, and
the heat rejection Qout from the condenser without they cannot be determined with one equation, hence we
any energy input, which is a violation of the first consider process 4–1;
law of thermodynamics. Therefore, such a device Q4–1 = W4–1 + DU4–1
is called the perpetual motion machine of the first Using values;
0.0 kJ/min = 75 kJ/min + DU4–1
or DU4–1 = –75.0 kJ/min
Example 2.13 A system is composed of a gas con- All processes together constitute a cycle, thus for a
tained in a cylinder fitted with a piston. The gas expands cyclic process:
from the state 1 for which E1 = 75 kJ to a state 2 for SQ = SW
which E2 = –25 kJ. During the expansion, the gas does Q1–2 + Q2–3 + Q3–4 + Q4–1
60 kJ of work on the surroundings. Determine the heat
= W1–2 + W2–3 + W3–4 + W4–1
transferred to or from the system during the process.
Using the values
Solution 400.0 + 200.0 + (–200.0) + 0
= 150.0 + (–100.0) + W3–4 + 75.0
Given E1 = 75 kJ, E2 = –25 kJ and W = 60 kJ or W3–4 = 275.0 kJ/min
To find The amount of heat transferred. Now considering the process 3–4
Q3–4 = W3–4 + DU3–4
Analysis According to the first law of thermodynamics
Using values;
for a process
–200.0 kJ/min = 275.0 kJ/min + DU3–4
Q – W = DE
or DU3 – 4 = – 475.0 kJ/min
or Q = W + DE
For a cyclic process:
where DE = E2 – E1 = –25 – 75 = –100 kJ,
Net heat transfer = net work transfer = 400 kJ/min
Using the above Q = (60 kJ) + (–100 kJ)
The power output
= – 40 kJ (heat is rejected)
Net work transfer 400
P = =
Example 2.14 A system undergoes a cyclic process time in seconds 60
composed of four processes 1–2, 2–3, 3–4, and 4–1. The = 6.67 kW
energy transfer is tabulated below: The complete table is

Process Q kJ/min W kJ/min DU kJ/min Process Q kJ/min W kJ/min DU kJ/min

1–2 400.0 150.0 — 1–2 400.0 150.0 250.0
2–3 200.0 — 300.0 2–3 200.0 –100.0 300.0
3–4 –200 — — 3–4 –200 275.0 – 475.0
4–1 0 75 —
4–1 0 75.0 –75.0
Complete the table and determine the power output.
48 Thermal Engineering

Example 2.15 A non-flow system undergoes a fric- For a 10-kg fluid system,
tionless process according to a law p = (4.5/v) + 2, where Q = (10 ¥ 415.94) = 41594 kJ
p is in bar and the volume v is in m3/kg. During the pro- (ii) The change in specific enthalpy can be calculated
cess, the volume changes from 0.12 m3/kg to 0.04 m3/ kg as
and the temperature increases by 133°C. The change in Dh = Du + D(pv) = Du + ( p2 v2 – p1v1)
internal energy of the fluid is given as du = Cv dT, where The pressure p1 and p2 can be calculated from the
Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg ◊ K and dT is temperature change. Find given expression:
out (a) heat transferred, and (b) change in enthalpy.
È 4.5 ˘
Assume a fluid quantity of 10 kg. p1 = 100 ¥ Í + 2˙ kPa
Î v1 ˚
Solution È 4.5 ˘
= 100 ¥ Í + 2˙
È 4.5 ˘ Î 0.12 ˚
Given The process law p = Í + 2˙ bar
Î v ˚ = 3950 kPa
È 4.5 ˘ È 4.5 ˘
= 100 ¥ Í + 2˙ kPa and p2 = 100 ¥ Í + 2˙ kPa
Î v ˚ v
Î 2 ˚
Initial volume, v1 = 0.12 m3/kg, È 4.5 ˘
= 100 ¥ Í + 2˙
Final volume, v2 = 0.04 m3/kg Î 0 .04 ˚
Temperature rise, DT = 133°C, = 11450 kPa
Specific heat, Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg ◊ K Thus flow energy,
du = Cv dT, D(pv) = 11450 ¥ 0.04 – 3950 ¥ 0.12
Mass of fluid, m = 10 kg = –16.0 kJ/kg
To find Change in enthalpy, Dh = 94.43 + (–16)
= 78.43 kJ/kg
(i) Heat transferred, and
For 10 kg fluid, DH = m Dh = 10 ¥ 78.43
(ii) change in enthalpy.
= 784.3 kJ
Analysis
(i) The change in specific internal energy of the fluid Example 2.16 The power developed by a turbine in a
system can be calculated by integrating the given certain steam power plant is 1200 kW. The heat supplied
expression to the boiler is 3360 kJ/kg. The heat rejected by the system
2 to the cooling water is 2520 kJ/kg and feed pump work
Du =
Ú
1
Cv dT = Cv DT required to pump the condensate back into the boiler is
= (0.71 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (133°C or K) 6 kW. Calculate the steam flow through the cycle in kg/s.
= 94.43 kJ/kg
Solution
The work done by each kg of fluid
2 Given A steam power plant (Fig. 2.23)
È 4.5 ˘
p = 100
Ú
1
Í v + 2˙ d v
Î ˚ q1 = 3360 KJ/kg

È Êv ˆ ˘ Boiler
= 100 ¥ Í4.5 ¥ ln Á 2 ˜ + 2 ( v2 - v1 )˙
ÍÎ Ë v1 ¯ ˙˚ 4 1

È Ê 0.04 ˆ ˘ Pump turbine

= 100 ¥ Í4.5 ¥ ln Á ˜¯ + 2 ¥ (0.04 - 0.12)˙
Î Ë 0. 12 ˚ Wp = –6 kW Ws = 1200 kW

= 100 × (– 4.943 – 0.16) = –510.37 kJ/kg 2

The heat transfer for one kg of fluid system: Condenser

3
q = w + Du = –510.37 + 94.43 q2 = –2520 kJ/kg
= – 415.94 kJ/kg
Fig. 2.23
 Energy and Work Transfer 49

To find Mass flow of steam

therefore, work transfer;
Analysis Since the working substance (steam/water)
W2–3 = p1(V3 – V2) = 100 ¥ (0.06 – 0.3)
undergoes a cyclic process, thus
= –24 kJ

Ú dQ = Ú dW Applying the first law of thermodynamics

Q2–3 = W2–3 + E3 – E2
or Q1 + Q2 = WT + W p Using the values;
or m ( q1 + q2 ) = WT + W p –105 = –24 + E3 – (–29.7)
1200 - 6 or E3 = –110.7 kJ
or m = = 1.421 kg/s
3360 - 2520 Example 2.18 The energy (J) of a closed system can
be expressed as E = 100 + 50T + 0.04T 2. The heat (J)
Example 2.17 A slow chemical reaction takes place
absorbed is given by Q = 5000 + 20 T. The temperature
in a fluid at a constant pressure of 0.1 MPa. The fluid
in these relations is expressed in K (Kelvin). Calculate
is surrounded by a perfect heat insulator during reac-
the work done during the process, when the temperature
tion, which begins at the state 1 and ends at the state 2.
rises from 500 K to 1000 K.
The insulation is then removed and 105 kJ of heat flows
to surroundings as the fluid goes to the state 3. The fol- Solution
lowing data are observed for fluid at states 1, 2 and 3
respectively: Given A closed system:
State 1: T1 = 500 K,
State V (m3) T (°C) State 2: T2 = 1000 K
1 0.003 20 To find Work transfer during the process
2 0.3 370 Analysis For any process the work transfer is expressed
3 0.06 20 as
W = Q – DE
For the fluid, calculate E2 and E3, if E1 = 0.

Solution
=
Ú dQ - Ú dE
T2 T2
Given A closed system at constant process:
State 1: V1 = 0.003 m3,
=
Ú (5000 + 20 T ) dT - Ú
T1 T1
(100

+ 50 T + 0.04 T 2 ) dT
T1
p1 (T22 - T12 )
= 5000 (T2 – T1) + 20 ¥
State 2: V2 = 0.3 m3, 2
È (T 2
- T 2
) (T 3 - T12 ) ˘
T2 - Í100 (T2 - T1 ) + 50 2 1
+ 0.04 2 ˙
Q1–2 = 0 Î 2 3 ˚
State 3: V3 = 0.06 m3, Using the values of T1 and T2
T3 Ê 1000 2 - 500 2 ˆ
W = 5000 ¥ (1000 – 500) + 20 ¥ Á
Q2–3 = –105 kJ Ë 2 ¯˜

To find Magnitude of energy at states 2 and 3 È Ê 1000 2 - 500 2 ˆ

- Í100 ¥ (1000 - 500) + 50 ¥ Á ˜
Analysis For constant pressure process 1–2; ÍÎ Ë 2 ¯
W1–2 = p1(V2 – V1) Ê 10003 - 5003 ˆ ˘
= 100 ¥ (0.3 – 0.003) = 29.7 kJ + 0.04 ¥ Á ˜˙
Applying the first law of thermodynamics Ë 3 ¯ ˙˚
Q1–2 = W1–2 + E2 – E1 = 2.5 ¥ 106 + 7.5 ¥ 106 – [50 ¥ 103
Using the values; 0 = 29.7 + E2 – 0 + 18.75 ¥ 106 + 11.667 ¥ 106]
6
or E2 = – 29.7 kJ = –20.467 ¥ 10 J = – 20462 kJ
50 Thermal Engineering

Example 2.19 On a warm summer day, a housewife We consider the room with the refrigerator as an iso-
decides to beat the heat by closing the windows and lated system. The refrigerator is operated with electrical
doors in the kitchen and opening the refrigerator door. work input and then applying first law of thermodynam-
At first she feels cool and refreshed but after a while, the ics for an isolated system
effect begins to wear off. Q = DU + W
Evaluate the situation as it relates to the first law of O = DU + (–We)
thermodynamics, considering the room including the or DU = We
refrigerator as a system. The internal energy (temperature) of the room will
increase on the work input. Hence the cooling effect will
Solution Initially, the refrigerator has cold air and
wear off.
when its door is opened, the cold air mixes with room air
and makes the room air colder for a while. This makes
the lady feel cool and refreshed.

Summary
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. pletely into mechnical work by an ideal mechani-
Primary forms of energy are those that are either cal device such as an ideal turbine or pump.
found or stored in nature. Secondary forms of is a transfer form of energy that
energy are those forms which are derived from flows between two systems (or system and its
the primary form of energy. Commercial forms of surroundings) by virtue of the temperature differ-
energy are available in the market for a definite
price. Non-commercial forms of energy are not the system boundary.
available in the commercial market for a definite Work transfer like heat energy is also a form of
price. Renewable energy is obtained from sources energy in transit
that are not exhaustible. Non-renewable energy system boundary. The quantity of work transfer
is obtained from conventional fossil fuels such per unit time is called power.
as coal, oil and gas, nuclear fuels, and heat traps
The various forms of work are expressed as
which are accumulated in the earth crust.
1. Electrical work, WE = V I Dt
of its elevation in a gravitational field is called
potential energy PE, expressed as
2. Mechanical work, W = Ú pdv
3. Gravitation work, DPE = mg (z2 – z1)
PE = mgz ( joules) 4. Acceleration work,
DKE = (1/2) m(V22 – V12)
motion relative to some reference is called kinetic 5. Shaft work, Ws = 2p nT
energy KE. 6. Spring work,
1 Wspring = (1/2) k (x22 – x12)
KE = mV 2 ( joule)
2 The first law of thermodynamics states ‘energy
scopic forms of energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it can
is called the internal energy of the system. The change only its form’.
enthalpy or total enthalpy (H ) is the sum of the work interaction between a
internal energy U and the product of pressure and system and its surroundings, the amount of net
volume pV and is expressed as heat transfer is equal to the change in the energy
H = U + pV of a system.
Mechanical energy can be defined as a form of Q = DE when W = 0
energy that can be converted directly and com-
 Energy and Work Transfer 51

work done where the term E is called total energy and it is

is equal to the change in energy of the system. the sum of all the forms of energy of a system.
W = – DE when Q = 0 Thus
E = PE + KE + IE + other forms of energy
Q – W = DE (kJ)

Glossary
Internal energy Sum of all microscopic forms of ener- Thermodynamic work A form of energy in transit due
gies of a system to potential difference other than temperature difference
Enthalpy Sum of internal energy and product of pres- Power work transfer per unit time
sure and volume Specific heat The quantity of heat required to change
Heat A form of energy in transit due to temperature dif- the temperature of unit mass of substance by one degree
ference
Work Energy transfer associated with force acting Latent energy Heat energy associated with phase
through a distance change of a substance

1. Define energy and its various forms. of heat transfer and work transfer for each of the
2. Define internal energy. following processes:
3. Define sensible heat and latent heat with reference (a) Gas in an insulated cylinder expands as the
to molecular activities. piston is slowly moved outward.
4. Why is it incorrect to say that a system contains (b) A closed rigid vessel containing steam at
heat? -
5. Explain the concept of thermodynamic work.
6. Differentiate between mechanical and thermody- (c) The air in a tyre and connecting pump; the
namic work. pump plunger is pushed down forcing air
into the tyre. The tyre, pump and connecting
work is a function of a process.
tube are non-conducting.
8. What are the salient features of work transfer?
(d) The water and steam in a rigid metallic con-
9. Define moving boundary work, gravitational tainer is heated.
work and acceleration work. (e) A viscous fluid is stirred by a paddle wheel
10. Define heat energy and specific heat. in an insulated closed tank.
11. Write the universally accepted sign convention 12. What are the similarities and dissimilarities be-
for heat and work transfer and state the direction tween heat and work interactions?

Problems
1. A tank which is 4 m long, 3 m wide and 2 m deep 2. A rectangular tank measuring 0.6 m ¥ 1 m at the
is half full of water. How much work is required base is filled half to a depth of 15 cm with water.
to raise all the water over the top edge of the
tank? [117.72 kJ] (a) Total gravitational force exerted on the base
of the tank
52 Thermal Engineering

(b) The pressure exerted by water at the base of 9. In a quasi-static process for a closed system, the
the tank [(a) 882 N, (b) 1.47 kN/m2] gas expands from a volume of 0.15 m3 and a pres-
3. An engine cylinder has a piston area of 0.1 m2, sure of 120 kPa to a volume of 0.25 m3 in such a
and contains gas at a pressure of 1.5 MPa. The manner that p(V + 0.03) = constant, where V is in
gas expands according to a process, which is rep- m3. Calculate the work done. [9.5 kJ]
resented by a straight line on a p–v plane. The 10. Air expands in a cylinder according to the law
final pressure is 0.15 MPa. Calculate the work pV1.4 = constant, from an initial volume of 3 m3
done on the gas, if the stroke is 0.3 m. [24.75 kJ] and a pressure of 450 kPa to a final volume of
4. A fluid system undergoes a non-flow frictionless 4 m3. Compute the work done by the gas.
process. The pressure and volume are related as [368 kJ]
5 11. A spherical balloon has a diameter D1, when the
p= + 1.5
V pressure of the gas inside it is p1 and atmospheric
where p is in bar and V is in m3. During the pressure p0. The pressure of the gas inside the
process, the volume changes from 0.15 m3 to balloon is proportional to the diameter. The gas
0.05 m3. Calculate the work done by the fluid. is heated till the volume of the balloon doubles.
[– 564 kJ] Calculate the work done by the gas. How much
5. A fluid at a pressure of 3 bar and with a specific work is done on the atmosphere?
volume of 0.18 m3/kg is contained in a cylinder [1.14 p1V1, 2 poV1]
behind a piston. It expands reversibly to a pressure 12. An electric potential of 100 V is impressed on
of 0.6 bar according to a law a certain resistor such that a current of 12 A is
A drawn. Calculate the energy dissipated in 3 min.
p=
v [216 kJ]
where A is a constant. Calculate the work done on
13. A certain fluid at 10 bar is contained in a cylinder
the fluid. [29.84 kJ/kg]
behind a piston. The initial volume is 0.05 m3.
6. A gas is trapped by a frictionless piston in a Calculate the work done by the fluid, when it
vertical cylinder having an inner diameter of expands reversibly
80 cm. The piston is solely supported by gas
(a) At constant pressure to a final volume of
pressure. The initial gas pressure is 250 kPa. The
0.2 m3
gas is then heated so that the piston is raised by
(b) According to a linear law to a final volume
a distance of 10 cm. Calculate the work done
of 0.2 m3 and a final pressure of 2 bar
by the gas. How much of this work is done to
(c) According to the law pV = const. to a final
lift the piston and how much to push back the
volume of 0.1 m3
atmospheric air ? What is the mass of the piston ?
Take atmospheric pressure as 100 kPa. (d) According to the law pV3 = const. to a final
volume of 0.56 m3
[12.5 kJ, 5kJ, 7.5 kJ, 7706 kg] A B
7. In a closed system, the gas is compressed fric- (e) According to the law p = 2 - to a final
V V
tionlessly from a volume of 0.01 m3 and a pres- 3
volume of 0.1 m and a final pressure of
sure of 0.70 kPa to a volume of 0.025 m3 in such 1 bar, where A and B are constants. Sketch
a manner that p(v + 0.030) = constant, where v is all processes on p–V diagram.
in m3. Calculate the work done by the gas.
[(a) 150 kJ, (b) 90 kJ (c) 34.7 kJ
[8.91 J]
(d) 24.8 kJ (e) 19.2 kJ]
8. A gas trapped in a cylinder behind a piston has
14. 0.05 m3 of a gas at 6.9 bar expands reversibly
an initial volume of 0.40 m3 and its pressure
according to the law pV 2 = const. until the volume
is 159 kPa. It is made to undergo a process,
is 0.08 m3. Calculate the work done by the gas
which follows the relationship (V – 0.2) ¥ 105 =
and sketch the p–V diagram. [15.48]
( p – 300)2, until the pressure is 400 kPa. Sketch
15. A non-flow reversible process occurs for which
the p –V diagram of this process and calculate the
pressure and volume are correlated by an expres-
work done. [9.5 kJ]
sion
 Energy and Work Transfer 53

2 6 through the walls and windows is estimated to be

p= V + 12000 kJ/h. If the room air is to be maintained
V
where p is in bar and V is in m3. What amount of at a constant temperature of 21°C, determine the
work will be done when the volume changes from number of window air-conditioner units required
2 to 4 m3? [22.83 ¥ 102 kJ] for the classroom. [2 units]
16. The properties of a system during a reversible 21. Fill in the missing data for each of the following
constant pressure non-flow process at 1.8 bar processes of a closed system between states 1 and
changes from 2.
v1 = 0.35 m3/kg, T1= 30°C to v2 = 0.6 m3/kg, (Each quantity is expressed in kJ.)
T2 = 270°C
Process Q W E1 E2 DE
È 75 ˘
If Cp = Í1.5 + ˙ kJ/kg ◊ °C, where T is in (a) 18 –6 35
Î T + 45 ˚
(b) –10 4 –15
°C, calculate Q, W, Du and Dh per kg of mass of
system. (c) 12 3 32
[467.63 kJ/kg, 45 kJ/kg, 422.67 kJ/kg, (d) 25 14
10
467.63 kJ/kg]
17. A domestic refrigerator is loaded with fresh food 22. A gas in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston
and the door is closed. During a certain period, undergoes a cycle comprising of three processes.
the machine consumes 1.25 kWh of electrical First, the gas expands at constant pressure with
energy and the internal energy of the food items a heat addition of 400.0 kJ and a work output of
decreases by 4500 kJ. Calculate the magnitude 100.0 kJ. Then, it is cooled at a constant volume
and direction of heat transfer for the system. by removal of 500 kJ of heat. Finally, an adia-
[–9000 kJ] batic process brings the system to its initial state.
18. Water is being heated in a closed pan, while being Determine (a) the work of adiabatic process, and
stirred by a paddle wheel. During the process, (b) the internal energy of the gas at each of two
40 kJ of heat is added to the water and 8 kJ of other states, if initial internal energy of the system
heat is lost to the surrounding air. The paddle is 150.0 kJ. [(a) –200 kJ, (b) 450 kJ, –50 kJ]
wheel work amounts to be 500 Nm. Determine 23. A stone of 25-kg mass is dropped in a tank con-
the final energy of the system, if its initial energy taining 225 kg of water. Initially, the stone is 20 m
is 10 kJ. above the water level and stone and water are in
[42.5 kJ] thermal equilibrium. Determine change in inter-
19. A closed system undergoes a cycle consisting of nal energy, change in potential energy, change in
two processes. During the first process, 40 kJ of kinetic energy, heat transfer and work transfer;
heat is transferred to the system, while the system when
does 60 kJ of work. During the second process, (a) the stone is about to enter the water,
45 kJ of work is done on the system. (b) the stone has come to rest in the tank, and
(a) Calculate the heat transfer during the sec- (c) the heat is transferred to surroundings in
ond process. order to restore the stone and water to their
(b) Determine the net work and net heat trans- initial temperature.
fer for the cycle. [(a) DU = 0, W = 0, Q = 0, DPE = – 4905 J,
[(a) – 25 kJ, (b) 15 kJ, 15 kJ] DKE = 4905 J, (b) DKE = 0, W = 0, Q = 0,
20. A classroom that normally contains 60 students is DPE = – 4905 J, DU = 4905 J, (c) DKE = 0,
to be air-conditioned with window air conditioner W = 0, Q = – 4905 J, DPE = 0, DU = 4905 J]
units of 5 kW rating. A person at rest may be as- 24. The internal energy of system is given by U = 100
sumed to dissipate heat at a rate of 360 kJ/h. There + 50T + 0.04T 2 joules and the heat transfer Q =
are 10 tube lights in the room, each of rating 40 4000 + 16 T joules, where T is the temperature in
W. The rate of heat transferred to the classroom kelvin. If the temperature of the system changes
54 Thermal Engineering

from 300 K to 500 K, calculate the work transfer being 2 bar. The initial and final volumes are
and its direction. 0.2 m3 and 1.2 m3, respectively. The specific
[–13.2 kJ, Work is done on the system] internal energy varies according to u = (1.5p
25. 1.5 kg of a gas at 10 bar pressure undergoes a – 85) kJ/kg, where p in m3/kg.
quasi-static expansion according to p = a + b , work and heat transfer.
where a and b are constants, the final pressure [900 kJ, 90 J]

Objective Questions
1. The unit of work in SI units is (c) balance of qunatity of energy
(a) joule (b) newton (d) measurement of energy transfer
(c) watt (d) calorie 9. Joule’s experiment states that for a cycle
2. The unit of heat in SI units is (a) change of pressure is proportional to tem-
(a) joule (b) newton perature change
(c) watt (d) calorie (b) change of volume is proportional to tem-
3. The unit of power in SI units is perature change
(a) joule (b) newton (c) change of internal energy is proportional to
(c) watt (d) calorie temperature change
4. The unit of energy in SI unit is (d) sum of all heat transfers is proportional to
(a) joule (b) newton sum of all work transfers
(c) watt (d) calorie 10. The law of thermodynamics, which states that
heat and work are mutually convertible is known
5. During a heating process, the temperature of an
as
equivalent to
(a) 20°F (b) 52°F (b) first law of thermodynamics
(c) 36°F (d) 68°F (c) second law of thermodynamics
6. During a cooling process, the decrease of tem- (d) third law of thermodynamics
This temperature 11. The perpetual motion machine of the first kind is
change on the Kelvin scale is impossible according to the
(a) 15 K (b) 298 K
(c) 258 K (d) 59 K (b) first law of thermodynamics
7. The first law of thermodynamics was given by (c) second law of thermodynamic
(d) third law of thermodynamics
(c) Wilson (d) James Watt 12. The heat supplied to a system is considered
8. The first law of thermodynamics deals with (a) negative (b) positive
(a) heat and work
(b) quality of energy

12. (b) 11. (b) 10. (b) 9. (d)

8. (c) 7. (a) 6. (a) 5. (b) 4. (a) 3. (c) 2. (a) 1. (a)
Answers
 Working Substances 55

3
Working Substances

Introduction
Thermodynamic analyses require knowledge of properties of the working substance. Steam and ideal gas
are two important working substances discussed in this chapter. In the first part of the chapter, the concept
of pure substance and physics of phase-change phenomenon are discussed with the help of various property
diagrams and p-v-T surface of pure substance. The formats and use of steam tables are demonstrated. In
the second part of the chapter, ideal gas, ideal gas laws, equation of state, characteristic gas equation and
specific gas constant are incorporated. Finally, specific heats are defined and relations are obtained between
two specific heats and for a change in internal energy and enthalpy in terms of specific heat and temperature.
Real gases, compressibility factor and other equations of state are discussed at the end of the chapter.

will contain a higher fraction of nitrogen than in the

original mixture in the gaseous phase. Similarly, if
A pure substance may be defined as a substance, air contains moisture, and it is evaporated on heating
which is chemically homogeneous and has a fixed or condensed on cooling, its chemical composition
chemical composition. In general, any substance will change, it will be no longer a pure substance. A
that appears with invariable chemical composition mixture of carbon monoxide and oxygen is a pure
in either phase or a combination of phases may be substance as long as they do not react to form CO2.
treated as a pure substance. Water, nitrogen, helium,
carbon dioxide, etc., are pure substances. A system
composed of liquid and vapour phases of water
(H2O) is a pure substance, because in either state, A phase is the homogenous part of a system that
the system will always be chemically homogeneous is physically distinct. There are three principle
without any change in its chemical composition. phases of a substance: solid, liquid and gaseous.
A mixture may also be a pure substance. For A substance may have several phases. Within
example, dry air is mainly a mixture of oxygen and the principle phase, each phase has a different
nitrogen. In its gaseous phase, it may be heated, molecular structure. For example, carbon may exist
cooled, compressed or expanded with no change in as graphite or diamond in solid phase. Pure sulphur
its chemical composition. However, if it is liquefied, and iron, each has three solid phases. Helium has
it is no longer a pure substance, because liquid air two liquid phases.
56 Thermal Engineering

A substance in each phase has a definite

molecular structure different from an other phase.
It will be helpful to have some understanding of the
molecular arrangement involved in each phase.
In a solid phase, the molecules are arranged
in a three-dimensional lattice,which is repeated
throughout its volume. The attraction forces of (a) Molecular pattern in a (b) Molecular pattern in a
molecules on each other are very strong and thus, liquids gases
keep the molecules in a fixed position within the
solid as shown in Fig. 3.1.
In the gaseous phase, the molecules are far apart
from each other without any molecular pattern and
force of attraction. The molecules of a gas are in
continuous motion, colliding with each other and
rebounding to move in a new direction.
Molecules in the gaseous phase possess a
considerable higher energy than they do in solid
or liquid phase. Therefore, a gas releases a large
amount of heat before it condenses or freezes.

The molecules in a solid phase cannot move

relative to each other, they can only oscillate Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston,
about their equilibrium position. The velocity of which may be loaded to any desired pressure. The
molecules during these oscillations depends on cylinder contains 1 kg of ice at –10°C under 1 atm
temperature. When a solid is subjected to a very pressure at the state A as shown in Fig. 3.3. The
high temperature, the velocity of molecules may stages of heat addition are illustrated in Fig. 3.4.
reach a critical point, where the intermolecular
forces become partially weak and a group of Process A B When any amount of heat is added
molecules break away. It is the beginning of the to ice, it gets warmer and its temperature rises till
melting process. it approaches 0.01°C (generally referred as 0°C) as
In the liquid phase, the molecular spacing is shown by the line AB in Fig. 3.4.
similar to that of the solid phase with relatively Process B C The following facts are observed
weaker molecular forces of attraction. In liquid during this process:
phase, the molecules do not confine a fixed
(i) Ice begins to melt at 0°C and a two-phase
position relating to each other, therefore, groups of
mixture is formed.
molecules can float easily.
(ii) The temperature of the two-phase mixture
The distances between molecules in the liquid
(M1) of ice and water does not change on
phase are slightly greater than the distances
heat addition as it is shown by the line BC.
between molecules in the solid phase of the same
substance. Water being the only exceptional case, (iii) There is slight decrease in volume because
which expands on freezing, and its molecular the liquid water at 0°C is heavier than ice.
spacing becomes slightly greater in the solid phase (iv) At the point C, all ice melts to water without
than in the liquid phase. change in pressure (1 atm) and temperature
(0°C).
 Working Substances 57

This phase transformation from solid to liquid is Process C D When heat is added to liquid water,
called the melting or fusion of ice. the following facts are observed:
58 Thermal Engineering

(i) The temperature of water rises with heat condensation will take place at higher temperatures;
supply and keeps on rising until it reaches and at lower pressures, these will take place at
boiling point temperature, the point D. lower temperatures. The temperature at which
(ii) There is decrease in the specific volume of the boiling and condensation of a fluid take place
water, when its temperature rises from 0°C is known as saturation temperature, denoted as
to 4°C and thereafter, the specific volume Tsat. The corresponding pressure of fluid is called
increases with temperature rise till it reaches the saturation pressure, denoted as psat. For a
the saturation temperature. The piston moves given pressure, there is a fixed value of saturation
up slightly during this process as shown in temperature. Figure 3.5 shows the variation of
Fig. 3.3. (v). saturation temperature with pressure of fluid.
(iii) The pressure in the cylinder remains constant
at 1 atm.

Process D–E After water reaches saturation tem-

perature (i.e., 100°C at 1 atm), any addition of
heat will cause some liquid to vaporise at the same
temperature. This is again a phase-change process
from saturated water to saturated vapour. During
this phase-change process, the following facts are
observed:
(i) There exists a two-phase mixture M2 of
water and vapour, called the wet steam.
(ii) The temperature of the mixture remains
constant until all water does not convert into
vapour (steam).
(iii) The process of phase change takes place at
constant temperature and constant pressure. Liquid existing at a temperature lower than
(iv) The specific volume of vapour is considerable saturation temperature is called compressed liquid
larger than that of saturated water as shown or sub cooled liquid, because pressure of liquid is
in Fig. 3.3 (vii). higher than its saturation pressure and this liquid is
At the state E, all the water has been vaporised not about to vaporise. The temperature by which it
and this state of steam is called dry and saturated is lower than the saturation temperature is known as
steam. The phase change from liquid to vapour is degree of subcooling, that is
called vaporisation. Degree of subcooling = Tsat – Ti ...(3.1)
Process E F Once the steam becomes dry and sat- where Ti is the initial temperature of fluid. The
urated, it bahaves as an ideal gas and its tempera- liquid at saturation temperature at a given pressure
ture and volume start increasing with further supply is about to vaporise, and is thus called saturated
of heat. This steam is called superheated steam. liquid.

3.3.1 Saturation

At normal atmospheric pressure, the boiling of

water and condensation of steam begin at 100°C. 1. It is the process that involves
Similarly, at higher pressures, the boiling and change of phase from liquid to vapour, when the
 Working Substances 59

latent heat of phase change is supplied to saturated

water.
The property diagrams are useful in the study of
2. It is the process of vapour gen-
variation of properties during phase change process.
eration only at the free surface of the liquid. The
We will discuss T–v, p–v and p–T diagrams for
molecules at the free surface extract their latent
pure substances.
heat of phase transformation from the surrounding
medium and break away as vapour from the liquid
T–v
surface and escape to the surrounding atmosphere.
The phase-change phenomenon of water (a pure
3. It is the phenomenon of vapour
substance) at 1 atm pressure is discussed in detail
formation in the whole mass of liquid, when heat
in the last section and plotted on the T–q diagram
is supplied.
in Fig. 3.4. The T–v diagram is very similar to this
4. It is the temperature diagram from the state C to F for liquid and vapour
at which a pure substance starts to evaporate at a states as shown below in Fig. 3.6.
given pressure. We repeat the process of phase transformation
5. p It is the pressure at from liquid water to vapour at different pressures
which a pure substance starts to evaporate at a by adding different weights on the top of the piston.
given temperature. At new pressures, the paths followed by liquid to
vapour phase change, (shown in Fig. 3.7), are very
It is the gases phase of water. similar to the path at 1 atm pressure with following
7. The steam is about to condense. observations:

8. It is the mixture of dry steam and (i) as pressure increases, the saturation temper-
water particles as moisture. ature Tsat for boiling and condensation also
increases.
9. It is a measure of quality of
(ii) As pressure increases, the specific volume
wet steam.
of saturated liquid increases slightly, while
10. Saturated vapour, which the specific volume for saturated vapour
is free from moisture. decreases considerably, thus the saturation
line on the T–v diagram will continue to get
11. The steam existing at higher
shorter.
temperature than its saturation temperature.
(iii) As pressure increases, the temperature for
12. It is the temperature rise of melting and freezing is slightly decreased.
superheated steam above its saturation temperature.
The T–v diagram of Fig. 3.8 is constructed from
13. A locus on the saturation curve, Fig. 3.7 with following considerations:
where saturation liquid line and saturated vapour
line meet. (i) All saturated liquid states are connected by a
solid line, called the saturated liquid line.
14. A locus on the p–T diagram, where (ii) All saturated vapour states are connected
all three phases of water coexist. by another solid line, called the saturated
15. Transformation of solid phase vapour line.
directly into vapour phase is called sublimation. (iii) The saturated liquid line and saturated
vapour line meet at the critical point and
16. It is the solid vapour saturation
form a dome as shown in Fig. 3.8.
line on the p–T diagram.
60 Thermal Engineering

(iv) The region located left to the saturated liquid (vi) The substance can exist in the single phase
line is called the compressed liquid region. only in the compressed liquid or superheated
(v) The region located right to the saturated vapour region as a liquid or a vapour.
vapour line is called the superheated vapour (vii) The region under the dome involves equilib-
region. rium between saturated liquid and saturated
vapour, and is called the wet vapour region.
 Working Substances 61

T Critical The T–v and p–v diagrams discussed above

point
p1 represent the equilibrium states involving the liquid
>
t.
ns and vapour phases only. These diagrams can also be
Sa
co

tur
=
line

p2 extended to include the solid phase as well as solid–

ate t.
d ns
Compressed liquid and solid–vapour saturation regions as shown
co
liquid

=
liquid va p1 in Fig.3.10. All the three phases of a pure substance
region po
ur Superheated exist along a line, called the triple line. Along the
vapour
Saturated triple line a substance has the same pressure and
ated

region
liquid + vapour lin
temperature, but different specific volumes. Since
Satur

e
region
the water expands on freezing, therefore, a portion
of the triple line is extended towards the left to the
saturated liquid line.
v
p
v Critical
point

p–v

Solid + Liquid
Superheated

Liquid
The overall shape of a p–v diagram of a pure vapour

substance is very similar to a T–v diagram, except

Saturated
that the constant temperature lines on this diagram liquid + vapour
Solid

have a downward trend. A pressure-specific volume

(p–v) diagram for water is shown in Fig. 3.9. Triple line

Solid + Vapour
v

p–T
The p–T diagram of a pure substance is generally
called the phase diagram, since it shows solid, liq-
uid and vapour regions of a pure substance simulta-
neously. Its salient features are the following:
(i) Each single phase of a pure substance is
separated by saturation lines. The sublimation
line separates the solid and vapour regions,
the vaporisation line separates the liquid and
vapour regions, and the fusion line separates
v
the solid and liquid regions.
It is evident from a p–v diagram, as pressure of (ii) The slope of the fusion line is negative.
a pure substance decreases at constant temperature, It indicates that the melting point of ice
the specific volume of liquid increases marginally, decreases with increasing pressure.
but the specific volume of vapour increases (iii) The sublimation, fusion and vaporisation
considerably. lines meet at point, called triple point . Thus
the triple point can be defined as a locus
where all three phases of a substance coexist.
62 Thermal Engineering

p
Critical point

e
lin p
n
ne

io
at
ion li

Liquid is
region por
Va
Fus

Liquid

Solid

Cr
region Vapour

itic
region

al
e Triple point
lin

iso
on
ati

the
blim Li p=

rm
Su qu
i
co
ns
d
+ tan

T
T Va

=
t
p

co
ou

ns
r
Va

ta
So

nt
lid pou
+ r
The phase (p–T ) diagram of water for some Va T
po
ur
typical pressure and temperature values is shown
in Fig. 3.12. v
v
Critical
point
225 atm

1 atm

Water (liquid)
Pressure

Ice If the pressure of liquid water is continuously

(solid)
increased to such a state where the saturated liquid
Water vapor (gas)
state and the saturated vapour state become identical
0.006 atm Triple point then the saturation line takes the form of a point
as shown in Figs. 3.7–3.10. This point is called the
0.01°C 100°C 374°C
Temperature critical point. Thus, the critical point represents the
maximum boiling point temperature and maximum
saturation pressure for a single-phase system and
above this temperature, the pure substance cannot
be liquefied. At the critical point, the latent heat
p–v–T
of vaporisation of the liquid becomes zero and the
The relationship among pressure, specific volume liquid directly changes to vapour.
and temperature of a pure substance can be The pressure, temperature and specific volume
better understood by the three-dimensional p–v–T of a pure substance at the critical point are called
diagram. critical pressures pcr , critical temperature Tcr
Figure 3.13 shows a surface p–v–T plot for wa- and critical specific volume vcr , respectively. The
ter, which expands on freezing. It shows p–v, p–T critical parameters for water are
and T–v diagrams simultaneously on a three-di- pressure, pcr = 22.09 MPa
mensional plot. A constant temperature line drawn
temperature, Tcr = 374.14 °C
in the figure passing through the critical point is
called critical isotherm. specific volume, vcr = 0.003155 m3/kg
 Working Substances 63

The intersection point of the sublimation line, Triple point Critical point
fusion line and vaporisation line on the phase
Substance Pressure Tempera- Pressure Tempera-
diagram (p–T ) represents a point, where all three ptp, kPa ture Ttp, K pcr, MPa ture Tcr, K
phases coexist in equilibrium as shown in Fig. 3.11.
This point is called triple point. On other property Hydrogen 7.000 14.00 5.30 60
diagrams (p–v and T–v diagrams), such a condition Nitrogen 12.500 63.00 3.40 126
is represented by a line called triple line as shown Oxygen 0.150 54.00 5.00 154
in Fig. 3.10. Water 0.611 273.16 22.09 647.29
(0.01°C) (374.14 °C)

T–s h–s

The temperature–entropy (T–s) diagram of a pure

substance is shown in Fig. 3.15 with the following
observations:
1. The absolute temperature data is plotted
along the ordinate, and the specific entropy
The triple point and critical point temperatures data is plotted along the abscissa.
and pressures for various substances are given in 2. The value of specific entropy at triple point
Table 3.1 below: is zero, and thus the saturated liquid line
originates at a temperature of 273.16 K.
64 Thermal Engineering

3. The saturated liquid line and saturated properties of steam with reasonable accuracy, while
vapour line divide the diagram into three analysing the steady flow devices such as a steam
regions, i.e., compressed liquid region left to turbines, nozzles, etc. The use of a Mollier chart
the saturated liquid line, superheated vapour eliminates the complex calculation work and it is
region right to the saturated vapour line and also convenient to use.
the wet vapour region between these two In the enthalpy–entropy chart, the enthalpy
lines. The two saturation lines meet at the is plotted against entropy. The h–s chart covers
critical point. a pressure range from 0.01 bar to 1000 bar and
4. In the compressed liquid region, the con- a temperature up to 800°C. The lines of constant
stant-pressure lines almost coincide with the dryness fraction are drawn in the wet region to
saturated liquid line. the value less than 0.5. The lines of constant
5. In the saturated liquid–vapour mixture re- temperature are drawn in the superheated region.
gion, the constant pressure lines and con- The h–s chart does not show the value of specific
stant temperature lines are horizontal and enthalpy, specific entropy and specific volume for
parallel to each other. saturated water at pressures which are generally
6. In the superheated vapour region, the con- associated with a steam condenser. Hence, this
stant volume lines are steeper than the con- chart is only useful during the expansion process
stant pressure lines. of a steam cycle.
A schematic for h–s diagram is shown in
Fig. 3.16. The constant pressure lines are indicated
The enthalpy–entropy diagram is referred as Mollier by p1, p2, p3 …, etc., the constant temperature lines
diagram. It is most commonly used to obtain the by T1, T2, T3 …, etc., the constant dryness fraction
 Working Substances 65

lines by x1, x2, x3 …, etc., and the constant volume 2.

lines are drawn dotted lines as indicated by v1, v2, ( )
v3 …, etc. hfusion = Latent heat of fusion of ice = 334.5 kJ/kg.
Any two independent properties which appear on
the chart are sufficient to define the state of steam. 3.
In the wet region, the pressure p1 and the dryness ( )
fraction x1 define the state A. In the superheated DhC–D = hf = Cpw (Tsat – 0) (kJ/kg) ...(3.3)
region, the pressure p3 and the temperature T4
where Cpw = 4.187 kJ/kg ◊ K, as the specific heat of
define the state B. A vertcal line BC of constant
water. This enthalpy hf for heating of water from
entropy can easily be drawn between the pressure
0°C to its saturation temperature at a given pressure
p3 and the pressure p2 to obtain state C. It consists
or temperature can directly be obtained from steam
of the following features:
tables.
1. The constant temperature lines are straight If water is at the initial temperature of Ti other
and almost horizontal in the superheated than 0°C, then the enthalpy of water is calculated as
vapour region specially at low pressures.
hf = Cpw (Tsat – Ti ) (kJ/kg) ...(3.4)
2. The lines of constant dryness fraction (x)
are also shown in the diagram, which are 4.
parallel to the saturation line. ( )
3. The constant-pressure lines do not change DhD–E = hfg
their shape in either region because for a = Latent heat of vaporisation of water
dh d q in kJ/kg can be obtained from steam
constant-pressure process; = = T.
ds ds tables.
4. The constant-volume lines are steeper than
At normal atmopsheric pressure,
constant-pressure lines.
Tsat = 100°C; hfg = 2257 kJ/kg
5. The compressed-liquid region is not shown
in the diagram. 5.

( )
DhE–F = Cps (Tsup – Tsat) (kJ/kg) ...(3.5)

Figure 3.4 illustrates the formation of steam where Cps = the specific heat of superheated steam,
from –10°C ice to superheated steam. The heat is taken as 2.0 to 2.3 kJ/kg ◊ K,
supplied at constant pressure; thus it can be treated Tsup – Tsat = degree of superheat, i.e., the tem-
as change in enthalpy. During the three stages of perature rise above saturation temperature in K
phase change, the enthalpy changes are as follows:
(or °C).
1. ( It is observed that the phase change of water
) from ice to superheated steam involves two types
DhA–B = hice = Cp,ice (0 – Tice) (kJ/kg) ...(3.2) of pattern of changes, when heat is supplied at
constant pressure.
where
Cp, ice = the specific heat of ice taken as 2.1 kJ/kg ◊ K, 1. Temperature changes when phase does not
change.
Tice = initial temperature of ice.
2. Temperature remains constant, when phase
\ hice = 2.1 × [0 – (–10)] = 21 kJ/kg changes.
66 Thermal Engineering

Further, as a result of heat input, the molecular amount of energy. No temperature rise is recorded
arrangement of the working substance (water) also during this process. Therefore, the specific heat
changes from strong forces of attraction between of the water during vapourisation is also assumed
molecules in solid phase to free molecules in infinity.
gaseous phase. These inputs can also be defined as
follows: hg
It is the sum of enthalpy of saturated water and
enthalpy of vaporisation. It may be defined as the
The latent heat of fusion is defined as the quantity amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water
of heat, required to convert one kg of ice into water at 0°C into dry and saturated steam at a given
at constant temperature (0°C). Its value is taken as pressure. It is designated as hg and
334.5 kJ/kg. hg = hf + hfg (kJ/kg) ...(3.6)
The amount of heat added during the fusion
process is used to break up strong molecular bonds hsup
in the solid phase into relatively weaker bonds in the
It can be defined as the amount of heat required
liquid phase and giving them a considerable amount
to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into superheated
of energy for their movement. No temperature rise
steam at constant pressure. Normally, it is the sum
is recorded during this process. The specific heat
of enthalpy of dry and saturated steam and heat
during fusion is treated as infinity.
supplied during superheating of steam. Thus
hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) (kJ/kg) ...(3.7)
hf
Sensible heat or enthalpy of saturated water is
defined as an amount of heat energy absorbed by When saturated steam contains saturated water
1 kg of water during its heating from 0°C to the particles evenly distributed in saturated vapour, it is
saturation temperature (Tsat ) at a given pressure. called the wet steam. The wet steam is charecterised
It is designated as hf in the steam tables and can by its dryness fraction.
directly be obtained from steam tables.

hfg The vapour fraction in the wet steam is considered

dryness fraction and designated as x. The dryness
It is defined as an amount of heat energy requied fraction of steam is defined as ratio of mass of
to convert 1 kg of saturated water into dry and actual dry and saturated vapour to total mass of
saturated steam keeping the temperature and steam considered.
pressure constant. The magnitude of enthalpy of
If mg is the mass of dry and saturated steam and
vaporisation or latent heat decreases as the pressure
mw is the mass of saturated water in suspension
of water increases and becomes zero at the critical
in steam considered then dryness fraction x is
point. It is denoted by hfg and is directly obtained
expressed as
from steam tables. mg
The heat added during vaporisation is also used dryness fraction, x = ...(3.8)
mg + mw
to break up molecular bonds in liquid phase, make
the molecules free and give them a considerable Wetness fraction is another term associated
with wet steam. It is defined as the ratio of mass
 Working Substances 67

of moisture in suspension with total mass of steam, (Tsup– Tsat) = temperature rise is called degree of
which contains it. It is denoted by y and expressed superheat.
as Then total heat of superheated steam
mw mg
Wetness fraction, y = =1– hsup = hf + hfg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) kJ/kg
mg + mw mg + mw
= hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) (kJ/kg) ...(3.12)
=1–x ...(3.9a)
The superheated steam behaves like a perfect
gas and therefore, it follows the gas law pvn =
constant. The value of n (index) for superheated
It is the representation of wetness fraction in per- steam is generally assumed as 1.3.
centage.
Priming = (1– x) ¥ 100 ...(3.9b)

All power plants as well as industries use super-

When steam is not completely dry then its enthalpy heated steam. The advantages of the use of super-
of vaporisation is less than that of dry and saturated heated steam are the following:
steam and it cannot be obtained from steam tables.
1. The heat content of superheated steam
Enthalpy of wet steam is calculated as
is large and it does more work without
Enthalpy of wet steam = Enthalpy of saturated water increasing pressure drop.
+ dryness fraction ¥ Enthalpy of vaporisation 2. Due to large heat content of superheated
or hwet = hf + x hfg (kJ/kg) ...(3.10) steam, the steam consumption for a given
output is less. It results into reduction in size
and weight of the system.
3. The high temperature of superheated steam
always results in improved thermal efficiency.
When water is completely converted into steam, 4. Since superheated steam is free from mois-
the resulting steam is called dry and saturated ture, its use in an apparatus for curing, dry-
steam. When the dry and saturated steam is ing, etc., avoids corrosion and erosion of the
further heated, its temperature increases with surfaces.
corresponding increase in its specific volume. This 5. When superheated steam is used in a steam
steam is called superheated steam and this process engine or steam turbine, it can be expanded
is called superheating. The superheating is carried considerably to do work before it becomes
out at constant pressure. The additional amount wet.
of heat supplied to steam during superheating is
called superheat, and the temperature rise of steam
above saturation temperature is called degree of
superheat. The volume occupied by unit mass of a fluid is
Heat added during superheating called specific volume of fluid. It is expressed in
qsuperheating = Cps (Tsup – Tsat) (kJ/kg) ...(3.11) cubic metre per kg of the fluid and it is denoted
by v.
where For dry and saturated steam, the specific volume
Cps = specific heat of superheated steam, is designated as vg and the specific volume during
which varies from 2.0 to 2.3 kJ/kg ◊ K.
68 Thermal Engineering

evaporation is designated as vfg. The specific

volume of steam decreases with increase in pressure
dq
ÚT
and it can directly be obtained from steam tables It is calculated as between two states. The
corresponding to saturation pressure or saturation
temperature. temperature– entropy diagram in Fig. 3.17 shows
the changes in entropy of a pure substance.

The wet steam is a mixture of dry vapour and

moisture. Its specific volume is the sum of moisture
volume and change of volume during evaporation.
If 1 kg of wet steam has a dryness fraction x then
vwet = vf + x vfg
= vf + x (vg – vf )
where
vg =specific volume of dry and saturated
steam
vf = specific volume of moisture (water)
vfg = specific volume change of steam during
evaporation = vg – vf
\ vwet = x vg + (1 – x) vf ...(3.13)
It is noticed that the volume of moisture at low
pressures is very small, and is generally dropped
from the expression. Thus Let 1 kg of water be heated from temperature T1
to T2 at constant pressure. The change in entropy
vwet ª x vg ...(3.14) is given by
2 dq ÊT ˆ
Ds = Ú1 T
= C pw ln Á 2 ˜ (kJ/kg ◊ K) ...(3.16)
Ë T1 ¯
Since superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas
and superheating is carried at constant pressure, The entropy of saturated water, sf from 273 K
thus it follows the property relation to Tsat can be obtained directly from the steam
tables or it can be calculated as
vg vsup
= ÊT ˆ
Tsat Tsup sf = C pw ln Á sat ˜ (kJ/kg ◊ K) ...(3.17)
Ë 273 ¯
Tsup
or vsup = v g ¥ (m3/kg) ...(3.15)
Tsat
where The specific entropy change during evaporation
Tsup = Temperature of superheated steam in K, is denoted by sfg for dry and saturated steam and
obtained from steam tables. Mathematically, for
Tsat = Temperature of dry and saturated steam in K.
dry and saturated steam,
h fg
sfg = (kJ/kg ◊ K) ...(3.18)
Tsat
 Working Substances 69

For wet steam, the heat supplied during evapora- piston is displaced due to change in its volume as
tion is x hfg at saturation temperature Tsat (K). Then shown in Fig. 3.18 (b) . Thus, external work is done
the change of entropy during evaporation, by steam due to increase in specific volume. This
x h fg work produced is called the external work done
swet = x sfg = ...(3.19) during evaporation
Tsat

sg
It is the total entropy of steam.

a Entropy Change of Dry and Saturated Steam It

is the sum of entropy of saturated water sf , and the
entropy of evaporation sfg. In other words,
sg = sf + sfg (kJ/kg ◊ K) ...(3.20)
It can be directly obtained from steam tables.

b Entropy Change of Wet Steam It is the sum

of entropy of saturated water sf and the entropy of
partial evaporation. In other words,
swet = sf + x sfg (kJ/kg ◊ K) ...(3.21)

c Entropy Change of Superheated Steam The

entropy change during superheating of 1 kg of dry
steam from Tsat to Tsup at constant pressure
TSup dq Tsup dT
ssuperheating =
Ú
TSat T
= C ps Ú
Tsat T
The external work done during evaporation
ÊT ˆ
= C ps ln Á sup ˜ ...(3.22) wex = p (vg – vf ) = p vfg ...(3.24)
Ë Tsat ¯
Then the total entropy of superheated steam Since, vf < < vg at low pressure, it is neglected.
above the freezing point temperature of water Then for dry and saturated steam
wex ª p vg (kJ/kg) ...(3.25)
Ê Tsup ˆ
ssup = sf + sfg + C ps ln Á
Ë Tsat ˜¯ For wet steam with a dryness fraction x, the
work of evaporation is
Ê Tsup ˆ
= sg + C ps ln Á wwet ª p (x vg) (kJ/kg) ...(3.26)
Ë Tsat ˜¯
...(3.23)
Note. The pressure p should be expressed in kPa in
Note. The temperatures must be used in Kelvin (K). the above relations.

Actually, the latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation

The phase transformation of saturated water to is always more than the external work done during
saturated steam takes place at constant pressure, evaporation. This excess amount of latent heat
its specific volume increases from vf to vg and the is called internal latent heat. It is required to
70 Thermal Engineering

overcome the internal molecular forces to change The uf, ufg, ug and usup can also be obtained from
the phase of substance. the steam tables.
Mathematically, the internal latent heat
= latent heat – external work of evaporation
For dry and saturated steam, The laws of perfect gases are not applicable to
internal latent heat = hfg – pvg ...(3.27) vapours, hence the variation between their properties
are obtained from charts and tables. Experimentally
For wet steam determined thermodynamic properties of water
internal latent heat = x hfg – p (xvg) ...(3.28) are presented in three different forms of tables as
follows:
In this table,
temperature is chosen as an independent variable
The internal energy of steam (u) is actually heat
and properties of coexisting liquid and vapour
energy stored in steam above the freezing point
phases are presented for saturated water/steam.
temperature of water, and it is the sum of sensible
Table 3.2 shows a portion of such a steam table.
heat and internal latent heat at a given pressure p in
kPa. In other words, In this table, the
Internal energy of steam pressure is chosen as an independent variable
and other properties are presented against it for
= Sensible heat + Internal latent heat
saturated water/steam as shown in Table 3.3.
Total heat of steam
= Sensible heat + Internal Latent 3. In this table, the
heat + External work done pressure and temperature are two independent
h = Internal energy (u) + pv variables and properties of superheated steam can
Hence u = h – pv be obtained against these variables as shown in
Table 3.4.
For dry steam, ug = hg – p vg ...(3.29)
For wet steam uwet = (hf + x hfg) – p (x vg)
= x ufg ...(3.30) 1. The triple point of water (0.01°C, 0.611 kPa)
For superheated steam, is chosen as reference state for presenting
usup = hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) data in the steam tables. At triple point,
the internal energy uf and entropy sf for
– pvg ¥ Tsup ...(3.31) saturated liquid is arbitrarily assigned a zero
Tsat value.

Sat. Specific volume Specific enthalpy Specific entropy

Temp.
pressure (m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg ◊ K)
T (°C) psat (kPa) vf vg hf hfg hg sf sg
0.01 0.6113 0.001000 206.14 0.01 2505.3 2505.4 0.000 9.1562
100 101.325 0.001044 1.6729 419.02 2257.03 2676.05 1.3068 7.3548
200 1553.8 0.001157 0.12736 852.45 1938.48 2790.93 2.3309 6.4323
374.14 22090 0.003155 0.003155 2099.3 000.00 2099.3 4.4298 4.4298
 Working Substances 71

Abs. Sat Specific volume Specific enthalpy Specific entropy

pressure temp. m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg ◊ K
p, kPa Tsat °C
vf vg hf hfg hg sf sg
0.6113 0.01 0.001000 206.14 0.01 2501.3 2501.4 0.000 9.1562
100 99.63 0.001043 1.6940 417.46 2258.0 2675.46 1.3026 7.3594
1000 179.91 0.001127 0.19444 762.81 2014.29 2777.10 2.1386 6.5864
22090 374.14 0.003155 0.003155 2029.3 0 2029.3 4.4298 4.4298

Sp. volume Sp. Enthalpy Sp. Entropy

Temp. v h s
T °C m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg ◊ K

p = 10 kPa (45.81 °C)

Sat 14.674 2584.63 8.1502
50 14.869 2592.56 8.1749
100 17.196 2687.46 8.4479
150 19.512 2782.99 8.6881
200 25.825 2879.52 8.9037
1300 72.602 5409.70 15.5810

2. The choice of steam table for saturated steam 5. The steam tables give the values of properties
is immaterial, because every table gives the above 0°C. Hence if the initial temperature
same data of saturated liquid and saturated of water is other than 0°C then the initial
vapour. enthalpy of water can be obtained from the
temperature entry steam table at a given
temperature. The enthalpy of fluid is then
obtained by deducting the initial enthalpy
from the total enthalpy of steam.
1. The steam table gives the properties on
per kg basis. For the different masses they
should be multiplied by the given mass.
2. If the value of the independent property of
the column 1, i.e., temperature or pressure is Steam, as a working substance, offers the following
not included in steam tables, the properties advantages and applications.
should be obtained by linear interpolation.
Advantages
3. A meagre negligible variation in answers is
inevitable due to usage of different steam 1. It is capable to supply process heat at
tables. constant temperature while condensing.
4. In case the nature of pressure is not specified, 2. It is cheap, and can be produced everywhere.
it should be assumed absolute pressure. 3. It is a clean, odourless and tasteless source
of heat energy.
72 Thermal Engineering

4. It can be used repeately again and again as Calculate volume, density, enthalpy,
well as first used for power generation and and entropy of 2 kg of steam at 80°C and having a
then for process heating. dryness fraction of 0.85.
5. Its flow rate can easily be controlled and
readily distributed. Solution

Main Applications Given Wet steam

1. The heat content of steam is large and thus m = 2 kg T = 80°C x = 0.85
it is suitable for process heating (for curing, To find
drying, etc.) in many industries like sugar (i) Volume, (ii) Density,
mills, textile mills, chemical industries, etc. (iii) Enthalpy, and (iv) Entropy.
2. It is also used for power generation in
Properties of water At 80°C;
thermal power plants.
3. Due to its high heat content, steam is used psat = 47.39 kPa vf = 0.001029 m3/kg
for cooking many items like steam rice, vg = 3.40715 m3/kg hf = 334.88 kJ/kg
idlies, etc. hfg = 2308.77 kJ/kg ◊ K sf = 1.0752 kJ/kg ◊ K
4. Steam can also be used for heating buildings sfg = 6.5369 kJ/kg ◊ K
and producing hot water in winter. Analysis
5. Steam is also used for creation of vacuum,
(i) At 80°C, the specific volume of steam;
ejection of gases and sterlisation.
v = (1 – x) vf + x vg ª x vg
Example 3.1 Calculate specific enthalpy, specific = 0.85 ¥ 3.40715 = 2.896 m3/kg,
volume and density of 1 kg of steam at a pressure of 1.9 For m = 2 kg;
MPa, having a dryness fraction 0.85. V = m v = 2 ¥ 2.896 = 5.792 m3
Solution (ii) The density of steam;
1 1
Given 1 kg of wet steam r= = = 0.345 kg/m3
v 2.896
p = 1.9 MPa, x = 0.85
(iii) Specific enthalpy of steam;
To find hwet = hf + x hfg = 334.88 + 0.85 ¥ 2308.77
(i) Total he
at, (ii) Volume, (iii) eDnsity. = 2297.33 kJ/kg
Properties of steam At p = 1.9 MPa = 19 bar; Total enthalpy
H = m hwet = 2 ¥ 2297.33 = 4594.66 kJ
Tsat = 209.80°C vf = 0.001172 m3/kg,
vg = 0.10467 m3/kg hf = 896.8 kJ/kg, (iv) Specific entropy of steam;
hfg = 1899.3 kJ/kg swet = sf + x sfg = 1.0752 + 0.85 ¥ 6.5369
Analysis = 6.631kJ/kg ◊ K
Total entropy
(i) The specific enthalpy (total heat) of steam
S = m swet = 2 ¥ 6.631 =13.26 kJ/K
h = hf + x hfg
= 896.8 + 0.85 ¥ 1899.3 = 2511.20 kJ/kg Example 3.3 Calculate volume, density, enthalpy,
(ii) The specific volume of 1 kg of steam and entropy of 2 kg of water at 2 bar and 80°C.
v = (1 – x) vf + x vg ª x vg
= 0.85 ¥ 0.10467 = 0.0889 m3 Solution
(iii) The density of steam Given Water
1 1 T = 80°C p = 2 bar m = 2 kg
r= = = 11.248 kg/m3
v 0.0889
 Working Substances 73

To find hsup2 = hsup1 + Cps (Tsup2 – Tsup1)

(i) Volume, (ii) Density, or 2875.27 = 2776.38 + Cps (200 – 150)
(iii) Enthalpy, and (iv) Entropy.
2875.27 - 2776.38
or Cps = =1.978 kJ/kg ◊ K
Assumption The specific heat of water as 4.187 kJ/kg ◊ K. 50
Properties of water At T = 80°C Identify the type of steam in the
psat = 47.39 kPa following three cases, using the steam tables and giving
vf = 0.001029 m3/kg necessary calculations supporting your claim.
Analysis At 80°C, water pressure is 2 bar, thus it is (a) 2 kg of steam at 8 bar with an enthalpy of 5538.0
compressed liquid. kJ at a temperature of 170.4°C
(i) At 80°C, the specific volume of water (b) 1 kg of steam at 2550 kPa occupies a volume of
0.2742 m3. Also, find the steam temperature.
vf = 0.001029 m3/kg
(c) 1 kg of steam at 60 bar with an enthalpy of
For m = 2 kg; 2470.73 kJ/kg.
V = m vf = 2 ¥ 0.001029 = 0.002058 m3
Solution
(ii) The density of water
1 1 Case (i): Given The steam
r= = = 971.82 kg/m3
v f 0.001029 m = 2 kg p = 8 bar
(iii) The enthalpy of water H = 5538 kJ Tsat = 170.4°C
H = m Cpw (Twater – 0) To find Quality of steam.
= 2 ¥ 4.187 ¥ (80°C – 0) = 669.92 kJ
Analysis The properties of steam at 8 bar;
(iv) Entropy of water
Tsat = 170.4 °C hf = 721.1, kJ/kg
+ 273 ˆ
S = mCpw ln ÊÁ water
T
hfg = 2048.04 kJ/kg hg = 2769.13 kJ/kg
Ë 0 + 273 ˜¯
The specific enthalpy of a given mass of steam
Ê 80 + 273 ˆ H 5538
= 2 ¥ 4.187 ¥ ln Á
Ë 0 + 273 ˜¯
= 2.152 kJ/K = = 2769.0 kJ/kg
h=
m 2
Example 3.4 Using steam tables, determine the mean The specific enthalpy of given steam is approximately
specific heat for superheated steam at 1 bar between equal to the total enthalpy of vapour at saturation
temperatures of 150°C to 200°C . temperature, and therefore, the given sample of steam is
dry and saturated.
Solution Case (ii): Given The steam

Given Superheated steam m = 1 kg p = 2550 kPa v = 0.2742 m3

p = 1 bar = 100 kPa, Tsup1 = 150°C, Tsup2 = 200°C To find Quality of steam.

To find Mean specific heat of superheated steam Analysis The properties of steam at 2550 kPa

Properties From superheated steam table at 1 bar Tsat = 225 °C vg = 0.07835 m3/kg

At Tsup1: hsup1 = 2776.38 kJ/kg The given volume of steam is more than the volume
At Tsup2: hsup2 = 2875.27 kJ/kg. of vapour at saturation temperature. Therefore,
Tsup
Analysis The enthalpy of superheated steam can be v = vg ¥
Tsat
expressed as
74 Thermal Engineering

Tsup The specific internal energy of wet steam

or 0.2742 = 0.07835 ¥
(225 + 273) uwet = hwet – p (x vg)
or Tsup = 1742.84 K = 1469°C = 2475.8 – (10 ¥ 100 kPa)
¥ 0.85 ¥ (0.19444 m3/kg)
The given sample of steam is superheated.
= 2310.52 kJ/kg
Case (iii): Given The steam (ii) For dry steam;
m = 1 kg p = 60 bar h = 2470.73 kJ/kg u g = h g – p vg
= 2778.08 – (10 ¥ 100) ¥ 0.19444
To find Quality of steam. = 2583.64 kJ/kg
Analysis The properties of steam at 60 bar (iii) When steam is superheated,
Tsup – Tsat = 50°C
Tsat = 275.64 °C hf = 1213.32 kJ/kg
Tsup = 179.9 + 50 = 229.9°C
hfg = 1571.0 kJ/kg hg = 2784.33 kJ/kg
The specific enthalpy of superheated steam
The enthalpy of the given steam is less than the total hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat)
enthapy of steam at saturation temperature. Therefore,
= 2778.08 + 2.01 × 50 = 2878.58 kJ/kg
h = hf + x hfg Specific volume of superheated steam
or 2470.73 = 1213.32 + x ¥ 1571.0 229.9 + 273
vsup = 0.19444 ¥ = 0.216 m3/kg
or x = 0.8 179.9 + 273
The given sample of steam is wet. The internal energy of superheated steam
usup = hsup – p vsup
Find the internal energy of 1 kg of steam = 2878.58 – (10 ¥ 100) ¥ 0.216
at a pressure of 10 bar, when the condition of steam is = 2662. 67 kJ/kg
(a) wet with a dryness fraction of 0.85,
Example 3.7 Using the data given below, calculate
(b) dry and saturated, and
the volume, enthalpy and internal energy of 2 kg of steam
(c) superheated, the degree of superheat being 50°C. at 10.3 bar pressure in each of the following states:
The specific heat of superheated steam at constant (a) Dryness fraction of 0.85, (b) dry and saturated steam,
pressure is 2.01 kJ/kg ◊ K. and (c) at a temperature of 220° C.

Sat. Temp Sp. volume Enthalpy Enthalpy

Solution
Pressure, Tsat °C of dry steam of liquid of vapour
Given 1 kg of steam at 10 bar with three conditions p, bar
vg cc/gm hf kJ/kg hg kJ/kg
(i) x = 0.85 10.02 180 194.10 763.22 2278.2
(ii) x = 1 10.50 182 186.00 772.20 2779.9
(iii) Tsup – Tsat = 50°C, and Cps = 2.01 kJ/kg ◊ K
Solution
To find The internal energy of steam in each case
Analysis Using steam table at 10 bar pressure Given Three types of steam with

Tsat = 179.9°C vg = 0.19444 m3/kg m = 2 kg p = 10.3 bar

hf = 762.79 kJ/kg hfg = 2015.3 kJ/kg Case 1. Wet steam with x = 0.85,
hg = 2778.08 kJ/kg 2. Dry and saturated steam, and
(i) When steam is wet and the dryness fraction is 0.85 3. Superheated steam at 220°C.
The specific enthalpy of steam Tabulated data as
hwet = hf + x hfg = 762.79 + 0.85 ¥ 2015.3 p1 = 10.02 bar p2 = 10.5 bar
= 2475.8 kJ/kg Tsat1 = 180° C Tsat2 = 182° C
 Working Substances 75

vg1 = 194.10 cc/gm vg2 = 186.00 cc/gm Now the data in tabulated form:
hf1 = 763.22 kJ/kg hf2 = 772.20 m3/kg
p bar Tsat °C vg cc/gm hf kJ/kg hg kJ/kg
hg1 = 2278.2 kJ/kg hg2 = 2779.9 kJ/kg
10.02 180.00 194.10 763.22 2278.2
To find In each case of steam 10.3 181.1667 189.375 768.458 2570.85
(i) Volume of steam in m3, 10.5 182.0 186.00 772.20 2779.9
(ii) Enthalpy of steam in kJ, and
Case 1: Wet steam with dryness fraction x = 0.85
(iii) Internal energy of steam in kJ.
(i) Volume of steam in m3
Analysis In tabulated data, the data against a pressure V = m (x vg)
of 10.3 bar is not given. Hence, we have to obtain the data
against 10.3 bar pressure by interpolating the available 10- 6
= 2 ¥ (0.85 ¥ 189.375) ¥ = 0.322 m3
data. Using linear interpolation as 10- 3
y2 - y1
yp = y1 +
p2 - p1
( p - p1 ) (ii) Enthalpy of steam
H = m [hf + x (hg – hf)]
where yp is the unknown data to calculate against = 2 ¥ [768.458 + 0.85 ¥ (2570.85 – 768.458)]
p = 10.3 bar = 2 ¥ [768.458 + 1709.13] = 4601 kJ
(a) Saturation temperature, Tsat (iii) Internal energy U = H – p V
Tsat2 - Tsat1 = 4601 – (10.3 ¥ 100) ¥ 0.322
Tsat = Tsat1 +
p2 - p1
( p - p1 ) = 4269.33 kJ
182 - 180 Case 2: Dry and saturated steam
= 180 + ¥ (10.3 - 10.02)
10.5 - 10.02 10- 6
(i) V = m vg = 2 ¥ 189.375 ¥ = 0.378 m3
= 180 + 1.1667 = 181.1667° C 10- 3
(b) Specific volume vg (ii) H = m hg = 2 ¥ 2570.85 = 5141.7 kJ
v g 2 - v g1 (iii) U = H – p V
vg = v g1 +
p2 - p1
( p - p1 ) = 5141.7 – (10.3 ¥ 100) ¥ 0.378 = 4752.36 kJ

186.00 - 194.10 Case 3: Superheated steam at 220° C

= 194.10 + ¥ (10.3 - 10.02)
10.5 - 10.02 Tsup
= 194.10 – 4.725 = 189.375 cc/g (i) V = m vg ¥
Tsat
(c) Specific enthalpy of liquid hf
Ê 10-6 ˆ Ï 220 + 273 ¸
h f 2 - h f1 = 2 ¥ Á189.375 ¥ ˜ ¥Ì ˝
hf = h f1 + ( p - p1 ) Ë 10-3 ¯ Ó181.1667 + 273 ˛
p2 - p1
= 0.411 m3
772.20 - 763.22
= 763.22 + ¥ (10.3 - 10.02) (ii) H = m [hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat)]
10.5 - 10.02
= 2 ¥ [2570.85 + 2.2 ¥ (220 – 181.1667)]
= 763.22 + 5.238 = 768.458 kJ/kg = 5312.66 kJ
(d) Specific enthalpy of vapour, hg (iii) U = H – pV =5312.66 – (10.3 ¥ 100) ¥ 0.411
hg 2 - hg1 = 4889.2 kJ
hg = hg1 +
p2 - p1
( p - p1 )
Calculate the amount of heat to be
2779.9 - 2278.2
= 2278.2 + ¥ (10.3 - 10.02) supplied to produce 5 kg of steam at a pressure of 8 bar
10.5 - 10.02 and a temperature of 320°C from water at 30°C. Take
= 2278.2 + 0.9916 = 2570.85 kJ/kg specific heat for superheated steam as 2.2 kJ/kg ◊ K.
76 Thermal Engineering

Solution (iii) Internal energy of superheated steam, and

(iv) Change in internal energy.
Given Generation of steam from water
Assumptions
m = 5 kg p = 8 bar Tsup = 320°C
T1 = 30°C Cp s = 2.2 kJ/kg ◊ K (i) Specific heat of water as 4.187 kJ/kg K.
(ii) Specific heat of superheated steam as 2.2 kJ/kg ◊ K.
To find The amount of heat supplied to make the steam
superheated. Analysis The properties of steam at 10 bar;

Assumptions Tsat = 179.91°C hf = 762.81, kJ/kg

hfg = 2014.3 kJ/kg vg = 0.19444 m3/kg
(i) The specific heat of water is 4.187 kJ/kg ◊ K.
vf = 0.001127 m3/kg hg = 2777.08 kJ/kg
(ii) The heat is supply at constant pressure.
(i) Heat supplied per hour in the boiler
Analysis At 8 bar, the properties of steam The heat is already available with 1 kg of water at
Tsat = 170.43 °C hg = 2768.4 kJ/kg 30°C;
Amount of heat (enthalpy) required by 1 kg of water from h1 = Cpw (T1 – 0) = 4.187 ¥ (30 – 0)
0°C for its superheating to 320 °C; = 125.61 kJ/kg
hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) Amount of heat required by 1 kg of water to
= 2768.4 + 2.2 ¥ (320 – 170.43) generate steam 0.97 dry from 0°C.
= 3097.52 kJ/kg h2 = hf + x hfg = 762.81 + 0.97 ¥ 2014.3
Water is initially at 30°C, the amount of heat = 2716.65 kJ/kg
(enthalpy) already with water at 30°C; Net amount of heat required by 1 kg of water in
hi = Cpw (Ti – 0) = 4.187 ¥ (30 – 0) = 125.61 kJ/kg the boiler;
h3 = h2 – h1
The net amount of heat/kg (enthalpy) required
= 2716.65 – 125.61 = 2591.04 kJ/kg
= hsup – hi = 3097.52 – 125.61 = 2971.9 kJ/kg
Total amount of heat required in the boiler per hour
The total amount of heat required
= m h3 = 1000 ¥ 2591.04
= 5 ¥ 2971.9 = 14859.55 kJ
= 2591.04 ¥ 103 kJ/h = 2591.04 MJ/h
A certain boiler generates 1000 kg of (ii) Heat supplied in the superheater per kg of steam
steam per hour at 10 bar and 0.97 dry. This steam is then h4 = Heat supplied to make steam dry and saturated
taken to a superheater and is heated to a temperature of + Heat supplied to make steam superheated.
280°C keeping the pressure constant. The feed water is
Alternatively:
available at 30°C. Find
h4 = Enthalpy of superheated steam/kg
(a) Heat supplied per hour in the boiler, – Enthalpy of steam/kg generated in boiler.
(b) Heat supplied per hour in the superheater,
Choosing alternate formula:
(c) Internal energy of superheated steam,
Enthalpy of superheated steam per kg
(d) Change in internal energy of steam.
hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat)
Solution = 2777.08 + 2.2 ¥ (280 – 179.91)
Given Generation of steam in a boiler = 2997.30 kJ/kg
m = 1000 kg/h p = 10 bar x = 0.97 Then h4 = hsup – h3 = 2997.30 – 2591.04
Tsup = 280 °C T1 = 30°C p = constant = 406.26 kJ/kg
Total amount of heat supplied in superheater per
To find
hour
(i) Heat supplied per hour in the boiler,
= m ¥ h4 = 1000 ¥ 406.268
(ii) Heat supplied per hour in superheater, = 406268 kJ/hr = 406.26 MJ/h
 Working Substances 77

(iii) Internal energy of superheated steam (b) As a lower limit, if the steam is completely
usup = hsup – p vsup wet, the mass of vapour will be zero. Then
Tsup the above relation yields to zero dryness.
where vsup = vg ¥ (iii) Superheated steam behaves as a perfect gas, and
Tsat
thus follows the property relation
Ê 280 + 273 ˆ vg vsup
= 0.19444 ¥ ÁË ˜ =
179.91 + 273 ¯ Tsat Tsup
= 0.2374 m3/kg Tsup
or vsup = v g ¥ (m3/kg)
Then usup = (2997.30 kJ/kg) Tsat
– (10 ¥ 100 kPa) ¥ (0.2374 m3/kg) where
= 2759.89 kJ/kg Tsup = temperature of superheated steam in K,
(iv) Change in internal energy Tsat = temperature of dry and saturated steam in K,
Initial internal energy of water,
and Tsup > Tsat. Therefore, the specific volume
u1 = hf – p vf of superheated steam will be greater than the
or u1 = 125.61(kJ/kg) – (10 ¥ 100 kPa)
specific volume of saturated steam.
¥ 0.001127 m3/kg
= 124.483 kJ/kg.
The change in internal energy
usup – u1 = 2759.89 – 124.483 = 2635.4 kJ/kg

Prove the following statements: There are many calorimeters used to determine the
dryness fraction of wet steam. We shall discuss the
(a) Temperature of wet steam equals that of dry and
following calorimeters in this text:
saturated steam at same pressure.
(b) Dryness fraction of steam does not go below zero 1. Barrel Calorimeter
or above unity. 2. Separating Calorimeter
(c) Specific volume of superheated steam is greater 3. Throttling Calorimeter
than that of dry and saturated steam at the same 4. Combined separating and throttling calori-
pressure. meter
Solution
(i) Wet steam is produced during the phase change
of water and only latent heat of vaporisation is The barrel calorimeter is shown in Fig. 3.19. A
supplied during this process. This latent heat known mass of steam at a pressure, p is condensed
is used to overcome the molecular forces of in the presence of a known quantity of water filled in
attraction and the specific heat of water becomes a barrel calorimeter. As steam condenses, the mass
infinity during phase change. Therefore, the and temperature of water increase. The amount of
temperature of wet steam equals that of dry and heat lost by wet steam and amount of heat received
saturated steam at the same pressure. by water in the calorimeter are equated to obtain the
(ii) The dryness fraction is defined as dryness fraction of wet steam as given below:
mass of dry vapour Heat lost by wet steam
x=
mass of dry vapour + mass of moisture = msteam [(x hfg) + Cpw (Tsat – T2)] ... (i)
(a) As an upper limit, if the steam is completely Heat gained by water in the calorimeter
dry, the mass of moisture will be zero. Then
the above relation yields to unity dryness. = (mc Cpc + mw Cpw) (T2 – T1) ... (ii)
78 Thermal Engineering

Solution

Given Wet steam with

p1 = 5.5 bar mw = 80 kg
T1 = 25 °C mc = 10 kg
T2 = 40 °C Cpc = 0.406 kJ/kg ◊ K
mw + msteam = 82.5 \ msteam = 2.5 kg
To find Dryness fraction of wet steam.
Assumption The specific heat of water as 4.187 kJ/kg ◊ K
Analysis The enthalpy of vaporisation and saturation
temperature at 5.5 bar
hfg = 2097 kJ/kg, Tsat = 155.48 °C
The dryness fraction of steam
Equating (i) and (ii), we get the dryness fraction. (mcC pc + mwC pw )(T2 - T1 ) - msteam C pw (Tsat - T2 )
x=
(mc C pc + mwC pw )(T2 - T1 ) - msteam C pw (Tsat - T2 ) msteam h fg
x=
msteam h fg (10 ¥ 0.406 + 80 ¥ 4.187) ¥ (40 – 25)
x=
...(3.32) 2.5 ¥ 2097.0
2.5 ¥ 4.187 ¥ (155.48 - 40)
where mc = mass of the barrel calorimeter, kg –
2.5 ¥ 2097.0
Cpc = specific heat of the barrel calorimeter,
= 0.749
kJ/kg ◊ K
mw = mass of water filled in the calorimeter, kg
Cpw = specific heat of water, kJ/kg ◊ K
msteam = mass of steam condensed, kg The separating calorimeter separates water particles
from wet steam mechanically by centrifugal action.
hfg = latent heat of steam at given pressure p,
The steam passing into the calorimeter is forced
kJ/kg
to change its direction of motion by means of a
T1 = initial temperature of water, °C perforated cup. The water particles due to their
T2 = final temperature of water, °C greater moment of energy (being heavier) tend to
Tsat = saturation temperature of steam in °C move away and get separated from the mixture
at given pressure p as shown in Fig. 3.20. Some quantity of moisture
The value of the dryness fraction obtained by drains through the perforated cup, some quantity
this method involves considerable error, since the falls as large droplets and some quantity sticks
heat losses due to convection and radiation are not with the wall of the separator. The condensate
taken into account. is collected in the separator and its quantity is
measured by a glass tube. The dry steam is passed
Example 3.11 The steam at a pressure of 5.5 bar is through a small condenser, where it condenses and
passed into a tank filled with 80 kg of water at 25°C. The its mass is measured.
tank is made of copper, is 10 kg in mass and has a specific
The dryness fraction x of wet steam is determined
heat of 0.406 kJ/kg ◊ K. After steam has condensed and
mixed with water, its temperature reaches 40°C and the as
mg
mass of the mixture becomes 82.5 kg. Determine the x= ...(3.33)
dryness fraction of steam. mg + mw
 Working Substances 79

where
mg = mass of dry and saturated steam, kg
mw = mass of water particles in suspension, kg
sampling tube. The wet steam is then throttled
It is noticed that the dryness fraction obtained
through a partially opened or restricted valve to a
from such experimentation is not accurate, but it is
pressure p2 and temperature T2 in such a way that
just close approximation.
the steam reaches the superheated region. During
ln an experiment, a sample of wet the throttling process, the enthalpy of steam
steam is passed through a separating calorimeter. At remains constant.
some instant, the mass of water collected in the separator The throttling process is an irreversible process
was 0.2 kg, while the amount of steam condensed was and hence, it is shown by a dotted line on the h–s
found to be 2.5 kg. Determine the dryness fraction of diagram in Fig. 3.22.
steam entering the calorimeter. The state 1 is defined by pressure p1 and dryness
fraction x1, while the state 2, in superheated region
Solution after throttling can be defined by the pressure p2
Given mw = 0.2 kg mg = 2.5 kg and temperature T2. Using properties of wet steam
at p1 and superheated steam at p2 and T2, we get
To find Dryness fraction of wet steam
h 1 = h2
Analysis The dryness fraction of wet steam is
h
calculated as
mg
x= State before
mg + mw throttling p1 State after
throttling
Using numerical values, we get p2
2.5 T2
x= = 0.926 1
2.5 + 0.2 p1 2
Saturation
p2 curve

x1
The schematic of a throttling calorimeter is shown
s
in Fig. 3.21. A sample of wet steam at a pressure p1
is taken from the steam main through a perforated
80 Thermal Engineering

or hf1 + x1 hfg1 = h2
h2 - h f1
or x1 = ...(3.34)
h fg1
where
hf1 = sensible heat of wet steam at p1, kJ/kg
hfg1 = the enthalpy of vaporisation at p1, kJ/kg
h2 = enthalpy of superheated steam at p2 and T2
= hg2 + Cps (T2 – Tsat2)
To obtain good approximation from a throttling
calorimeter, the steam after throttling should be
superheated at least by 5°C. If the steam is very wet
then the resultant dryness fraction obtained by this
technique is not very accurate. When the steam is very wet then the dryness
In a throttling calorimeter, the steam fraction of steam is determined by using a separating
is admitted at 10 bar, it is throttled to atmospheric and throttling calorimeter. The wet steam taken
pressure and 110°C. Determine the dryness fraction of from a steam main via a steam stop valve is first
steam. Assume the specific heat of superheated steam as passed through a separating calorimeter.
2.2 kJ/kg ◊ K. Some part of the moisture is removed from
steam, due to sudden change in its direction. The
Solution resulting semi-dry steam is then throttled into a
Given The wet steam at state p1 = 10 bar throttling calorimeter. The steam coming out the
The steam, after throttling p2 = 1.01325 bar, throttling calorimeter is superheated at a pressure
T2 = 110 °C p2 and temperature T2. The throttling calorimeter
Cps = 2.2 kJ/kg ◊ K is well insulated to prevent any heat loss. The
steam coming out of the throttling calorimeter is
To find The dryness fraction of steam.
condensed and its mass is measured.
Analysis From steam table A – 13;
If mw = mass moisture collected in separator, kg
State 1, 10 bar hf1 = 762.81 kJ/kg mg = mass of steam condensed after throttling, kg
hfg1 = 2014.3 kJ/kg
State 2, 1.01325 bar, hg2 = 2676 kJ/kg then the dryness fraction of steam from separating
Tsat2 = 100°C calorimeter
mg
As shown in Fig. 3.22, the enthalpy of steam remains x1 =
constant during the throttling process. Thus mg + mw
h1 = h2 Similarly, the dryness fraction x2, from the
or hf1 + x hfg1 = hg2 + Cps(T2 – Tsat2) throttling calorimeter is obtained as discussed
or 762.81 + x ¥ 2014.3 = 2676 + 2.2 (110 – 100) earlier.
2676 + 22 - 762.81 h2 - h f1
or x= = 0.961 x2 =
2014.3 h fg1
The final dryness fraction of steam in steam
main
The schematic of combined separating and thrott- x = x1 x2 ...(3.35)
ling calorimeter is shown in Fig. 3.23.
 Working Substances 81

Example 3.14 A combined separating and throttling extracts moisture at a rate of 0.2 kg/min. The steam is
calorimeter was used to determine the dryness fraction then throttled to a pressure of 3.2 bar and passed through
of steam flowing through a steam main at a pressure coils which extract 650 kJ/min of heat without loss of
of 9 bar. The pressure and temperature of steam after pressure. The steam leaves the coil with a dryness fraction
of 0.93. Calculate the temperature of steam immediately
throttling were 1.25 bar and 115°C, respectively. The
after throttling and the dryness fraction of steam before
mass of steam condensed after throttling was 2.2 kg and
the mass of water collected in the separator was 0.20 kg. and after the separator. Take Cps = 2.1 kJ/kg ◊ K.
Estimate the dryness fraction of steam in the main.
Solution
Take specific heat for superheated steam as
2.1 kJ/kg ◊ K. Given A sample of wet steam
p1 = 1 MPa m = 4 kg/min
Solution mw = 0.2 kg/min p2 = 3.2 bar
Given For separating calorimeter x3 = 0.93 Q = 650 kJ/min
Cps = 2.1 kJ/kg ◊ K
mw = 0.2 kg mg = 2.2 kg
To find
For throttling calorimeter
(i) Temperature of steam after throttling,
p1 = 9 bar p2 = 1.25 bar (ii) Dryness fraction before and after separator.
T2 = 115 °C Cps = 2.1 kJ/kg
Properties of Steam
To find Final dryness fraction of steam At p1 = 1 MPa: hf1 = 762.61 kJ/kg
Analysis The dryness fraction x1 of wet steam from hfg1 = 2013.6 kJ/kg
separating calorimeter At p3 = 3.2 bar: hf 3 = 570.90 kJ/kg
mg 2.2 hfg3 = 2156.7 kJ/kg
x1 = = = 0.9167 Tsat = 135.75 C
mg + mw 2.2 + 0.2
hg3 = 2727.6 kJ/kg
For throttling calorimeter, the properties of steam.
Analysis Mass of dry steam,
Before throttling at p1 = 9 bar,
mg = m – mw = 4 – 0.2 = 3.8 kg/min
hf1 = 742.83 kJ/kg, hfg1 = 2031.1 kJ/kg Then dryness fraction of steam before separator
After throttling at p2 = 1.25 bar, mg 3.8
x1 = = = 0.95
m 4
Tsat2 = 106 °C, hg2 = 2685.4 kJ/kg
(i) The heat extracted at the coil
Enthalpy before throttling, Q = 650 kJ/min
h1 = hf1 + x2 hfg1 = 742.83 + x2 ¥ 2031.1 650
or q= = 171.02 kJ/kg
3.8
Enthalpy after throttling,
The heat content in steam at 3.2 bar when it enters
h2 = hg2 + Cps (T2 – Tsat2) the coil
= 2685.4 + 2.1 ¥ (115 – 106) = 2704.3 kJ/kg = heat loss on coil
Equating two enthalpies, we get + enthalpy of steam on leaving the coil
h3 = q + hf 2 + x3 hfg3
2704.3 - 742.83
x2 = = 0.9657 = 171.02 + 570.90 + 0.93 ¥ 2156.7
2031.1
= 2747.65 kJ/kg
Final dryness fraction of steam
Since h3 > 2727.6 kJ/kg (total enthalpy at
x = x1 . x2 = 0.9167 ¥ 0.9657 = 0.885 3.2 bar), therefore, steam leaving the throttling
calorimeter is superheated.
Example 3.15 Steam at a pressure of 1 MPa, and a
flow rate of 4 kg/min is passed through a separator which h3 = hg1 + Cps (Tsup – Tsat)
82 Thermal Engineering

2747.65 = 2727.6 + 2.1 (Tsup – 135.75)

2747.65 - 2727.6 State 1
or Tsup = + 135.75º C = 145.3ºC
2.1

Pressure, p
pv = C
Degree of superheat = 145.3 – 135.75 = 9.55°C T1

(ii) Dryness fraction of steam after separator : steam T2 State 2

pressure, 1 MPa
h2 = hf + x2 hfg1 = h3
2747.65 = 762.61 + x2 (2013.6) Volume, v
2747.65 - 762.61
or x2 = = 0.986
2013.6
Therefore, the dryness fraction of steam inversely proportional to absolute pressure, i.e.,
x = x1 x2 = 0.95 ¥ 0.986 = 0.936
1
vμ
p
or pv = C ...(3.36)
where C is a constant of proportionality.
A gas can be modeled as an ideal gas when it has If a gas changes its state from p1, v1 to p2, v2
the following features: without any change in its temperature, then

1. It has no intermolecular forces of attraction p1 v1 = C

or repulsion. and p2 v2 = C
2. It does not change its phase during a Hence p1 v1 = p2 v2 ...(3.37)
thermodynamic process. A plot on the p–v diagram is shown in Fig. 3.24.
3. It obeys Boyle’s law, Charles’s law and the Boyle’s law represents a rectangular hyperbola
characteristic gas equation. curve. This curve is also called an isotherm and the
The internal energy of gases decreases rapidly process ocurring at constant temperature is known
with decreasing pressure and disappears when as an isothermal process.
absolute pressure approaches zero. At zero
pressure, all real gases behave in a similar manner
and this state of identical behaviour is referred as It states that if a gas undergoes a process at constant
ideal state. The behaviour of real gases at an ideal pressure, the change in its specific volume is
state suggests the concept of an ideal gas that will directly proportional to its absolute temperature
behave in as ideal manner at all pressures. change, i.e.,
In actual, no gas is completely ideal gas, but
many gases such as air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen
helium, argon, neon, krypton, carbon dioxide, etc.,
can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error.
Dense gases, such as water vapour, refrigerant
vapour, however, should not be treated as ideal
gases.

It states that when a gas undergoes a process

at constant temperature, its specific volume is v
 Working Substances 83

vμT simultaneously. On the basis of this characteristic,

v an equation is derived with the help of Boyle’s and
or =C
T Charles’s laws as
where C is the constant of proportionality at 1
constant pressure. Boyle’s law vμ when T is consant
p
For an ideal gas undergoing a constant pressure
process from v1, T1 to v2, T2 ; By Charles’s law v μ T when p is constant
v1 v If we combine both relations, we get
= 2 ...(3.38)
T1 T2 T
vμ when both p and T vary
Charles’s law has also been stated as the p
absolute pressure of an ideal gas varies directly
RT
with absolute temperature if the volume of a gas or v=
is maintained constant during the process. That is, p
pμT or pv = RT ...(3.41)
p where R is the constant of proportionality and is
or = C (constant of proportionality at con-
T called specific gas constant,
stant volume)
p is the absolute pressure,
For an ideal gas undergoing a constant volume T is the absolute temperature, and
process from p1, T1 to p2, T2 ; v is the specific volume.
p1 p
= 2 ...(3.39) This is known as the characteristic gas equation
T1 T2 for an ideal gas or ideal-gas equation of state.
The molecular or molar mass M can be defined
as the mass of one kmol (also known as kg-mol) of
It is observed that thermodynamic properties are a substance in kilograms.
interrelated. Any equation that relates the pressure, The mass of a system is the product of its
temperature and specific volume of a substance is molecular mass M in kg/kmol and number of
known as an equation of state. kmols, n :
For any homogenous system, if the pressure and m = n M (kg) ...(3.42)
temperature are specified, its specific volume is
automatically fixed by some functional relation. In The ideal-gas equation of state can be written in
other words, the thermodynamic properties exist in several different forms as follows:
a certain relationship, such as For a given mass system, the total volume
F ( p, v, T) =0 V = m v (m3) ...(3.43)
or p = f (v, T) then p V = mRT ...(3.44)
and v = g (p, T) 3
For a given molar specific volume v (m /kmol),
T = h (p, v) ...(3.40) the total volume
where F, f, g and h are some functional relationship. V = n v (m3) ....(3.45)
then p V = n Ru T ...(3.46)
where Ru = MR is known as the universal gas
In any thermodynamic system of an ideal gas, the constant. Its value is found to be constant for all
pressure, temperature and specific volume vary gases.
84 Thermal Engineering

Ru
When the molecular mass of any gas (M) is
multiplied by its specific gas constant (R), it is Molar mass, Gas constant,
observed that the product M R is always same Gas Ru
M, kg/kmol R = , kJ/kg ◊ K
for all gases. This product is called universal gas M
constant and it is denoted as Ru. Air 28.97 0.287
Ru = MR ...(3.47) Carbon dioxide 44.01 0.189
Carbon monooxide 28.01 0.297
For SI system, the value of the universal gas
Hydrogen 2.01 4.124
constant is 8.31447 kJ/kmol ◊ K.
Nitrogen 28.01 0.297
Oxygen 32.00 0.259
R
Water vapour 18.01 0.462
The constant of proportionality used in Eq. (3.41) is
called the specific gas constant. Its value is different
for different gases.

Unit of R If the absolute pressure is expressed It states that the molecular mass of all perfect
in kN/m , specific volume in m3/kg, and absolute
2 gases occupies the same volume under identical
temperature in K (kelvin) then the specific gas conditions of pressure and temperature. Avogadro’s
constant R has the unit of kJ/kg ◊ K. experiment shows that the average volume for one
kmol (kg-mole) for any perfect gas is 22.413 m3
Calculation of R The value of the gas constant is at standard atmospheric pressure (1.01325 bar) and
determined from dividing the universal gas constant 0°C (NTP condition).
Ru by its molecular mass (M) as M RT Ru T
or V= =
Ru p p
R= ...(3.48)
M (8.31447 kJ/kmol ◊ K) ¥ (273.15)
=
Table 3.5 presents the values of molar masses (101.325 kPa)
and gas constants for the most commonly used = 22.413 m3/kmol
gases.
The gauge pressure of air in an
automobile tyre at a temperature of 25°C is 1.75 bar.
Due to running condition, the temperature of air in the
From Eq.(3.44), for an ideal gas undergoing change tyre rises to 70°C. Determine the gauge pressure after
of state from p1, V1, T1 to p2, V2, T2 we get running. Assume atmospheric pressure to be 1.0132 bar
p1V1 and volume of air in the tyre to be constant.
at the state 1, = mR
T1
Solution
p2 V2
at the state 2, = mR Given Constant volume of air in an automobile tyre:
T2
Equating the left terms of the two equations, we State 1: T1 = 25°C + 273 = 298 K and pg1 = 1.75 bar
get State 2: T2 = 70°C + 273 = 343 K, patm = 1.0132 bar
p1V1 p V To find The gauge pressure of air in tyre after running.
= 2 2 =C ...(3.49)
T1 T2 Assumptions
It is a property relation for an ideal gas. (i) Air is an ideal gas.
(ii) Process of heating is reversible.
 Working Substances 85

Analysis Absolute pressure of air in the tyre at intial Solution

state.
Given An oxygen cylinder with constant volume
p1 = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
V = 50 lit = 50 ¥ 10–3 m3,
or p1= patm + pg1 = 1.0132 + 1.75 = 2.7632 bar
T = 18°C + 273 = 291 K
In the tyre, the volume remains constant (V1 = V2), p = 10 MPa = 10 ¥ 103 kN/m²
Eq. (3.49) reduces to M = 32 kg/kmol
p1 p2
= To find
T1 T2
Hence after running, i.e., at the state 2, the pressure p2 (i) Mass of oxygen in the cylinder,
(ii) Molar volume,
p1 (2.7632 bar) (iii) Density of oxygen.
p2 = × T2 = × (343 K) = 3.18 bar
T1 (298 K)
Analysis The universal gas constant Ru = 8.31447
The gauge pressure at the state 2; kJ/kmol ◊ K and the specific gas constant R for oxygen
pg2 = p2 – patm = 3.18 – 1.0132 = 2.167 bar can be calculated as
R 8.31447 kJ/kmol ◊ K
R = u =
Example 3.17 The compression ratio of an engine is M 32 kg/kmol
15 to 1. The pressure of the gas at the beginning of the = 0.259 kJ/kg ◊ K.
stroke is 100 kPa and the temperature is 30°C. Calculate
(i) Mass of oxygen in cylinder It can be calculated
the absolute pressure at the end of compression stroke, if
from the characteristic gas equation.
the temperature used to be 980°C.
pV = m R T
pV
Solution or m=
RT
Given Compression of a gas in an engine with (10 ¥ 103 kN/m 2 ) ¥ (50 ¥ 10-3 m3 )
=
State 1: V1 = 15V2 p1 = 100 kPa (0.259 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (291 K)
= 6.63 kg
and T1 = 30°C = 303 K
(ii) Molar volume or molecular volume
State 2: T2 = 980°C + 273 = 1253 K
p V = Ru T
To find The pressure of gas after compression
Ru T (8.31447 kJ/kmol ◊ K) ¥ (291 K)
or V = =
Analysis Using properties relationship, Eq. (3.49) p (10 ¥ 103 kN/m 2 )
3
p1V1 p V = 0.24 m /kmol
= 2 2
T1 T2 (iii) Density of oxygen From the characteristic gas
equation for unit mass,
p1V1 T2
or p2 = ¥ p v = RT
T1 V2
We have r =
1
(100 kPa) ¥ (15 V2 ) ¥ (1253 K) v
=
(303 K) ¥ V2 p (10 ¥ 103 kN/m 2 )
Therefore,r = =
= 6203 kPa = 62.03 bar RT (0.259 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ ( 291 K)
= 132.68 kg/m3
Example 3.18 A cylinder of 50-litre capacity contains
oxygen at 18°C and at a pressure of 10 MPa. Calculate Example 3.19 10 kg of carbon monoxide at 40°C
occupies 3 m3. Determine the gas pressure in bar. An
(a) the mass of oxygen in the cylinder,
additional mass of carbon monoxide is then very slowly
(b) the molar volume,
added to raise the tank pressure to 10 bar. Assuming that
(c) the density of oxygen. the gas temperature remains constant, how much extra
The molecular mass of oxygen is 32 kg/kmol. mass has been added?
Assume R = 0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K.
86 Thermal Engineering

Solution To find In each case,

Given A constant volume and constant temperature (i) Mass of gas, and
process; (ii) Number of moles.
m1 = 10 kg T1 = 40°C + 273 = 313 K V = 3 m3 Analysis The specific gas constants:
T1 = T2, p2 = 10 bar R = 0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K
Ru 8.31447
For air Rair = = = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
To find Mair 28.97
(i) Initial gas pressure in bar, Ru 8.31447
(ii) Mass of CO added to system. For hydrogen, RH2 = =
MH 2 2
Assumptions = 4.157 kJ/kg ◊ K
(i) Carbon monoxide is a perfect gas. 4
Volume of balloon V = p ro3
(ii) Process is reversible and nonflow. 3
4
Analysis = ¥ p ¥ (8)3 = 2144.66 m3
3
(i) The characeristic gas equation,
(i) When air is filled in the balloon
p1V = m1 RT1
Initial gas pressure (a) Mass of air filled
m1 R T1 pV 100 ¥ 2144.66
p1 = mair = = = 2491 kg
V RairT 0.287 ¥ 300
(10 kg) ¥ (0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (313 K) (b) Number of moles of air
=
(3 m3 ) mair 2491
n= = = 85.98
= 309.87 kPa. = 3.098 bar Mair 28.97
(ii) Since additional CO is added to the tank, as V = C (ii) When hydrogen is filled in the balloon under
and T = C indentical conditions
m μ pressure pV 100 ¥ 2144.66
(a) mH2 = = = 172 kg
m2 p2 10 R H2 T 4.157 ¥ 300
Therefore, = =
m1 p1 3.0987
(b) Number of moles of H2,
10 ¥ 10 172
and m2 = = 32.2768 kg n= = 86
3.0987 2
Additional mass m = m2 – m1
= 32.2768 – 10 = 22.2768 kg An aerostat balloon is filled with
hydrogen, it has a volume of 1000 m3 at a temperature of
A spherical balloon of 8 m radius is 300 K and pressure of 100 kPa. Determine the payload
floating in the atmosphere at 100 kPa pressure and 300 K that can be lifted with the aid of the aerostat.
temperature. Determine the mass and number of moles of
air displaced by the balloon. Solution
If hydrogen gas is filled in the balloon under the
same conditions of temperature and pressure, calculate Given An aeorstat filled with hydrogen
the mass and number of moles of hydrogen. Molecular V = 1000 m3 p = 100 kPa T = 300 K
masses of air and hydrogen are taken as 28.97 and 2,
To find The payload that can be lifted by the aerostat.
respectively.
Assumptions
Solution
(i) Hydrogen as an ideal gas.
Given A spherical balloon filled with air/hydrogen (ii) Molecular weight of H2 as 2 kg/kmol,
ro = 8 m p = 100 kPa T = 300 K RH2 = 4.157 kJ/kg ◊ K.
Mair = 28.97 MH2 = 2 (iii) Gas constant of air Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K.
 Working Substances 87

Analysis The mass of hydrogen in the balloon (i) Mass of air originally in the room minus volume
pV 100 ¥ 1000 of balloon
mH2 = = = 80.18 kg p1 V1 (100 kPa) ¥ (950 m3 )
R H 2 T 4.157 ¥ 300 m initial = =
The balloon displaces the volume of air equivalent to RT (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (300 K)
its volume at the same pressure and temperature. = 1103.37 kg
The volume displaced by the balloon (ii) Final mass of air after mixing of air of balloon in
= volume of air equivalent to volume of the the room:
balloon (1000 m3) p2 Vroom (130 kPa) ¥ (1000 m3 )
mfinal = =
Thus, the mass of air displaced RT (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (300 K)
pV 100 ¥ 1000 = 1509.9 kg
m2 = = = 1161.44 kg
RairT 0.287 ¥ 300 (iii) Initial pressure of air in the balloon
The load that can be attached with the hydrogen balloon The mass of air in balloon
mballoon = mfinal – minitial
= m2 – m1 = 1161.44 – 80.18 = 1081.26 kg
= 1509.9 kg – 1103.37 kg = 406.5 kg
Pressure
Example 3.22 A room of 1000 m3 volume, contains
air at 1 bar and 300 K. In the room, there is a balloon mballoon RT
pballon =
which contains air at 300 K. Suddenly, the balloon Vballoon
bursts. Before any air can escape through the doors or
(406.5 kg) ¥ (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (300 K)
windows, the pressure in the room becomes 1.3 bar, while =
its temperature is still 300 K. If the volume of balloon was (50 m3 )
50 m3, find: = 700 kPa or 7 bar
(a) mass of air originally in the room (outside the
balloon),
(b) initial pressure in bar of air in the balloon, and
(c) final mass of air in the room.
Joule submerged two tanks A and B connected by
Solution
a valve in an insulated tank of water as shown in
Given A room with a balloon Fig. 3.26.
Vroom = 1000 m3 Vballoon = 50 m3
T = 300 K p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa, Thermometer
p2 = 1.3 bar 130 kPa
To find
(i) Mass of air originally in the room minus balloon A B
Gas Vaccum
contents, Water bath
(ii) Final mass of air in the room, and
(iii) Initial pressure of air in the balloon.
Assumption The specific gas constant for air,
R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
One tank A was filled with air and the other tank
Analysis The volume of air in the room excluding the B was evacuated. The air, tanks and surrounding
balloon’s volume water were allowed to come to thermal equilibrium.
V1 = Vroom – Vballoon = 1000 – 50 = 950 m3 The temperature of the water bath was measured.
88 Thermal Engineering

Then the valve between the two tanks was opened

to let the air pass as a result of free expansion from
one tank to other. Of course, no work transfer was All the gases have two kinds of specific heats:
involved. Joule observed no change in temperature specific heat for constant volume Cv and specific
of the water bath during free expansion of air. From heat at constant pressure, Cp.
this experiment, he concluded that in the absence
of any heat and work interactions to or from the Cv
system of air; the internal energy of air did not The specific heat at constant volume is defined as
change. The temperature of air remained constant the amount of heat energy transferred to change
even though pressure and volume changed. He the temperature of the unit mass of a substance
established that the internal energy of an ideal gas by one degree, when the volume of substance is
does not depend on pressure and volume, it depends maintained constant.
only on temperature. Consider a closed system of an ideal gas
Hence, the conclusion of Joule’s experiment was undergoing a change of state at constant volume.
that the internal energy of an ideal gas is a function According to the first law of thermodynamics for
of temperature only. It is known as Joule’s law and unit mass system,
can be stated as dq = dw + du = pdv + du
u = u (T ) ...(3.50) But for constant volume, dv = 0; thus dw = 0,
In differential form, du = Cv dT ...(3.51)) therefore,
The change in specific internal energy for an dq = du = Cv dT
ideal gas during a process from the state 1 to state 2 Ê du ˆ
Cv = Á
Ë dT ˜¯ v
or ...(3.57)
is obtained by integrating Eq. (3.51);
2 Further, the specific heat at constant volume
Du = Ú1
Cv dT Cv can also be defined as change of specific
internal energy of a substance per unit change
or Du = u2 – u1 = Cv (T2 – T1) ...(3.52)
in temperature at constant volume. It relates the
By definition, the enthalpy per unit mass, change in properties, and thus it is also a property.
h = u + pv
Cp
For an ideal gas, pv = RT
Thus h = u + RT ...(3.53) It is defined as the amount of heat energy
transferred to change the temperature of unit mass
Both terms on the right side of the equation
of a substance by one degree when the pressure is
depend on temperature only, so enthalpy h is
maintained constant during the process.
function of temperature only. Thus
Consider an ideal gas undergoing a process at
h = h(T) ...(3.54) constant pressure. The enthalpy for unit mass, in
In differential form, dh = Cp dT ...(3.55) differential form can be expressed as
The change in specific enthalpy for an ideal dh = du + d(pv)
gas during a process from the state 1 to state 2 is
As the pressure is constant, therefore,
obtained by integrating Eq. (3.55);
2 dh = du + pdv = dq
Dh = Ú1
C p dT or, dh = Cp dT
or Dh = h2 – h1 = Cp (T2 – T1) ...(3.56) Ê dh ˆ
Cp = Á
Ë dT ˜¯ p
or ...(3.58)
 Working Substances 89

Further, the specific heat at constant pressure Analysis

Cp can also be defined as change in the specific (i) The specific heat at constant volume is given as
enthalpy of a substance per unit change in
R (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K)
temperature at a constant pressure. It relates the Cv = =
g -1 1.4 - 1
change in properties, and thus it is also a property.
= 0.7175 kJ/kg ◊ K
These specific heats are properties of the gas and
(ii) The specific heat at constant pressure is given as
both vary with pressure and temperature. However,
for an ideal gas they are assumed constant. Cp = Cv + R = 0.7175 + 0.287 =1.0045 kJ/kg ◊ K

For air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K, and (iii) The change in internal energy
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg ◊ K DU = m Cv (T2 – T1)
= 10 ¥ 0.7175 ¥ (373 – 293)
= 574 kJ
(iv) The change in enthalpy
DH = m Cp (T2 – T1)
A special relationship between Cp and Cv , for an
= 10 ¥ 1.0045 ¥ (373 – 293)
ideal gas can be obtained by differentiating the
= 803.6 kJ
enthalpy relation Eq. (3.53);
dh = du + R dT Example 3.24 A gas initially at a pressure of 510 kPa
and a volume of 142 litres undergoes a process and has
Replacing dh by Cp dT and du by Cv dT, then
a final pressure of 170 kPa and a volume of 275 litres.
Cp dT = Cv dT + R dT During the process, the enthalpy decreases by 65 kJ. Take
Dividing both sides by dT, we get Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg ◊ K.
Determine (a) change in internal energy, (b) specific
Cp = Cv + R (kJ/kg ◊ K) ...(3.59) heat at constant pressure, and (c) specific gas constant.
It is a very important relationship for ideal gases.
The ratio of the two specific heats is defined as Solution
Cp Given A gas process
g= ...(3.60)
Cv State 1: p1 = 510 kPa V1 = 142 litres = 142 ¥ 10-3 m3
State 2: p2 = 170 kPa V2 = 275 litres = 275 ¥ 10–3 m3
10 kg of air is heated in a rigid vessel DH = – 65 kJ (since it is decreased)
from 20°C to 100°C. If the ratio of specific heat is 1.4,
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg ◊ K
estimate the values of Cp and Cv, change in internal
energy, and enthalpy. To find
(i) Change in internal energy,
Solution (ii) Specific heat at constant pressure,
Given Air in a rigid vessel (iii) Specific gas constant.
Analysis
V = Const. m = 10 kg g = 1.4
State 1: T1 = 20°C = 293 K, (i) The change in enthalpy can be expressed as
State 2: T2 = 100°C = 373 K, DH = DU + p2V2 – p1V1
Using numerical values;
To find
– 65 = DU + (170) ¥ (275 ¥ 10–3) – (510)
(i) Cp (ii) Cv
¥ (142 ¥ 10–3 )
(iii) DU and (iv) DH
or – 65 = DU + (46.75 – 72.42)
Assumption The specific gas constant for air as R = or DU = –65 + 72.42 – 46.75 = –39.33 kJ
0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K. (decrease in internal energy)
90 Thermal Engineering

(ii) The change in internal energy can also be T2 È 40 ˘

expressed as = m ÚT1
Í1.1 + T + 30 ˙ dT
Î ˚
DU = m Cv (DT)
= m È1.1 T + 40 ¥ ln (T + 30 )˘ 2
T
or –39.33 = 0.718 (mDT) Î ˚T1
or m DT = – 54.777
È Ê T + 30 ˆ ˘
Further the change in enthalpy can also be = m Í1.1 (T2 - T1 ) + 40 ¥ ln Á 2 ˙
ÍÎ Ë T1 + 30 ˜¯ ˙˚
expressed as
DH = m Cp DT = Cp (m DT) Using numerical values, we get
or –65 = Cp (–54.777) È
Q1–2 = 1 ¥ Í1.1 ¥ (370 - 50 ) +
65 Î
or Cp = = 1.1866 kJ/kg ◊ K
54.777 Ê 370 + 30 ˆ ˘
40 ¥ ln Á ˙
Ë 50 + 30 ˜¯ ˚
(iii) Specific gas constant,
R = Cp – Cv
= 352 + 64.37 = 416.37 kJ
= 1.1866 – 0.718 = 0.468 kJ/kgK
(ii) Work done at constant pressure
Example 3.25 1 kg of a certain gas undergoes a 2
reversible constant pressure process at 1.2 bar, during
W1–2 =
Ú 1
pdV = p1(V2 – V1)
which its volume changes from 1 m3 to 1.8 m3 and the = (120 kPa) ¥ (1.8 – 1) (m3)
temperature changes from 50°C to 370°C. The specific = 96 kPa
heat for a substance at constant pressure is given by
(iii) Change in internal energy can be obtained as
È 40 ˘ DU = Q – W = 416.37 – 96
Cp = Í1.1 + kJ/kg ◊ K, where T is in °C.
Î T + 30 ˙˚ = 320.37 kJ
Find (a) Heat supplied (b) Work done (iv) Change in enthalpy
(c) Change in internal (d) Change in enthalpy DH1–2 = Q1–2 = 416.37 kJ
energy,

Solution
REAL GASES
Given A constant pressure process with
m = 1 kg p1 = 1.2 bar = 120 kPa The ideal gas equation of state, pv = RT can be used
with the assumption of very little or no attraction
State 1: V1 = 1 m3 T1 = 50°C
force of molecules within the gas and the volume
3
State 2: V2 = 1.8 m T2 = 370°C of molecules is negligibly small in comparison to
È 40 ˘ volume of gas. For many gases, at very low pres-
and Cp = Í1.1 + kJ/kg K
Î T + 30 ˙˚ sure and very high temperature, the forces of inter-
molecular attraction and volume of molecules com-
To find pared to the volume of gas are significantly small
(i) Heat supplied, and the real gases obey very closely the ideal gas
(ii) Work done, equation.
(iii) Change in internal energy, and
But at higher pressure, the forces of intermo-
(iv) Change in enthalpy.
lecular attraction and repulsion are significant and
Analysis the volume of molecules are also appreciable com-
(i) Heat supplied at constant pressure pared to total gas volume. Then the real-gas behav-
2 iour deviates from ideal-gas behaviour. The slight
Q1–2 =
Ú1
mC p dT modification in the ideal-gas equation of state to fit
 Working Substances 91

accurate within few percentage. The deviation of

as real-gas behaviour from that of ideal gas is greatest
Real pÆ0 Ideal
gas gas in vicinity of the critical point.
Better results can be obtained for some gases
by using pseudo-reduced coordinates in place of
reduced properties. These are
p T
p'R = , T R¢ = …(3.66)
pc + A Tc + B
real-gas behaviour is to introduce a correction fac- where A and B are some constants and presudo-
tor called compressibility factor Z. It is defined as reduced specific volume v R¢ is defined as
pv v
Z= …(3.61) vR = …(3.67)
RT RTc / pc
For an ideal gas, obviously, Z = 1
Thus, v¢R is related to pc and Tc not to vc .
For a real gas, Z is a function of pressure
and temperature and it is usually determined
1 mole of CO2 at 88.7 bar and 61°C
empirically.
is compressed in reversible isothermal manner till the
The real gases behave differently at a given volume halves. Calculate the work transfer during the
temperature and pressure, but they behave very process.
likely at their reduced pressure and reduced
temperature. These are Solution
p p
Reduced pressure pR = actual = …(3.62) Given Isothermal compression of CO2
pcritical pc p1 = 88.7 bar = 8870 kPa T1 = 61°C = 334 K
Tactual T 1
Reduced temperature TR = = …(3.63) v2 = v1, n = 1 mole
Tcritical Tc 2
v v To find Work transfer during the process.
Reduced sp. volume vR = actual = …(3.64)
vcritical vc Analysis The CO2 is real gas, the gas compressibility
is to include.
where the subscript c represents critical state.
The isothermal work
The disadvantage of the use of compressibility
nRuT
Ú pdv = Ú
factor chart is that a separate chart is needed for W= dv
each gas. But at the same reduced coordinates, the v
compressibility factor Z is approximately same for For a real gas
all gases. It is called law of corresponding states, v2 dv Êv ˆ
thus
vR = f (pR, TR) …(3.65)
W = nRuT Z
Ú v1 v
= nRuT Z ln Á 2 ˜
Ë v1 ¯
where Z = f (pR, TR)
A diagram of pR versus TR as a parameter plotted
p T
from data of any gas would apply to all other gases. and pR = and TR =
The Fig. 3.28 shows a generalised compressibility pc Tc
chart, where Z values are plotted against pR, and From Table A–1; For CO2, pC = 73.9 bar, Tc = 304 K
TR for several gases. The use of compressibility 88.7 334
chart requires the knowledge of critical parameter Then pR = = 1.2, TR = = 1.1
73.9 304
given in factor and TR for several gases. The Z = 0.62
results obtained by using compressibility chart are
92 Thermal Engineering

1.1
TR = 2.00
1.0

0.9 TR = 1.50

0.8

Z 0.7 TR = 1.30

0.6
TR = 1.20

0.5 Legend
Methane Iso-pentance
0.4 TR = 1.10 Ethylene n-hentane
Ethane Nitrogen
0.3 Propane Carbon dioxide
TR = 1.00
n-butance Water
0.2
Average curve based on data on hydrocarbons
0.1

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
PR

The work transfer Percentage error = 3%

W = 1 ¥ 8.314 ¥ 334 ¥ 0.62 ln (1/2) Steam at 500 bar and 1200°C
= –1229 kJ vsup = 0.013561 m3/kg

Prove that the superheated steam can For superheated steam as an ideal gas
be modelled as an ideal gas. Ê 8.314 ˆ Ê 1200 + 273 ˆ
vg = Á ¥
Ë 18 ˜¯ ÁË 500 ¥ 100 ˜¯
Solution Let vsup is the specific volume of
superheated steam and vg is the volume of an ideal gas. = 0.01360 m3/kg
Consider p = 10 kPa and Tsup = 500°C Percentage error = 0.34%
vsup = 35.6789 m3/kg (from steam tables) The above calculations show that superheated steam
approximates an ideal gas reasonably well at low and
For superheated steam to be ideal gas
high pressures with high degree of superheat.
Ê R ˆ T Ê 8.314 ˆ (500 + 373)( K )
vg = Á u ˜ =Á ˜¯ ¥
Ë M¯ Ë p 18 (10 kPa )
3
= 35.7040 m /kg
v g - vsup Many extensive p, v, T data are available, but
Percentage error = ¥ 100 = 0.07% no equation of state that represents the p, v, T
vg
behaviour of the gas could be used accurately over
Now consider steam at 100 bar and 700°C
a larger region.
vsup = 0.04358 m3/kg
For superheated steam as an ideal gas 1. Van der Waals Equation In 1873, J.D. van der
Waals presented an equation of state which was
Ê 8.314 ˆ Ê 700 + 273 ˆ of interest on physical reasoning, introduced two
vg = Á
Ë 18 ˜¯ ÁË 100 ¥ 100 kPa ˜¯ correction constants in the equation of ideal gas
= 0.04494 m3/kg
 Working Substances 93

equation of state. Ru T a
Ê aˆ p= - …(3.70)
ÁË p + 2 ˜¯ ( v - b ) = RuT
v - b v ( v + b) T 1 / 2
…(3.68)
v where Ru = universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kg mol.K
The constant a was introduced to account for the and v is molal volume. The values of these two
existence of intermolecular attraction, the constant constants are also determined from critical state
b was introduced to account for volumes of mol- parameter and these are
ecules and Ru is the universal gas constant. These R 2T 2.5
constants are evaluated from the behaviour of the a = 0.427 u c
pc
gas at critical point. It was assumed that critical
RT
temperature line on a p–v diagram is horizontal at and b = 0.0866 u c …(3.71)
pc
critical point, thus
Ê ∂ pˆ Ru Tc 2a 3. In 1928, Beattie-
ÁË ∂T ˜¯ = 2
+ 3 =0 Bridgeman proposed an equation of state. The mea-
T c
(vc - b) vc sured values of pressure, temperature and specific
Ê ∂2 p ˆ 2 Ru Tc 6a volume with good accuracy. It is in the form of
and Á 2 ˜ = 3
+ =0
Ë ∂ v ¯T (vc - b) v c4 Ru T Ï C ¸ A
c = Const p=
2 Ì
1- 3 ˝ ( v + B ) - 2 …(3.72)
Solving these equations, we get v Ó vT ˛ v
27 Ru2 Tc2 RT Ê aˆ
a= ,b= u c Where A = A0 Á1- ˜
64 pc 8 pc Ë v¯
Ru Tc 8 Ê bˆ
and = …(3.69)
and B = B0 Á1- ˜ …(3.73)
pc vc 3 Ë v¯
Except at higher pressures, the real gases do not Here v = molal volume in m3/kg mol
obey van der Waals equation in all ranges of pres- Ru = Universal gas constant
sures and temperatures. Despite of its limitations,
= 8.314 kJ/kg mol. K
the van der Waal equation has a historical impor-
The constants appearing in above equation are
tance because it was the first attempt to model the
given in Table 3.6 below:
behaviour of real gases.
4. Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State In
2. Redlich-Kwong-Equation In 1949, Redlich
1940, Benedict-Webb and Rubin extended the work
and kwong presented an equation of state with two
of Beattle Bridgeman by increasing the number of
constants, which is more accurate than the van der
constants to eight. It is expressed as
Waals equation over a wide range.

Table 3.6 Constants that appear in the Beattie-Bridgeman equations of state

Gas A0 a B0 b C ¥ 10–4
Air 131.8441 0.019 31 0.046 11 – 0.001 101 4.34
Argon 130.7802 0.023 28 0.039 31 0.0 5.99
Carbon dioxide 507.2836 0.071 32 0.104 76 0.072 35 66.00
Helium 2.1886 0.059 84 0.014 00 0.0 0.0040
Hydorgen 20.0117 –0.005 06 0.020 96 – 0.043 59 0.0504
Nitrogen 136.2315 0.026 17 0.050 46 –0.006 91 4.20
Oxygen 151.0857 0.025 62 0.046 24 0.004 208 4.80
94 Thermal Engineering

Gas a A0 b B0 c C0 a g
n-Butane, C4H10 190.68 1021.6 0.039 998 0.124 36 3.205 ¥ 107 1.006 ¥ 108 1.101 ¥ 10–3 0.0340
Carbon dioxide, CO2 13.86 277.30 0.007 210 0.049 91 1.511 ¥ 106 1.404 ¥ 107 8.470 ¥ 10–5 0.00539
Carbon monoxide, CO 3.71 135.87 0.002 632 0.054 54 1.054 ¥ 105 8.673 ¥ 105 1.350 ¥ 10–4 0.0060
Methane, CH4 5.00 187.91 0.003 380 0.042 60 2.578 ¥ 105 2.286 ¥ 106 1.244 ¥ 10–4 0.0060
Nitrogen, N2 2.54 106.73 0.002 328 0.040 74 7.379 ¥ 104 8.164 ¥ 105 1.272 ¥ 10–4 0.0053

RuT Ï C ¸ 1 bR T - a ing effect on pv/RT. The effect may be either posi-

p= + Ì B0 RuT - A0 - 02 ˝ 2 + u 3 tive or negative. The positive value means replusion
v Ó T ˛v v
of molecules and negative value indicates attraction
aa c È g ˘ -g / v 2 between molecules.
+ + Í1 + ˙e …(3.74)
v 6 vT 3 Î v 2 ˚ It is assumed that when second virial coefficient
where p = pressure in kPa, is negative then third and succeeding virial coef-
3 ficients must be positive. The number of terms in-
v = molal volume, m /kg mol,
T = Absolute temperature, K cluded in virial equation depends upon the region
Ru = Universal gas constant under study.
= 8.314 kJ/k mol. K The virial equation can be converted into power
A0, B0, C0, a, b, c, a, g are Eight constants. series in the form
The values of these constants appearing in the pv
= 1 + A1 p + A2p2 + A3 p3 …(3.75)
equation are given in Table 3.7 below. RT
5. Virial Equation of State The equation of state Where A1, A2, A3 … are virial coefficients, func-
for a real gas can be expressed in the form of power tion of temperature alone, and virial coefficients are
series related as
pv a b c d
= 1+ + 2 + 3 + 4 a b - a2
RT v v v v A1 = , A2 = …(3.76)
where a, b, c, d, etc., are second, third, fourth, etc., RT R2 T 2
virial coefficients and these are function of tem- (a) For an ideal gas, an isometric line would be
perature only. These coefficients can be determined a straight line, starting from origin and with
experimentally or theoretically from statistical slope proportional to density,
mechanics. The above equation and several other (b) For real gas, the isometrics are displaced
equations of such form are known as virial equa- from origin and either straight line or a
tions. curve.
The accuracy of virial equation of state depends Note: Eqn (3.68) to (3.76) can also be used for real
on number of coefficients considered. gases by replacing molar volume v by specific
The all equations of state discussed above can volume v and universal gas constant Ru by specific
only be applied to gaseous phase of the substance. gas constant R.
The region in the vicinity of p = 0 corresponds
to concept of ideal gas with negligible force of at-
traction between molecules (pv/RT = 1). As density
increases at constant temperature, the binary col-
The equation of state and physical picture of an ideal
lision between molecules becomes more frequent
gas can be obtained from property relationships.
and second virial coefficient exerts with an increas-
 Working Substances 95

Consider a gas that obeys Joule’s law by equation point of inflection at critical point
È Ê ∂ pˆ ˘ Ê ∂ pˆ Ê ∂2 p ˆ
du = Cv dT + ÍT Á ˜ - p ˙ dv ÁË ∂ v ˜¯ = 0 and Á 2˜ =0
ÍÎ Ë ∂T ¯ v ˙˚ T Ë ∂v ¯
and at constants temperature, dT = 0, then Also at critical point the third derivative
should be either zero or negligible, but
Ê ∂u ˆ Ê ∂ pˆ fourth derivative must be zero.
ÁË ∂v ˜¯ = T ÁË ∂T ˜¯ – p = 0 …(3.77)
T v
Ê ∂3 p ˆ Ê ∂4 p ˆ
Ê ∂ pˆ p f (v, T ) Á 3 ˜ = (0 or –ve) and Á 4˜ =0
Hence ÁË ∂T ˜¯ = T = …(3.78) Ë ∂v ¯ T Ë ∂v ¯
v T
Eq. (3.78) shows that the partial derivative with (iii) The curvature of isometrics of equation of
respect to temperature must be equal to original state on p–T diagram should be negative,
function of v, T divided by temperature and hence, positive or zero in the various region. In
the solution of Eq. (3.78) is particular, the critical isometric should be
straight, while the curvature of all other iso-
p = f (v, T) …(3.79)
metric should approach zero with either de-
It is the Joule’s law of equation of state for a gas creasing density or increasing temperature;
with attraction or repulsion forces.
The typical behaviour of internal energy for a Ê ∂2 p ˆ > Ê ∂2 p ˆ ¸Ô v = c
real gas is shown in Fig. 3.29. Á 2˜ < 0 and Á 2˜ = 0 ˝ pÆ0
Ë ∂T ¯ v Ë ∂T ¯ v Ô˛ T
0
(iv) The slope of isotherm of equation of state
–200 on the Z-p plot or compressibility factor, Z
–400 –150°C should be negative, positive or zero in the
–100°C
various regions.
–600

–800 –50°C Ê ∂Z ˆ 1 È ∂ ( p v) ˘
ÁË ∂p ˜¯ = R T Í ∂ p ˙
–1000
0°C
T u Î ˚T
1 È Ê ∂v ˆ ˘ >
50°C
–1200
= Ív + pÁ ˜˙ = 0
Ë ∂p ¯ ˚T <
u(kJ/kg)
Ru Î
Reduced density pr

∂2 Z ∂2 Z
lim = 0, lim =0
p Æ 0 ∂p ∂T p Æ 0 ∂r ∂T

There are certain conditions that should be (v) The equation of state should predict the
obeyed by an equation of state. Joule–Thomson coefficient
(i) The equation of state should be reduced to an 1 È Ê ∂v ˆ ˘ Ru T 2 Ê ∂Z ˆ
ideal gas equation of state, when its pressure m= ÍT Á ˜ - v ˙ = ÁË ∂T ˜¯
isothermally approaches to zero.
Cp ÍÎ Ë ∂T ¯ p ˙˚ rC p p

lim pv = RT at inversion state m = 0

pÆ0
∂Z ˆ Ê ∂Z ˆ = 0
T ÊÁ = v or
(ii) The critical isotherm of equation of state Ë ∂T ˜¯ p ÁË ∂T ˜¯
p
should have a horizontal tangent and at a
96 Thermal Engineering

Example 3.28 Consider nitrogen gas at 145 K with The value of p obtained by Redlich Kwong equation
specific volume of 0.0022 m3/kg. Calculate its pressure is 44% less than ideal gas equation calculation.
using Redlich Kwong equation and compare with pres-
sure obtained by ideal gas equation. Use pc = 3390 kPa, Example 3.29 Determine the pressure exerted by
Tc = 126.2 K. CO2 in a container of 1.5 m3 capacity when it contains
5 kg at 27°C.
Solution (a) Using ideal gas equation
Given Nitrogen gas with specific volume (b) Using Van der Waal’s equation

v = 0.0022 m3/kg, T = 145 K use a = 3.6285 ¥ 105 J 4/kg mol2, b = 0.0422 m3/kg mol
constants of van der Waal’s equation
pc = 3390 kPa Tc = 126.2 K
To find Pressure of gas by Redlich Kwong equation Solution
and then by ideal gas equation and compare it.
Given CO2 gas in a a container
Analysis Since specific volume of nitrogen is given, m = 5 kg, V = 1.5 m3 T = 27°C = 300 K
thus calculating specific gas constant for nitrogen
To find Pressure of gas
Ru 8.3144
RN2 = =
MN 2 28 Analysis The molecular mass of CO2 gas
= 0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K MCO2 = 12 + 32 = 44 kg/kg mol.
Calculating the constants of Redlich Kwong equation Ru 8.314
2
Sp. gas constant, R = =
RN Tc2.5 MCO2 44
2
a = 0.427
pc = 0.1889 kJ/kg ◊ K
2 2.5 (i) Using perfect gas equation
(0.297) ¥ (126.2)
= 0.427 ¥
3390 mRT 5 ¥ 0.1889 ¥ 300
p= = = 188.95 kPa
m3 K 0.5 V 1.5
= 1.988 kg The molar volume v of CO2
RN2 Tc V V MCO2 1.5 ¥ 44
b = 0.0866 v = = =
pc n m 5
0.297 ¥ 126.2 = 13.2 m3/kg mol.
= 0.0866 ¥
3390 (ii) Using Van der Waal’s equation
–4 3
= 9.575 ¥ 10 m /kg Ê aˆ
using Redlich Kwong equation in terms of v and RN2 ÁË p + 2 ˜¯ ( v – b) = RuT
v
R N2 T a
p = – RT a
v–b v ( v + b) T 1 / 2 or p = u –
v-b v2
0.297 ¥ 145
= 4 (8.314 ¥ 100) ¥ 300 3.6285 ¥ 105
0.0022 9.575 ¥ 10 = -
1.988 13.2 - 0.0422 (13.2) 2
–
0.0022 ¥ (0.0022 + 9.575 ¥ 10 – 4 ) ¥ (145)1/2 = 189560.56 – 2082.477
= 34659.66 – 23766.65 = 187478 pa or 1.875 bar
= 10893 kPa or 108.93 bar
Example 3.30 Determine the critical pressure of
Using ideal gas equation
oxygen using perfect gas equation and Van der Waal’s
R N2 T 0.297 ¥ 145 equation. Take v = 0.0745 m3/kg-mol, Tc = –118.10°C.
p = = c
v 0.0022
= 19575 kPa or 195.75 bar
 Working Substances 97

Solution 1 1
Density r = =
Given Oxygen gas with v 0.03837
3
= 26.06 kg/m3
vc = 0.0745 m /kg ◊ mol. Tc = –118.10°C = 154.9 K (ii) Using perfect gas equation
To find Critical pressure of oxygen by using Ê Ru ˆ
(i) Perfect gas equation, and pv = RT = Á ˜T
Ë M H2O ¯
(ii) Van der Waals equation.
Ê M H 2O ˆ 18 ¥ (100 ¥ 105 )
Analysis Using perfect gas equation or r=Á ˜ p=
Ë RuT ¯ 8314 ¥ 873
pc vc = RuTc
= 24.8 kg/m3
RuTc 8.314 ¥ 154.9 (iii) Using van der Waals equation with constants
or pc = =
vc 0.0745 a = 5.5113 ¥ 105 J4/kg mol2
= 17,286.42 kPa and b = 0.03 m3/kg mol.
using Van der Waals equation at critical point
Ê aˆ
Ê aˆ ÁË p + 2 ˜¯ (v - b ) = RuT
v
Á pc + 2 ˜ ( vc - b) = RuTc
Ë vc ¯ Ê 5 ˆ ¥ (v - 0.030 )
5 5.5113 ¥ 10
or Á100 ¥ 10 + ˜
27 Ru2 Tc2 Ru Tc Ë v 2
¯
with constants a = and b = the Van
64 pc 8 pc = 8314 ¥ 873
der Waals equation at critical point yields to 5.5113 0.16534
100 v + –3– – 72.58 = 0
pc vc 3 v v2
=
Ru Tc 8 It is a non-linear equation, its numerical solution
leads to v = 0.68 m3/kg mol.
3 8.314 ¥ 154.9
\ pc = ¥ = 6482.4 kPa The specific volume
8 0.0745
nv v 0.68
Example 3.31 Determine the density of the steam v = = =
m MH 2 O 18
at 100 bar and 600°C by using (a) steam table, (b) the
perfect gas equation, (c) Van der Waals equation with = 0.0378 m3/kg
constants 1 1
a = 5.5113 J 4/kg mol2 Density, r = =
v 0.0378
b = 0.030 m3/kg mol
= 26.455 kg/m3
and (d) compressibility chart.
(iv) Using compressibility chart:
Solution
For water, pc = 221-2 bar,
Given Steam at p = 100 bar = 100 ¥ 105 N/m2 Tc = 374.15°C
and T = 600°C = 873 K = 647.15 K
Reduced parameter
To find Density of steam
p 100
Analysis pr = = = 0.4522
pc 221.2
(i) Using steam table (superheated steam)
T 873
at p = 100 bar Tsup = 600°C Tr = = = 1.349 ª 1.35
Tc 647.15
v = 0.03837 m3/kg
98 Thermal Engineering

From generalized compressibility chart com- = 0.0383 m3/kg

pressibility factor, Z = 0.95 1 1
Density r = =
Then using generalized equation v 0.0383
ZRuT = 26.10 kg/m3
pv =
MH 2O
0.95 ¥ 8.314 ¥ 873
or v =
100 ¥ 100 ¥ 18

Summary
- Enthalpy hsup = hg + Cps (Tsup – Tsat) (kJ/kg)
tion throughout. Water has a constant chemical
composition in all of its phases, and therefore, it Entropy ssup = sg + C ln Ê Tsup ˆ (kJ/kg ◊ K)
ps Á
is considered as a pure substance. Ë Tsat ˜¯
Tsup 3
Specific volume vsup = v g ¥ (m /kg)
from 0°C to saturation temperature is called Tsat
sensible heat. It is denoted by hf in steam tables. 1
The density of steam, r = (kg/m3)
v
saturation temperature is called latent heat or phase change is
heat of evaporation or vaporization. It is denoted calculated as
by hfg in steam tables. we = pv
total u = h – pv
heat or total enthalpy of water. It is denoted by hg Internal latent heat = latent heat
in steam tables. – external work of evaporation
ideal gas is an ideal working substance for
wet steam. Its quality is defined by dryness all thermodynamic cycles. The characteristic gas
fraction ‘x’, which is calculated as equation for an ideal gas is
mass of dry steam mg pV = mRT
x= =
mass of total steam mw + mg where R is the specific gas constant and is
where mw = mass of moisture present obtained as
in steam sample. R universal gas constant 8.31447
R= u = =
mg = mass of dry steam in M molecular weight M
the sample. p, V and T are
Quality of steam = 100 x% related as
p1V1 pV
wet steam are calculated as = 2 2
Enthalpy hwet = hf + x hfg T1 T2
Entropy swet = sf + x sfg
Specific Volume vwet = xvg energy and change in enthalpy can be calculated
as
saturation temperature is
called superheated steam and the temperature rise Change in internal energy
above the saturation temperature is called degree DU = mCv (T2 – T1)
of superheat. Its properties are calculated as Change in enthalpy
Degree of superheat = Tsup – Tsat DH = mCp (T2 – T1)
 Working Substances 99

Glossary
Triple point The point where the solid, liquid and va- Critical state The peak of the saturation curve
pour phases coexist in thermal equilibrium Quality (x) The ratio of mass of vapour present to the
Vaporization The transformation of liquid into vapour total mass of steam
by supplying heat Wetness fraction The ratio of mass of liquid present to
Evaporation The transformation of liquid into vapour the total mass of steam (= 1 – quality = 1 – x)
when liquid itself exacts its latent heat Wet steam A mixture of moisture and vapour, it is a
Condensation The transformation of a vapour into a substances that exists under the saturation curve.
liquid Phase The physical state of matter
Melting The transformation of a solid into a liquid, also Dry steam Steam at saturation temperature, which is
known as fusion free from moisture
Solidification The transformation of a liquid into a Superheated steam Dry steam at a temperature greater
solid, also called freezing than the saturation temperature
Sublimation The transformation of solid into vapour Ideal gas An ideal working substance for thermody-
Saturation The condition that exists when two or more namic cyles
phases coexist in equilibrium

Review Questions
1. Define pure substance. 8. Draw a saturation curve on a T–s diagram and
2. Explain the phase transformation of water from mention the different states of water on it.
freezing state to superheated state. 9. Define (a) triple point, (b) sublimation, and (c)
3. Describe the phase-change process of water using critical point.
a T–v diagram. 10. Explain external work of evaporation.
4. Define (a) dry and saturated steam (b) wet steam, 11. Define (a) sensible heat, (b) latent heat, and (c)
and (c) superheated steam. super heat.
5. Define (a) dryness fraction, and (b) degree of 12. Define dryness fraction and state various methods
superheat. of determination of dryness fraction.
6. Explain the following terms: 13. Explain the procedure of obtaining dryness
fraction of steam by a throttling calorimeter.
(a) Latent heat of fusion
14. Discuss (a) entropy of water, (b) entropy of
(b) Latent heat of vaporisation
evaporation, and (c) entropy of steam.
(c) Sensible heat of water 15. Draw a format of pressure entry steam table.
(d) Enthalpy 16. Define enthalpy of wet steam and superheated
(e) Dryness fraction steam with necessary equations.
(f) Superheated steam 17. Prove that for a constant pressure process,
7. What is an internal latent heat and how it relates dq = dh.
with enthalpy of the vaporization? 18. Explain why food cooks faster in a pressure
cooker than in conventional cooking?
100 Thermal Engineering

Problems
1. A rigid tank of volume 2 m3 is filled with saturated reduced by using helium instead of air in the
steam at 2 bar. It contains 0.2 m3 of moisture and tyres? What other considerations are involved in
the rest is vapour. Calculate the mass of moisture, deciding whether to use helium?
mass of vapour and the quality of steam. 10. A tank with a volume of 50 m3 is being filled with
[(a)188.5 kg (b) 2.032 kg (c) 0.01066] air. At a particular instant, the air in the tank has a
2. Steam at 0.75 bar and 150°C is condensed revers- temperature of 400 K and a pressure of 1380 kPa.
ibly. Find the heat removed and change in entro- For this system, the pressure is increasing at the
py. Sketch the process on a T–s diagram. rate of 138 kPa/s and temperature is increasing at
[2393.8 kJ/kg, 6.536 kJ/kg ◊ K] a rate of 25 K/s. Calculate the air flow rate into
3. Determine the increase in entropy of 1 kg of the tank in kg/s. [21.25 kg/s]
water when it is heated at atmospheric pressure
11. A spherical vessel of 3-m diameter contains steam
from –23°C to 152°C. Take sp. heat of fusion and
at a pressure of 7 bar (gauge) and a temperature of
superheating as 2.093 kJ/kg ◊ K and for water as
4.187 kJ/kg ◊ K. [9.0403 kJ/kg] 200° C, Find
4. Obtain specific volume, specific enthalpy, entropy (a) Total enthalpy of steam
of 2 kg of water at 1 bar and 60°C. (b) Total internal energy of steam
5. A perfect gas of 0.01 –kg mass occupies a volume (c) Total mass of steam
of 0.02 m3 at a pressure of 286.4 kPa and 30°C re- Take atmospheric pressure as 1 bar.
spectively. The gas is allowed to expand until the [(a) 156.16 MJ (b) 144.85 MJ (c) 55.16 kg]
pressure is 101 kPa and final volume is 4 times 12. Steam at 15 bar and 0.9 dry is supplied to a super
the initial volume. Calculate (a) the molal mass heater at the rate of 5,000 kg/h, the temperature
of the gas, and (b) final temperature. of steam coming out of the super heater is 300°C.
[(a) 44 kg/kmol (b) 154.5°C] The temperature of feed water supplied to the
6. A quantity of air at a temperature of 80°C is boiler is 45°C. Calculate
heated at constant pressure until the temperature (a) Heat supplied in the boiler
is 400°C, when the volume was found to be (b) Heat supplied in the super heater
1.7 m3. What was initial volume of air ? [(i) 12.045 ¥ 106 kJ/h, (ii) 2.102 ¥ 106 kJ/h]
[0.892 m3] 13. Wet steam at a pressure of 8.5 bar enters a sepa-
7. The air in a car tyre was at a pressure of 3 bar rator at the rate of 2 kg/s in which it loses 0.05
and at 20°C. After running, the pressure rises to kg/s of moisture. Then it is throttled to a pres-
3.5 bar. Estimate the temperature of air inside the sure of 5.4 bar before it is used for process work,
tyre. [64.8°C] during which it loses the heat at the rate of 920
8. A vessel having a volume of 0.32 m3 containing kW at constant pressure until the dryness fraction
air at 120 kPa, 12°C was sealed 4200 years ago becomes 0.8. Calculate the temperature of steam
and placed in a tomb of Egypt. If since that time immediately after throttling and dryness fraction
air has leaked from the vessel to cause the pres- of steam before and after the separator.
sure to drop to 119.9 kPa with no change in tem- [125.39°C, 0.975, 0.9477]
perature, determine the average rate (molecules 14. The following data was obtained in a test on a
per second) at which the air has left the vessel. combined separating and throttling calorimeter.
The pressure of the steam sample is 15 bar, the
9. An airplane has two tyres that are inflated to
pressure of steam at exit is 1 bar, and the tem-
1500 kPa. Each tyre has a volume of 0.021 m3.
perature is 150°C, discharge from the separating
How much would the weight of the airplane be
calorimeter is 0.5 kg/min, and the discharge from
 Working Substances 101

the throttling calorimeter is 10 kg/min. Calculate Water separated = 2 kg

the dryness fraction of steam. The steam supplied to throttling
[x = 0.9477] calorimeter = 20.5 kg
15. The following observations were obtained with a Temperature of steam after throttling = 120°C
separating and throttling calorimeter arranged in Barometer reading 760 mm of Hg
series: Final pressure = 65 mm of Hg
Pressure of steam = 12 bar Estimate the quality of steam. [0.88]

Objective Questions
1. The specific volume of water during freezing 9. At the critical point, the temperature of water is
(a) increases (b) remains constant equal to
(c) decreases (d) none of the above (a) 0°C (b) 100°C
2. The latent heat of vaporization with increase in (c) 374°C (d) –100°C
pressure of water 10. The total enthalpy of steam at 10 bar is
(a) increases (b) remains constant 2000 kJ/ kg. The condition of steam is
(c) decreases (d) none of the above (a) wet (b) dry and saturated
3. With increase in pressure, the saturation tempera- (c) superheated (d) none of the above
ture of water 11. Dryness fraction of steam is given by
(a) increases (b) remains constant Mass of dry steam in a sample
(c) decreases (d) none of the above (a)
Mass of water particles in thee sample
4. The specific volume of wet steam is given by
Mass of water particles in the sample
vg (b)
(a) (b) xvf Mass of dry steam in the sample
x Mass of wet steam in the sample
(c) xvg (d) x 2vg (c)
Mass of dry steam in the sammple
5. Internal latent heat of steam is given by
Mass of dry steam in the sample
(a) hfg – pvg (b) hg – pvg (d)
Total mass of steam in the sample
(c) hsup – pvg (d) hfg + pvg
12. To obtain the dryness fraction of steam from a
6. Specific internal energy of steam is given by
throttling calorimeter, the steam after throttling
(a) Cv (T2 – T1) (b) h – pv
should be
(c) h + pv (d) hfg + pvg
(a) wet
7. During throttling process
(b) dry and saturated
(a) h2 = h12 (b) h2 = h1
(c) superheated by atleast 5°C
h fg h fg
(c) h2 = h1 + (d) h1 = h2 + (d) completely condensed
Tsat Tsat
13. Throttling calorimeter is used to measure the
8. Critical point is the point at which dryness fraction up to
(a) melting point and boiling temperature be- (a) 0.7 (b) 0.98
come equal (c) 1.0 (d) none of the above
(b) change in volume during evaporation be- 14. Entropy of wet steam is given by
come zero h fg
(c) latent heat of evapoartion becomes zero. (a) s fg + (b) sf + x(sg – sf)
Tsat
(d) none of the above ÊT ˆ
(c) sf + sfg (d) s g + C ps ln Á sup ˜
ËT ¯
sat
102 Thermal Engineering

15. The perfect gas 17. The specific gas constant of any perfect gas
(a) has no intermolecular forces of attraction or (a) increases with increase in temperature
repulsion (b) increase with increase in pressure
(b) does not change its phase during a process (c) is a function of pressure and temperature
(c) obeys Boyle’s and Charles’s laws (d) is a constant
(d) all of the above 18. The ratio of two specific heats of a perfect gas
16. Universal gas constant of a perfect gas (a) always remains constant
(a) increases with increase in temperature (b) always varies with pressure
(b) decrease with temperature (c) always varies with temperature
(c) increases with increase in molar mass (d) none of the above
(d) always remains constant

18. (c). 17. (d)

16. (d) 15. (d) 14. (b) 13. (b) 12. (c) 11. (d) 10. (a) 9. (c)
8. (c) 7. (b) 6. (b) 5. (a) 4. (c) 3. (a) 2. (c) 1. (a)
Answers
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 103

4
First Law Applied to
Non-Flow Systems

Introduction
In Chapter 2, we have considered various forms of energy and energy transfer, and we have developed a
general relation for energy balance. In Chapter 3, we have discussed the properties of working substances:
steam, ideal gases and real gases. In this chapter, we will apply the energy balance relation to those systems
that do not involve mass flow across their boundary; that is, closed systems.

volume of the system remains constant, the process

IDEAL-GAS PROCESSES
is called constant volume process or isochoric
There are an infinite variety of processes. The five process, for example, processes taking place in a
important non-flow processes commonly dealt in pressure cooker, gas cylinder, etc.
engineering applications are (b) Properties Relationship The properties rela-
1. Constant-volume process tionship for any system undergoing a process be-
2. Constant-pressure process tween two states is expressed as
3. Constant-temperature process p1V1 pV
= 2 2
4. Constant-entropy process T1 T2
5. Polytropic process For a constant-volume process,
The processes considered in this chapter are re- V1 = V2
versible non-flow and can be represented by a solid
Then the above relation reduces to
curve on thermodynamic plots. A thermodynamic
system can undergo either one or a combination of p1 p
= 2 ...(4.1)
processes. T1 T2
(c) p–V and T–S Diagrams A constant-volume
process is represented by a vertical straight line on
(a) If any system of gas undergoes a a p–V diagram and a curved line on a T–S diagram
process in such a way that during the process, the as shown in Fig. 4.1.
104 Thermal Engineering

p T Thus, for a constant-volume process, the change

1
of internal energy is always equal to heat trans-
p1 1 p1
ferred during the process.
Cooling
p2
p2 2 (g) Change of Enthalpy The change of specific
2
enthalpy of an ideal gas during a process is calcu-
v s lated as
(a) (b)
Dh = Cp (T2 – T1) (kJ/kg)
Fig. 4.1 Constant volume cooling process on p-v and
T–s diagrams
where Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure,
kJ/kg ◊ K
(d) Work Done during the Process For a non-flow (T2 – T1) = Temperature difference in °C or K.
system, the work done can be obtained either from For a given mass system, the change in enthalpy
the area under the curve or mathematically as
2
DH = m Dh = mCp (T2 – T1) (kJ) ...(4.6)
W1–2 = Ú
1
pdV
(h) Change in Entropy The change in entropy of
For a constant-volume process, an ideal gas can be calculated as
dV = 0 2 dQ 2 dT
Hence W1–2 = 0 ...(4.2)
DS = Ú
1 T
= Ú
1
m Cv
T
It is also evident from the p–V diagram, as there ÊT ˆ
= mCv ln Á 2 ˜ (kJ/K) ...(4.7)
is no area under the vertical line. Ë T1 ¯
(e) Change of Internal Energy For an ideal gas, the where T is the absolute temperature in kelvin (K).
change of specific internal energy is calculated as
Example 4.1 A certain gas occupies a volume of
Du = Cv (T2 – T1) (kJ/kg) 0.3 m3 at a pressure of 2 bar. The temperature of the gas at
where, Cv = specific heat at constant volume in this state is 350 K. The gas undergoes a thermodynamic
kJ/kg ◊ K and (T2 – T1) is temperature difference in constant-volume process until the pressure raises to 7 bar.
°C or K. For a given mass system, the change of Determine the temperature at the end of the process,
internal energy change in internal energy, change in enthalpy and change
in entropy during this process. Take Cv = 0.712 kJ/kg ◊ K
DU = m Du = mCv (T2 – T1) (kJ) …(4.3) and R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K.
where, m = mass of the system in kg.
Solution
(f ) Heat Transferred In general, the heat transferred
Given A constant volume process
during a process is expressed as
2 State 1: V = 0.3 m3 p1 = 2 bar = 200 kPa T1 = 350 K
Q= Ú 1
m C dT
State 2: V = 0.3 m 3
p2 = 7 bar = 700 kPa
or Q = mass ¥ specific heat ¥ change of Cv = 0.712 kJ/kg ◊ K, R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
temperature
To find
For a constant-volume process (i) Final temperature of the gas,
Q = mCv (T2 – T1) = DU ...(4.4) (ii) Change in internal energy,
and for unit mass, (iii) Change in enthalpy, and
2 (iv) Change in entropy.
q= Ú1
Cv dT = Cv (T2 - T1 ) (kJ/kg) ...(4.5)
Analysis
We have R = Cp – Cv
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 105

It gives Cp = R + Cv State 1: V = 0.2 m3

= 0.287 + 0.712 @ 1.0 kJ/kg ◊ K p1 = 350 kPa
Using characteristic gas equation to calculate mass of the T1 = 15°C + 273 = 288 K
gas in the rigid tank mass State 2: T2 = 170°C + 273 = 443 K
p1V V = 0.2 m3
m = Q = 50 kJ
RT1
Cv = 743 J/kg ◊ K = 0.743 kJ/kg ◊ K
(200 kPa) ¥ (0.3 m3 )
=
(0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (350 K) To find
= 0.5973 kg (i) Final state of the gas,
(ii) Change in internal energy,
(i) The temperature of gas after constant-volume
(iii) Change in entropy.
process
p1 p2 Assumptions
We have =
T1 T2 (i) Nitrogen as a perfect gas.
p 7 (ii) The ratio of two specific heats, g = 1.4 for perfect
It gives T2 = 2 T1 = ¥ (350 K)
p1 2 gas.
= 1225 K or 952°C Analysis
(ii) Change in internal energy Cp
DU = m Cv (T2 – T1) We have R = Cp – Cv and g =
Cv
= (0.5973 kg) ¥ (0.712 kJ/kg ◊ K) Hence R = Cv (g – 1)
(1225 – 350)(K) = 743 ¥ (1.4 – 1) = 297 J/kg ◊ K
or DU = 372.12 kJ = 0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K.
(iii) Change in enthalpy Using characteristic gas equation to calculate mass of the
DH = m Cp (T2 – T1) gas in the rigid tank.
= (0.5973 kg) ¥ (1.0 kJ/kg ◊ K) p1V
m=
(1225 – 350)(K) RT
or DH = 522.63 kJ (350 KPa) ¥ (0.2 m3 )
(iv) Change in entropy = = 0.818 kg
(0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (288 K)
ÊT ˆ
DS = m Cv ln Á 2 ˜ The temperature of gas after 50 kJ of heat supply
ËT ¯1 Q = m Cv (T2 – T1)
Ê 1225 ˆ 50 kJ = (0.818 kg) ¥ (0.743 kJ/kg ◊ K) (T2 – 288 K)
DS = 0.5973 ¥ 0.712 ¥ ln Á
Ë 350 ˜¯ or T2 = 370.26 K = 97.26°C
= 0.5328 kJ/K Change in internal energy
DU = Q = 50 kJ (For constant volume process)
Example 4.2 A rigid tank of 0.2 m3 capacity contains
Change in entropy
nitrogen at 350 kPa and 15°C. The tank is exposed to a
constant temperature source at 170°C, which results in ÊT ˆ
DS = m Cv ln Á 2 ˜
50 kJ of heat being tranferred to nitrogen. Determine ËT ¯ 1
(a) Final state of the gas, Ê 370.28 ˆ
DS = 0.818 ¥ 0.743 ¥ ln Á = 0.153 kJ/K
(b) Change in internal energy, Ë 288 ˜¯
(c) Change in entropy, Take Cv = 743 J/kg ◊ K
for Nitrogen. Example 4.3 The usual cooking gas (mostly methane)
cylinder is about 25 cm in diameter and 80 cm in height.
Solution It is charged to 12 MPa at a room temperature of 27°C.

Given A constant temperature and constant volume (a) Assuming the ideal gas law, find the mass of gas
processes. filled in the cylinder.
106 Thermal Engineering

(b) If the cylinder is protected against the excessive (b) Properties Relationship In general, the prop-
pressure by means of a fusible plug, at what erties are related betwen two states as
temperature should the plug melt to limit the
maximum pressure of 15 MPa? p1V1 pV
= 2 2
T1 T2
Solution
But for a constant pressure process,
Given A constant-volume process in a cooking cylinder p1 = p2,
d = 25 cm = 0.25 m, L = 80 cm = 0.8 m V1 V
then = 2 ...(4.8)
State 1: p1 = 12 MPa = 12000 kPa, T1 T2
T1 = 27°C + 273 = 300 K
State 2: p2 = 15 MPa = 15000 kPa Ú
(c) Work Done The pdV work done during the
process can be evaluated from an area under the
To find curve on a p–V diagram or can be calculated as
(i) Initial mass of gas in the cylinder, and
2
(ii) Final temperature. W= Ú
1
pdV = p (V2 - V1 ) (kJ) ...(4.9)
Analysis The molecular mass of methane
where p is expressed in kPa (kN/m2), and V is ex-
MCH4 = MC + 2 MH2
pressed in m3.
= 12 + 2 ¥ 2 = 16 kg/kmol
Specific gas constant of methane (d) p-V and T-S Diagrams A constant–pressure
Ru 8.314 process is a horizontal straight line on a p–V plane
R = = = 0.5196 kJ/kg ◊ K and an inclined curve on a T–S plane as shown in
MCH 4 16
Fig 4.2.
The volume of gas cylinder
p 2 p
d L = ¥ (0.25) ¥ 0.8 = 0.0393 m3
2
V =
4 4
Using characteristic gas equation to calculate mass of gas
p1V
m =
RT
(12000 KPa) ¥ (0.0393 m3 )
= = 3.02 kg
(0.5196 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (300 K)
The final temperature of gas, when the pressure
approaches 15000 kPa,
Êp ˆ Ê 15000 ˆ
T2 = T1 Á 2 ˜ = 300 ¥ Á
Ë p ¯
1 Ë 12000 ˜¯
= 375 K or 102°C

(a) If any system of gas undergoes a

process in such a way that during the process, the
pressure of the gas remains constant then such pro-
Fig. 4.2
cess is called a constant pressure or isobaric pro-
diagrams
cess.
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 107

(e) Change of Internal Energy For any process, it P = 10.04 W g = 1.4

is calculated as p = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa To = O°C = 273 K
DU = m Cv (T2 – T1) (kJ) To find
(i) Specific heat at constant pressure Cp,
(f ) Heat Transferred For a constant-pressure
(ii) Specific gas constant R, and
process, the heat transferred can be obtained as
(ii) Density of air at 0°C and 0.1 MPa.
2
Q= m Ú1
C p dT = m C p (T2 - T1 ) (kJ) ...(4.10) Assumptions
and for a unit mass system (i) Air as an ideal gas, and
(ii) Process is reversible.
q = Cp (T2 – T1) (kJ/kg) ...(4.11)
Analysis
where Cp must be expressed in kJ/kg ◊ K or
(i) The amount of heat supplied during the process
kJ/kg ◊ °C and (T2 – T1) as temperature difference
in °C or K. Q = P Dt = 10.04 ¥ 300 = 3012 J
Further the heat transferred during a constant
(g) Change in Enthalpy For any process, it is cal- pressure process is also expressed as
culated as Q = m Cp (T2 – T1)
DH = m Cp (T2 – T1) (kJ) Q
and Dh = Cp (T2 – T1) (kJ/kg) Cp =
m(T2 - T1 )
Thus for a non-flow constant pressure process, (3012 J)
the change in enthalpy is always equal to the heat =
(0.05 kg) ¥ (347 – 287)(K)
transferred during the process. = 1004 J/kg ◊ K
(h) Change in Entropy It is calculated as (ii) The specific gas constant R
Cp
2 dQ 2 dT We have g=
DS = Ú1 T
= Ú1
mCp
T
Cv
Cp 1004
ÊT ˆ or Cv = = = 717 J/kg ◊ K
= mC p ln Á 2 ˜ (kJ/K) ...(4.12) g 1.4
Ë T1 ¯ The gas constant
The temperature T must be expressed in R = Cp – Cv
K (kelvin). = 1004 – 717 = 287 J/kg ◊ K
or R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
Example 4.4 In an experimental determination of (iii) Density of air at 0°C and 100 kPa
specific heat of air at constant pressure, 50 g of air at From the characteristic equation for an ideal gas
constant pressure was heated from 14°C to 74°C during pv = RT
a period of 300 seconds by a continuous electrical p
or = RT
heating method, The power consumed was 10.04 watts. r
Determine p (100 ¥ 103 N/m2 )
(a) Specific heat of air at constant pressure, or r= =
RT (287 J/kg ◊ K) ¥ (273 K)
(b) Characteristic gas constant R for air,
= 1.276 kg/m3
(c) The density of air at 0°C and 0.1 MPa.
Take Y = 1.4 for air. Example 4.5 1 kg of nitrogen at a temperature of
Given A constant-pressure process 150°C occupies a volume of 0.2 m3. The gas undergoes
a fully restricted constant-pressure expansion without
m = 50 g = 0.05 kg T1 = 14°C + 273 = 287 K friction to a final volume of 0.36 m3. Calculate the final
Dt = 300 s T2 = 74°C + 273 = 347 K temperature, work done, heat transferred and change in
entropy.Take Cv = 743 J/kg K, R = 0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K.
108 Thermal Engineering

Solution (ii) Work done

For a constant-pressure process, the work done
Given A constant-pressure expansion process of nitro-
can easily be calculated as area under the curve
gen is shown in Fig. 4.3.
1–2 and it is
m = 1 kg Cv = 743 J/kg K R = 0.297 kJ/kg K
W1–2 = p(V2 – V1)
State 1: T1 = 150°C + 273 = 423 K, V1 = 0.2 m3 Using numerical values
State 2: V2 = 0.36 m3 W1–2 = (624.15 kJ) ¥ (0.36 – 0.2) (m3)
= 100.5 kJ
To find (iii) Heat transferred Q1–2
(i) Final temperature T2, It is calculated as
(ii) Work done,
Q1–2 = m Cp (T2 – T1)
(ii) Heat transferred,
Then Q1–2 = (1 kg) ¥ (1.04 kJ/kg K) ¥ (761.4 K
(iv) Change in entropy.
– 423 K)
p
= 352 kJ
T (iv) Change of entropy
2
1 p=C ÊT ˆ
p 2 DS1–2 = mCp ln Á 2 ˜
ËT ¯1
Ê 761.4 ˆ
= (1 kg) ¥ (1.04 kJ/kg K) ¥ ln Á
1 Ë 423 ˜¯
= 0.611 kJ/K
V
V1 V2 S

(a) p–V diagram (b) T–S diagram 4.1.3

Fig. 4.3
(a) If a system undergoes a process in
Analysis From the characteristic gas equation such a way that during the process, the temperature
m RT1 of the system remains constant, such a process is
p1 =
V1 called an isothermal process or constant tempera-
(1 kg) ¥ (0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (423 K) ture process.
=
(0.2 m3 ) (b) Relation between p, V and T The property re-
= 624.15 kPa
lation
The specific heat at constant pressure can be calcu- p1V1 pV
= 2 2
lated as T1 T2
C p = R + Cv for a constant temperature process (T1 = T2) the
= (0.297 kJ/kg K) + (0.743 kJ/kg K) relation is reduced to
= 1.04 kJ/kg K
p1V1 = p2V2
(i) Final temperature T2
The properties relationship for constant pressure or pV = C (constant) ...(4.13)
process, It is the equation of a hyperbola, and hence
V1 V an isothermal process is also called a hyperbolic
= 2
T1 T2 process.
V 0.36 (c) p–V Diagram An isothermal process is rep-
or T2 = 2 ¥ T1 = ¥ ( 423 K)
V1 0.2 resented on a p–V and T–S diagrams as shown in
= 761.4 K = 484.4°C Fig. 4.4.
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 109

(e) Change of Internal Energy For any system,

DU1–2 = m Cv (T2 – T1)
But T1 = T2 (for isothermal process)
Hence DU = 0
According to the first law of
( f) Heat Transferred
thermodynamics for any process,
2
Q= Ú
1
TdS = T (S2 – S1) ...(4.17)
or Q = DU + W
Here DU = 0
Ê V2 ˆ
Hence Q1–2 = W1–2 = p1V1 ln Á ˜
Ë V1 ¯
Ê p1 ˆ
= m RT ln Á ˜ ...(4.18)
Ë p2 ¯
During an isothermal process, the heat transfer
is equal to work transfer.
(g) Change in Enthalpy For any process, it is
Fig. 4.4
process. calculated as
Dh = Cp (T2 – T1)
(d) Work Done The work done during a process
But T1 = T2
is expressed as
2 Thus Dh = DH = 0
W1–2 = Ú1
pdV
(h) Change in Entropy It is calculated as
For an isothermal process, 2 dQ 2 dW 2 pdV
pV = C DS = Ú
1 T 1 T
= Ú
1
= Ú T
C p mR
\ p= But = from p V = m RT
V T V
2C V2 dV
Then W1–2 =
1 VÚ dV = C ÚV1 V Then DS =
1
2
Ú mR
dV
V
Ê V2 ˆ
= m R ln Á ˜ ...(4.19)
Ë V1 ¯
ÊV ˆ Ê p1 ˆ
= C ln Á 2 ˜ or = m R ln Á ˜ ...(4.20)
Ë V1 ¯ Ë p2 ¯
Using C = p1V1
Ê V2 ˆ A mass of 0.8 kg of air at 1 bar and 25°C
we get W1–2 = p1V1 ln Á ˜ ...(4.14)
ËV ¯ is contained in a gas-tight frictionless piston–cylinder
Further, p1V1 = m R T1 1
device. The air is now compressed to a final pressure of
ÊV ˆ
Then W1–2 = m R T1 ln Á 2 ˜ ...(4.15) 5 bar. During the process, the heat is transferred from
Ë V1 ¯ air such that the temperature inside the cylinder remains
From properties relation, we have constant. Calculate the heat transferred and work done
V2 v2 p1 during the process and direction of each in the process.
= =
V1 v1 p2
Solution
Ê p ˆ
Then W1–2 = m R T1 ln Á 1 ˜ ...(4.16) Given Constant temperature process
Ë p2 ¯ m = 0.8 kg,
110 Thermal Engineering

State 1: T1 = 25°C + 273 = 298 K, Solution

p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa,
Given Constant temperature and constant pressure
State 2: p2 = 5 bar = 500 kPa; T2 = T1
processses.
To find Heat transfer and work transfer
State 1: p1 = 60 kPa V1 = 0.1 m3, T1 = 800 K,
State 2: T2 = T1 V2 = 0.5 V1, V2 = 0.05 m3
State 3: p2 = p3 V3 = 0.5 V2, V3 = 0.025 m3
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K.
To find
(i) Total work transfer, and
(ii) Total heat transfer.
p– Assumption
Gas constant for air R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K.
Assumptions
Analysis The isothermal and isobaric processes on p–V
(i) Air as perfect gas,
plane are shown in Fig.4.6.
(ii) Gas constant for air
R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K, and
(iii) The specific heat at constant volume
Cv = 0.7165 kJ/kg ◊ K

Analysis For isothermal compression process, the

work done is given by Eq.(4.16).
Ê p ˆ
W1–2 = m RT1 ln Á 1 ˜
Ë p2 ¯

= 0.8 ¥ 0.287 ¥ 298 ¥ ln ÊÁ

100 ˆ
Ë 500 ¯˜
= – 110.12 kJ
Fig. 4.6
It is the work supplied to the system during compression processes
process.
For isothermal process, the heat transfer From the characteristic gas equation,

Q1–2 = W1–2 = – 110.12 k J p1V1 (60 kPa) ¥ (0.1 m3 )

m= = = 0.0261 kg
The heat is rejected from the system during compression RT1 (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (800 K)
process. (i) For isothermal compression process 1-2,
V1 0.1
Example 4.7 Air initially at 60 kPa pressure, 800 K p2 = p1 = (60 kPa) ¥ = 120 kPa
V2 0.05
temperature and 0.1 m3 volume is compressed isother-
Work transfer is given by Eq. (4.14)
mally until the volume is halved, and subsequently the
air is cooled at contant pressure till the volume is halved Ê V2 ˆ
W1–2 = p1V1 ln
ÁË V ˜¯
again. Sketch the process on a p–V plane and determine 1
Ê 0.05 ˆ
(a) total work interaction, and = (60 kPa) ¥ (0.1 m3) ¥ ln Á
Ë 0.1 ˜¯
(b) total heat interaction.
= –4.158 kJ
Assume ideal-gas behaviour for air and take Cp = For isothermal process, the heat transfer
1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K.
Q1–2 = W1–2 = – 4.158 kJ
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 111

(ii) For constant-pressure process 2–3,

V 0.025
T3 = T2 3 = (800 K) ¥ = 400 K
V2 0.05
Work transferred during constant-pressure pro-
cess is given by Eq. (4.9)
W2–3 = p2 (V3 – V2) = (120 kPa)
¥ (0.025 – 0.05) = – 3 kJ
Heat transferred during constant-pressure process
2–3,
Q2–3 = m Cp (T3 – T2)
= (0.0261kg) ¥ (1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K)
¥ (400 K – 800 K) = – 10.5 kJ
(a) Total work transfer,
WTotal = W1–2 + W2–3 = – 4.153 kJ + (– 3 kJ)
= – 7.153 kJ
(b) Total heat transfer,
QTotal = Q1–2 + Q2–3 = – 4.153 kJ + (– 10.5 kJ) Fig. 4.7
= – 14.643 kJ
(iii) During constant pressure cooling process, 3–1:
Example 4.8 An ideal gas is heated at constant p3 = p1
volume until its temperature is doubled. Then it is
w3–1 = p3 (v1 – v3) = m R (T1 – T3)
expanded isothermally till it reaches its original pressure.
Finally, the gas is cooled at constant pressure till it is = R (T1 – 2T1) = – R T1
restored to the original state. Determine the net work Net work done = w1–2 + w2–3 + w3–1
done per kg of gas. Ê p2 ˆ
= 0 + 2RT1 ln Á ˜ – R T1
Solution Ë p1 ¯

Given An ideal-gas cycle È Ê ˆ ˘

= R T1 Í2 ln p2 - 1˙
v1 = v2 T2 = 2T1 T2 = T3 p3 = p1 ÁË p ˜¯
ÍÎ 1 ˙˚
To find Net work done per kg of gas
Assumption All processes in the cycle are reversible.
Analysis
If any process of expansion or compression is
(i) During constant-volume heating process 1–2, carried out without exchange of heat between
(v1 = v2) system and surroundings, i.e., operation in an
w1–2 = 0 insulated cylinder, the process is called adiabatic
(ii) During isothermal expansion process 2–3: process. During this process, the system neither
T2 = T3 = 2T, receives nor rejects any amount of heat.
Ê v3 ˆ When an adiabatic process is reversible,
w2–3 = p2 v2 ln Á ˜
Ë v2 ¯ i.e., frictionless, etc., then this process is called
Ê p2 ˆ Ê p2 ˆ isentropic or reversible adiabatic or constant
= p2 v2 ln Á ˜ = RT2 ln Á ˜ entropy process.
Ë p3 ¯ Ë p1 ¯

Ê p2 ˆ (a) Law of an Isentropic Process For unit mass

= 2R T1 ln Á ˜ of a system, the energy equation for a non-flow
Ë p1 ¯
112 Thermal Engineering

process is expressed as T2 p2 V2
or = ...(4.24)
dq = du + dw T1 p1V1
For adiabatic process, dq = 0 For an isentropic process,
\ du + dw = 0 g
pV = C or
g
pv = C
or Cv dT + pdv = 0 ...(4.21) g g
or p1V1 = p2V2
For unit mass of an ideal gas, the characteristic g -g -g
equation p2 Ê V1 ˆ ÊV ˆ Êv ˆ
or = Á ˜ = Á 2˜ =Á 2˜ ...(4.25)
p v = RT p1 Ë V2 ¯ Ë V1 ¯ Ë v1 ¯
1
Differentiating both sides, we get -
v2 V2 Êp ˆ g
or = = Á 2˜ ...(4.26)
p dv + vdp = RdT ...(4.22) v1 V1 Ë p1 ¯
pd v + vdp Substituting Eq. (4.25) in Eq. (4.24), we get
or dT =
R -g 1-g 1-g
T2 Ê V2 ˆ Ê V2 ˆ Ê V2 ˆ Êv ˆ
Substituting for dT in Eq. (4.21), we have ÁË V ˜¯ = ÁË V ˜¯ =Á 2˜
T1 ÁË V1 ˜¯
= ...(4.27)
1 1 Ë v1 ¯
pd v + vdp
Cv + pd v = 0 Using Eq. (4.26) in Eq. (4.24), we get
R
1 g -1
or Cv pdv + Cv vdp + R pdv = 0 -
T2 Ê p ˆ Ê p ˆ g Ê p2 ˆ g
= Á 2˜ Á 2˜ =Á ˜ ...(4.28)
Using R = Cp – Cv , a relation between two specific T1 Ë p1 ¯ Ë p1 ¯ Ë p1 ¯
heats, we have
(c) p–V Diagram The p–V diagram for an isentropic
Cv p dv + Cv vdp + (Cp – Cv ) p dv = 0 process is shown in Fig 4.8.
or Cv vdp + Cp p dv = 0
Dividing both sides by p vCv , we get
dp C p d v
+ =0
p Cv v
Cp
Assuming ratio of two specific heats =g
Cv
and integrating the above equation, we get
loge p + g loge v = loge C
where loge C is the constant of integration
Taking antilog on both sides, we get
pvg = C (a constant)
It is the law of isentropic expansion or compres-
sion. For a given mass system, it is
pVg = C (constant) ...(4.23)
(b) Relation between p, V and T The thermody-
namic properties for a perfect gas are related as
p1 V1 p V
= 2 2
T1 T2 Fig. 4.8 or an isentropic
expansion process
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 113

(d) Work done During the Process The work (h) Change of Entropy For isentropic process,
done during a non-flow process is expressed as S1 = S2 ;
2
W1–2 = Ú1
pdV Thus DS = Ú
dQ
T
=0 ...(4.31)
For an isentropic process
C Example 4.9 A quantity of gas occupying 0.14 m3
pVg = C, or p = g
V at a pressure of 1400 kPa and 300°C is expanded
2 C V2 isentropically to 280 kPa. Calculate (a) mass of gas,
Then W1–2 = Ú1 V g
dV = C Ú V1
V - g dV (b) final temperature , (c) work transfer , and (d) change
in entropy.

or W1–2
È V - g +1 ˘
= CÍ ˙
V2

=
(
C V2 - g +1 - V1- g +1 ) Take Cp= 1.04 kJ/kg ◊ K and Cv = 0.74 kJ/kg ◊ K

ÍÎ -g + 1 ˙˚ V1
1- g
Solution
g g
Substituting for C as p1V1 and p2V2 Given Isentropic expansion of a gas
- g +1 - g +1 = 0.14 m3
p2 V2 V2 - p1 V1 V1 State 1: V1
W1–2 =
1- g p1 = 1400 kPa
T1 = 300°C = 573 K
We get State 2: p2 = 280 kPa,
p2V2 - p1V1 mR (T2 - T1 ) Cp = 1.04 kJ/kg ◊ K
W1–2 = = ...(4.29)
1- g 1- g Cv = 0.74 kJ/kg ◊ K
Cp
If we put R = Cp – Cv and g = , we get
Cv
R
Cv =
g -1
Using in Eq. (4.29), we get
W1–2 = – m Cv (T2 – T1) = – DU ...(4.30)
This expression explains that during an isen-
tropic expansion process, the work done is always
equal to decrease in internal energy during the pro-
cess. Fig. 4.9
(e) The Change of Internal Energy As explained
by Eq. (4.30), the change of internal energy during To find
isentropic process (i) Mass of the gas,
(ii) Final temperature,
DU1–2 = –W1–2 (adiabatic work)
(iii) Work transfer, and
or DU1–2 = m Cv (T2 – T1)
(iv) Change in entropy.
(f ) Heat Transferred During an adiabatic opera-
Assumption The given gas is a perfect gas.
tion, the heat transferred is zero, i.e., no area under
the curve on a T–S diagram. Analysis

Q1– 2 = 0 (i) For an ideal gas

p1V1 = m RT1
(g) Change in Enthalpy For any process where R = Cp – Cv = 1.04 – 0.74
D H = m Cp (T2 – T1) = 0.3 kJ/kg ◊ K
114 Thermal Engineering

Using values, we get 1

Multiplying both sides by , we get
p1V1 1400 ¥ 0.14 bv p
m= = =1.14 kg
RT1 0.3 ¥ 573 1 + b d v dp
+ =0
(ii) Final temperature b v p
For an isentropic process Integrating both sides
g -1
T2 Ê p2 ˆ g Ê1+ bˆ
= Á ˜ ÁË b ˜¯ ln (v) + ln (p) = ln (C)
T1 Ë p1 ¯
Cp Taking antilog
1.04
where g= = = 1.405 Ê 1+ b ˆ
Cv 0.74 ÁË b ˜¯ =C
1.405 -1 pv
Ê 280 ˆ 1.405 1+ b
then T2 = 573 ¥ Á
Ë 1400 ˜¯ Using g=
b
= 360 K = 87 °C then pvg = C Proved
(iii) Work transfer
For an isentropic process Example 4.11 1 kg of gas occupying 0.15 m3 at a
pressure of 12 bar is heated at constant pressure until its
p2V2 - p1V1 mR (T2 - T1 ) volume is 0.28 m3. The gas is then expanded adiabatically
W= =
1- g 1- g until its volume is 1.5 m3. Calculate
1.14 ¥ 0.3 ¥ (360 - 573) (a) Temperature at the end of constant-pressure
= = 180 kJ
1 - 1.405 heating and at the end of adiabatic expansion.
(b) Total work done
(iv) Change in entropy
Take Cp = 1.068 kJ/kg ◊ K and Cv= 0.775 kJ/kg ◊ K
For an isentropic process S1 = S2
Thus DS = 0 Solution

Example 4.10 The following equation, which con- Given A gas undergoes constant pressure and adiabatic
nects u, p and v for several gases is processes.
u = a + bpv m = 1 kg, Cp = 1.068 kJ/kg ◊ K
where a and b are constants. Prove that for a reverseble Cv = 0.775 kJ/kg ◊ K
adiabatic process State 1: p1 = 12 bar = 1200 kPa V1 = 0.15 m3
b+1 State 2: V2 = 0.28 m3 p2 = p1
p vg = constant, where g =
b State 3: V3 = 1.5 m3 s1 = s2
Solution For a reversible adiabatic process
Q =0
For a process of unit mass system
dq = du + pd v
or 0 = du + p d v ...(i)
We have u = a + bpv
Differentiating both sides,
du = b vdp + b p d v
Using in Eq. (i);
0 = b vdp + b p dv + p d v
or p (1 + b) d v + b v dp = 0
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 115

To find g = 1.4 p2 = 0.4 MPa = 400 kPa

s1 = s2 p2 = p3
(i) Temperature after constant pressure heating,
(ii) Temperature afer adiabatic expansion, and To find
(iii) Total work done. (i) Work done,
Analysis For an ideal gas (ii) Heat transfer, and
(iii) Change in entropy.
R = Cp – Cv = 1.068 – 0.775 = 0.293 kJ/kg ◊ K
and p1V1 = m RT1 Assumptions
p1V1 1200 ¥ 0.15 (i) The system is non-flow, and
Then T1 = = = 614 K = 341°C (ii) Air is a perfect gas.
mR 1 ¥ 0.293
(i) Temperature after constant pressure heating p
p=C
V 614 ¥ 0.28 0.4 MPa
2 3
T2 = T1 2 =
V1 0.15 g
pV = C
= 1146 K = 873°C
Work done W1–2 = p1(V2 – V1)
= 1200 ¥ (0.28 – 0.15) = 156 kJ 80 kPa 1

(ii) During adiabatic expansion V

V2 V1
Cp 1.068
g= = = 1.38 p–V diagram
Cv 0.775
T
Temperatures and volumes are related as
1- g 1-1.38 3
T3 Ê V3 ˆ Ê 1.5 ˆ
=Á p=C
T2
= Á ˜
Ë V2 ¯ Ë 0.28 ¯˜ = 0.525
2

or T3 = 1146 ¥ 0.525 = 601.65 K = 328.65°C V=C

m R (T3 - T2 ) 1
Work done W2–3 = S
1- g T–s diagram
1 ¥ 0.293 ¥ (601.65 - 1146) Fig. 4.11 – –
W =
1 - 1.38
= 419.72 kJ Analysis
(iii) Total work transfer (i) Work transfer
Wtotal = W1–2 + W2–3 = 156 + 419.72 = 575.72 kJ The temperature after isentropic compression1–2;
g –1 1.4 – 1
Example 4.12 0.5 kg of air is compressed reversibly Ê p2 ˆ g Ê 400 ˆ 1.4
= 333 ¥ Á
Ë 80 ˜¯
T2 = T1 Á ˜
and adiabatically from 80 kPa and 60°C to 0.4 MPa and Ë p1 ¯
is then expanded at constant pressure to the original = 527.41 K
volume. Sketch the process on p-V and T-S diagrams, For constant-pressure process 2–3;
compute work transfer, heat transfer and change in
T3 V3
entropy for whole path. =
T2 V2
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K and g = 1.4
But V3 = V 1
Solution 1 1
T3 V1 Ê p2 ˆ g Ê 400 ˆ 1.4
= = Á ˜ = ÁË
80 ˜¯
Given Reversible adiabatic and constant pressure Hence, = 3.157
T2 V2 Ë p1 ¯
processes;
m = 0.5 kg p1 = 80 kPa. or T3 = T2 ¥ 3.157 = 527.41 ¥ 3.157
R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K T1 = 60°C + 273 = 333 K = 1665.0 K
116 Thermal Engineering

The work done in reversible adiabatic process Polytropic Process

( p2 V2 - p1V1 ) = m R (T2 - T1 ) The most commonly used functional relationship
W1–2 =
(1 - g ) (1 - g ) for many processes can be approximated by an
0.5 ¥ 0.287 ¥ (527.41 - 333)
equation as
or W1–2 =
1 - 1.4 p1V1n = p2V2n = pV n = C ...(4.32)
27.89 where the exponent n is constant and it is referred
= = – 69.744 kJ as the polytropic index. The process in the form of
- 0.4
p V n = C is designated as polytropic process.
The work done during constant-pressure expan-
sion (a) Determination of Polytropic Index n If a
W2–3 = p2 (V3 – V2) = m R (T3 – T2) polytropic process is taking place from an initial
= 0.5 ¥ 0.287 ¥ (1665.0 – 527.41) state p1, V1 to a final state p2, V2, then
= 163.24 kJ p1V1n = p2V2n
Total work transfer, Taking logarithms on both sides, we get
Wtotal = W1–2 + W2–3
ln p1 + n ln V1 = ln p2 + n ln V2
= – 69.744 + 163.24 = 93.5 kJ
or n (ln V1 – ln V2) = ln p2 – ln p1

( )
(ii) Heat transfer
(a) During isentropic compression process ln p2 p
1

( )
Q1–2 = 0 or n= ...(4.33)
ln V1
(b) During constant-pressure expansion V2
Q2–3 = m Cp (T3 – T2)
(b) p, V, T Relationship If the adiabatic index g is
= (0.5 ¥ 1.005) ¥ (1665 – 527.41)
replaced by polytropic index n in equations (4.25),
= 571.44 kJ
(4.26), (4.27) and (4.28), we get
Total heat transfer,
n -n -n
QTotal = Q1–2 + Q2–3 p2 ÊV ˆ ÊV ˆ Êv ˆ
= Á 1˜ = Á 2˜ =Á 2˜ ...(4.34)
= 0 + 571.44 = 571.44 kJ p1 Ë V2 ¯ Ë V1 ¯ Ë v1 ¯
(iii) Change in entropy -
1
v2 V2 Êp ˆ n
(a) During isentropic expansion, = = Á 2˜ ...(4.35)
v1 V1 Ë p1 ¯
DS1–2 = 0
-n
(b) During constant-pressure expansion, T2 ÊV ˆ Ê V2 ˆ
\ = Á 2˜ ÁË V ˜¯
dQ ÊT ˆ T1 Ë V1 ¯
DS2–3 = ÚT = mC p ln Á 3 ˜
Ë T2 ¯ 1- n
1
1- n
ÊV ˆ Êv ˆ
= Á 2˜ =Á 2˜ ...(4.36)
= 0.5 ¥ 1.005 ¥ ln ÊÁ
1665 ˆ
Ë V1 ¯ Ë v1 ¯
Ë 527.41¯˜
1 n -1
= 0.578 kJ/K -
T2 Ê p2 ˆ Ê p2 ˆ n Êp ˆ n
The total entropy change, and = Á ˜ Á ˜ =Á 2˜ ...(4.37)
T1 Ë p1 ¯ Ë p1 ¯ Ë p1 ¯
DSTotal = DS1–2 + DS2–3 = 0 + 0.578
= 0.578 kJ/K The polytropic relation p V n = C represents the
most convenient curve fitting to actual experimen-
tal data between p and V with the value of the index
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 117

‘n’ for the process. Each of the four processes dis- help of Eq. (4.37),
cussed earlier can also be represented by polytropic n -1 1
1-
process as T2 Êp ˆ n Êp ˆ
= Á 2˜ =Á 2˜
T1 Ë p1 ¯ Ë p1 ¯
1
1 -
Ê p2 ˆ Ê p2 ˆ
= ÁË p ˜¯ ¥ ÁË p ˜¯
1 1
1
-
1 Ê p2 ˆ
∵ =0 and ÁË p ˜¯ =1
1
T2 p2
Thus =
T1 p1
It is a relation for the constant volume
process.
All processes discussed above are illustrated
graphically on p-V and T-S diagrams in Fig. 4.12.

(c) Work Done For a non-flow process, the poly-

tropic work transfer is calculated as
2
W1–2 = Ú1
pdV
The pressure p can be expressed as
C
p = n = CV –n
V
2 V2
Hence W1–2 = Ú1
CV - n dV = C ÚV1
V - n dV
Polytropic processes on p-V and T-s diagrams
È V - n +1 - V1- n +1 ˘
(i) When n = 0, p1V1 = p2V20 0 = CÍ 2 ˙
ÍÎ -n +1 ˙˚
or p1 = p2
It is a constant-pressure process. Using C = p1V 1n = p2V2n
(ii) When n = 1, the process takes the form of p2V2 - p1V1
we get W1–2 =
isothermal or hyperbolic process; pV = C 1- n
(iii) When n = g (adiabatic index), the law of m R (T2 - T1 )
process takes the form = ...(4.38)
1- n
g
pV = C where, p2V2 = m RT2 and p1V1 = m RT1
It is an isentropic or adiabatic process. -
1
(iv) When n = then V2 Ê p2 ˆ n
Using = Á ˜
V1 Ë p1 ¯
p1 V1 = p2 V2
Ï 1-
1 ¸
where V indicates a very large volume p1V1 ÔÊ p2 ˆ n Ô
then W1–2 = Ì - 1˝ ...(4.39)
and thus can be treated as constant,volume 1 - n ÔÓÁË p1 ˜¯ Ô˛
process. It can also be illustrated with the
118 Thermal Engineering

(d) Change in Internal Energy For any process, (g) Change of Entropy For unit mass, the heat
DU = mCv (T2 – T1) transfer
dq = Cn dT
(e) Change in Enthalpy It is calculated as
Then change of entropy between two states
DH = mCp (T2 – T1)
2 dq T2 dT
(f ) According to the first law of Ds1–2 = Ú1 T
= Ú
T1
Cn
T
thermodynamics,
ÊT ˆ
Q = DU + W = Cn ln Á 2 ˜ (kJ/kg ◊ K) ...(4.44)
Ë T1 ¯
m R (T2 - T1 )
= mCv (T2 – T1) + For a given mass system
1- n
Ï R ¸ Ê T2 ˆ
= m (T2 – T1) ÌCv + ˝ DS = m Cn ln Á ˜ (kJ/K) ...(4.45)
Ó 1 - n˛ Ë T1 ¯
Using R = Cp – Cv where T is expressed in kelvin (K)
we get Q = m(T2 – T1)
(
Cv - nCv + C p - Cv ) Example 4.13 The internal energy of a certain sub-
1- n stance is given by the following relation:
Ê C p - nCv ˆ
= mÁ (T2 - T1 ) u = 3.56 pv + 84
Ë 1 - n ˜¯ where u is given in kJ/kg, p in kPa, and v in m3/kg.
or Q = mCn (T2 – T1) ...(4.40) A system composed of 3 kg of this substance expands
from an initial pressure of 500 kPa and a volume of
C p - nCv 0.22 m3 to a final pressure of 100 kPa in a process in
where Cn = ...(4.41)
1- n which pressure and volume are related by p v 1.2 = con-
Cn is called polytropic specific heat. stant.
(a) If the expansion is quasi-static, find Q, DU and W
Again rearranging the above equation, we have
for the process.
Ê Cp ˆ (b) In another process, the same system expands
ÁË C - n˜¯ according to the same pressure – volume
¥ (T2 - T1 )
v
Q = m Cv relationship as in part (i), and from the same
1- n initial state to the same final state as in part (i),
Cp R but the heat transfer in this case is 30 kJ. Find the
Using = g and Cv = , we get
Cv g -1 work transfer for this process.

Q=
(g - n) ¥ m R (T2 - T1 )
Solution
(1 - n) (g - 1)
A substance with
g - n mR (T2 - T1 )
Given
= ¥ m = 3 kg,
g -1 1- n u = 3.56 pv + 84;
g -n State 1: v1 = 0.22 m3/kg
= ¥ Polytropic work transfer
g -1 ...(4.42)
p1 = 500 kPa
State 2: p2 = 100 kPa;
Rearranging, we get
Case (i) executes a polytropic process with pv1.2 =
Q=
(g - n) ¥ m R (T2 - T1 ) constant,
(n - 1) (1 - g ) Case (ii) heat transfer, Q = 30 kJ
g -n
= ¥ Adiabatic work transfer ...(4.43) To find Case (i) (a) Total change in internal energy,
n -1
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 119

p Case (ii) For a system from the same initial state to

1
500 kPa the same final state, and same pressure–volume relation-
ship, the change in internal energy will remain same,
pV
1.2
=C thus
DU = – 277.5 kJ
The total work transferred between the two states
100 kPa 2 W = Q – DU
= 30 kJ – (– 277.5 ) = 307.5 kJ
0.22 m3/kg V

Example 4.14 An internal combustion engine has a

Fig. 4.13
cylinder diameter of 15 cm and a stroke of 20 cm. The
pressure and temperature of gas at the beginning of the
(b) Total work transferred, and
compression stroke are 1 bar and 30°C, respectively.
(c) Total heat transferred.
If the clearance volume is 1.147 litres and the law of
Case (ii) Total work transferred. compression is pV1.2 = constant, determine pressure and
temperature at the end of compression. If the working
Analysis substance is air, determine the change in internal energy
Case (i) For a polytropic process, between two states of air during compression. Take Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK and
R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
p1 v11.2 = p2 v21.2
Specific volume at the state 2; Solution
1
Ê p1 ˆ 1.2 Given Compression of air
v2 = v 1 Á ˜
Ë p2 ¯ d = 15 cm = 0.15 m, L = 20 cm = 0.2 m
1 State 1: p1 = 1 bar = 100 kN/m2;
Ê 500 ˆ
3 1.2
= (0.22 m /kg) ¥ Á T1 = 30°C = 303 K
Ë 100 ˜¯
3 State 2: pV1.2 =C
= 0.841 m /kg
V2 = Vc = 1.147 lit = 1.147 ¥ 10–3 m3
Change in specific internal energy
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg ◊ K,
Du = (3.56p2 v2 + 84) – (3.56 p1 v1 + 84)
R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
= 3.56 (p2 v2 – p2 v2)
= 3.56 ¥ (100 ¥ 0.841 – 500 ¥ 0.22) = – 92.5 kJ/kg To find
(a) Total internal energy change (i) Pressure p2, and temperature T2 after compression,
and
DU = m Du = 3 ¥ (– 92.5 kJ/kg) = – 277.5 kJ
(ii) Change in internal energy of air after compression.
(b) The work transfer/kg
( p2 v2 - p1 v1 ) Assumption The compression process is quasi-static.
w=
1- n
2

=
(100 ¥ 0.841 - 500 ¥ 0.22) = 129.5 kJ/kg
p2

1 - 1.2 1.2
pV =C
Total work transferred;
W = mw
= (3 kg) ¥ (129.5 kJ/kg) = 388.5 kJ 1 bar 1
(c) Heat tranfrer Q = DU + W
= –277.5 + 388.5 = 111 kJ V
Vc V1
120 Thermal Engineering

Analysis The volume of air in the cylinder before p

2
compression. 6 bar

V1 = clearance volume + swept volume pV n = C

= Vc + (p/4) d2L
= 1.147 ¥ 10–3 + (p/4) ¥ (0.15)2 ¥ 0.2
= 4.68 ¥ 10–3 m3
1 bar 1
(i) The pressure after compression can be calculated
as
n V
Ê V1 ˆ 0.03 m3 0.12 m3
p2 = p1 Á ˜
Ë V2 ¯
Fig. 4.15
1.2
Ê 4.68 ¥ 10- 3 ˆ
= (100 kN/m2) ¥ Á
-3 ˜ Process: Polytropic process
Ë 1.147 ¥ 10 ¯
Constants: R = 0.287 kJ/kg,
= 540 kN/m2 = 5.4 bar
Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg ◊ K
And the final temperature
1- n To find
Ê V2 ˆ
T2 = T 1 ¥ Á ˜ (i) Index of compression,
Ë V1 ¯
(ii) Increase in internal energy, and
1-1.2
Ê 4.68 ¥ 10- 3 ˆ (iii) Heat transferred.
= 303 ¥ Á -3 ˜
Ë 1.147 ¥ 10 ¯ Analysis
= 401.4 K = 124.4°C (i) Considering the compression process is a quasi-
(ii) The change in internal energy static polytropic process, thus
DU = m Cv (T2 – T1) p1V1n = p2 V2n
where m = mass of air can be calculated from Index of compression,
p1V1 = m RT1
Ê p ˆ Ê 1ˆ
p1V1 (100 kPa) ¥ (4.68 ¥ 10- 3 m3 ) ln Á 1 ˜ ln Á ˜
or m= = Ë p2 ¯ Ë 6¯ -1.7917
RT1 (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (303 K) n= = =
Ê V2 ˆ Ê 0.03 ˆ -1.3863
ln Á ˜ ln Á
= 5.38 ¥ 10–3 kg Ë V1 ¯ Ë 0.12 ˜¯
Then DU = 5.38 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 0.718 ¥ (401.4 – 303) = 1.292
= 0.38 kJ (ii) Temperature after compression
1- n 1-1.292
Example 4.15 A cylinder contains 0.12 m3 of air at ÊV ˆ Ê 0.03 ˆ
T2 = T1 Á 2 ˜ = 363 ¥ Á
1 bar and 90°C. It is compressed to 0.03 m3, the final Ë V1 ¯ Ë 0.12 ¯˜
pressure being 6 bar. Find the index of compression, = 544.5 K
increase in internal energy and heat transfered. Mass of air in the cylinder
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K and Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg ◊ K
p1 V1 (100 kPa) ¥ (0.12 m3 )
m= =
Solution RT1 (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (363 K)
= 0.115 kg
Given Compression of gas in a cylinder
Change of internal energy of air during compres-
State 1: V1 = 0.12 m3
sion;
p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa
DU = m Cv (T2 – T1)
T1 = 90°C = 363 K
= 0.115 ¥ 0.717 ¥ (544.5 – 363)
State 2: V2 = 0.03 m3
= 14.99 kJ
p2 = 6 bar = 600 kPa
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 121

Work transfer
p2V2 - p1V1 600 ¥ 0.03 - 100 ¥ 0.12
W= =
1- n 1 - 1.292
= –20.548 kJ
(iii) Heat transfer during compression
Q = DU + W
Heat transferred Q = 14.99 – 20.548
= – 5.55 kJ (Rejected)

Example 4.16 In a vertical cylinder, air below a

frictionless piston occupies a volume of 0.09 m3 at a
pressure of 10 bar. The diameter of the cylinder is 0.6 m.
The mass of the piston is 90 kg. A stopper which keeps
the piston is suddenly removed. The piston moves upward
through a distance of 1.5 m.
The pressure of air above the piston is 1 bar.
The air expands according to pV1.3 = C. Neglect the
velocity of air and calculate the velocity of the piston
when it has risen 1.5 m.

Solution
Given
V1 = 0.09 m3 p1 = 10 bar = 1000 kPa
d = 0.6 m m = 90 kg
h = 1.5 m p0 = 100 kPa Fig. 4.16
n = 1.3
This work is used to increase the potential and kinetic
To find Velocity of piston as it releases.
energy of the piston and to displace atmospheric air by
Analysis The change in volume during piston displace-
1.5 m.
ment of 1.5 m
Thus W = m gh + (1/2) mV 2 + p0 (DV)
p 2 p
DV = d h = ¥ (0.6 m ) ¥ (1.5 m ) = 0.4241 m3
2
or 122.146 = 90 ¥ [(9.81) ¥ (1.5) + (1/2) ¥ (V 2 )]
4 4
+ (1 ¥ 106 Pa) ¥ 0.4241 m3
The volume after expansion
V2 = V1 + DV = 0.09 + 0.4241 = 0.5141 m3
(122.146 - 42410 - 1324.35) ¥ 2
or V2 =
90
The pressure after expansion = 1742.5 m²
n
Ê V1 ˆ 1.3
p2 = p1 ¥ Á ˜ = 1000 ¥ ÊÁ
0.09 ˆ
˜
or V= (1742.45)
Ë 2¯
V Ë 0.5141¯
= 41.74 m/s
= 103.78 kPa.
The work done by the gas during expansion Example 4.17 0.2 m3 of a mixture of fuel and air at
1.2 bar and 60°C is compressed till its pressure becomes
( p2V2 - p1V1 ) 12 bar and temperature 270°C. Then it is ignited sudden-
W1–2 =
(1 - n) ly at constant volume and its pressure becomes twice the
103.78 ¥ 0.5141 - 1000 ¥ 0.09 pressure at the end of compression. Find the maximum
= temperature reached and change in internal energy. Also,
1 - 1.3
find the heat transfer during the compression process.
= 122.146 kJ
122 Thermal Engineering

Consider the mixture as perfect gas. p

Take Cp = 1.05 kJ/kg ◊ K and g = 1.4. p3 3

Solution
12 bar 2
Given A mixture of fuel and air as a perfect gas pV n = C

State 1: p1 = 1.2 bar = 120 kPa V1 = 0.2 m3

T1 = 60°C + 273 = 333 K 1.2 bar 1
State 2: p2 = 12 bar = 1200 kPa T2 = 270°C + 273
= 543 K V
V2 = V 3 0.2 m3
p3 = 2 p2 V2 = V3
Cp = 1.05 kJ/kg ◊ K g = 1.4 Fig. 4.17
To find The maximum temperature
(i) T3, the maximum temperature, p
T3 = T2 3 = 543 ¥ 2 = 1086 = 813°C
(ii) Net change in Internal energy, DU, T2
(iii) Heat transfer during compression Q1–2. Net change in internal energy,
DU1–3 = m Cv (T3 – T1)
Analysis Since the states before and after compression
= 0.24 ¥ 0.75 ¥ (1086 – 333)
are known and the type of compression is not mentioned,
therefore, calculation of polytropic index: = 135.67 kJ/kg ◊ K
n -1 The polytropic specific heat
T2 Ê p2 ˆ n C p - nCv
= Á ˜ Cn =
T1 Ë p1 ¯ 1- n
Taking logarithms, we get
=
(1.05 - 1.27 ¥ 0.75)
= –0.36 kJ/kgK
ÊT ˆ Êp ˆ 1 - 1.27
ln Á 2 ˜ = ÊÁ1 - ˆ˜ ln 2
1
Ë T1 ¯ Ë n ¯ ÁË p1 ˜¯ Heat transfer during compression process
Q1–2 = m Cn (T2 – T1)
ln Ê p2 ˆ = (0.24 kg) ¥ (– 0.36 kJ/kg ◊ K) (543 – 333)(K)
Ë p1 ¯

( )
n= = –14.2 kJ (The heat is rejected)
ln Ê p2 ˆ - ln T2
Ë p1 ¯ T1
Example 4.18 A certain mass of air initally at a
Substituting the values in the equation, we get
pressure of 480 kPa and a temperature 190°C is expand-

n=
(
ln 1200120 ) = 1.27
ed adiabatically to a pressure of 94 kPa. It is then heated
(
ln 1200
120 ) (
- ln 543
333 ) at constant volume until it attains its initial temperature
when the pressure is found to be 150 kPa. State the type
The specific heat at constant volume of compression necessary to bring the system back to its
C p 1.05 original pressure and volume. Determine
Cv = = = 0.75 kJ/kg ◊ K
g 1.4 (a) the index of adiabatic expansion,
The characteristic gas equation (b) the work done per kg of air, and
R = Cp – Cv = 1.05 – 0.75 = 0.3 kJ/kg ◊ K (c) the change in specific entropy of air.
The mass of the gas Take R = 0.29 kJ/kg ◊ K.
pV (120 kPa) ¥ (0.2 m3 )
m= 1 1 = = 0.24 kg Solution
RT1 (0.3 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (333 K)
The property relationship for constant volume process Given Three processes constitute a cycle
2-3; State 1: p1 = 480 kPa T1 = 190°C + 273 = 463 K,
p2 p3
= s1 = s2 R = 0.29 kJ/kg ◊ K
T2 T3
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 123

State 2: p2 = 94 kPa V 2 = V3 Therefore,

State 3: T3 = T1 p3 = 150 kPa Ê p2 ˆ Ê 94 ˆ
T2 = Á ˜ T1 = Á ¥ 463 = 290.14 K
Ë p3 ¯ Ë 150 ¯˜
To find
(i) Index of adiabatic expansion, Now the adiabatic index g can easily be calculated
(ii) The work done per kg of air, and as,
g -1
(iii) Change in specific entropy. T2 Ê p2 ˆ g
= Á ˜
Assumptions T1 Ë p1 ¯
(i) The air is perfect gas, and Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
(ii) Reversible process. ÊT ˆ ÔÏÊ g - 1ˆ Ô¸ Ê p2 ˆ
ln Á 2 ˜ = ÌÁ ˜ ˝ . ln Á ˜
Ë 1¯
T ÓÔË g ¯ ˛Ô Ë p1 ¯
p
ÔÏ Ê p ˆ Ê T ˆ Ô¸
or g Ìln Á 2 ˜ - ln Á 2 ˜ ˝ = ln Ê p2 ˆ
1 Ë ¯ Ë T1 ¯ ˛Ô ÁË p ˜¯
480 kPa ÓÔ p1 1
ln ( p2 p1 )
or g =
T=C ln ( p2 p1 ) - ln (T2 T1 )
ln (94 480)
g =
150 kPa 3 ln (94 480) - ln ( 290.14 463)
g
PV = C V=C = 1.401
94 kPa 2 (ii) (a) Work done per kg of air during adiabatic
process 1–2;
V R (T2 - T1 )
p–V diagram w1-2 =
1- g
T1 0.29 ¥ ( 290.14 - 463)
w1-2 =
1 - 1.4
1 T=C
3 = 125.32 kJ/kg
(b) Work done during constant-volume process
2–3;
S=C w2–3 = 0
V=C
(c) Work done during isothermal process 3–1;
Êp ˆ
T2
2 w3-1 = R T1 ln Á 3 ˜
Ë p1 ¯
= 0.29¥ 463 ¥ ln ÊÁ
S 150 ˆ
T–s diagram Ë 480 ¯˜
= –156.17 kJ/kg
Fig. 4.18
Net work done per kg of air
Analysis wnet = 125.32 + 0 – 156.176
(i) To determine adiabatic index, the state before = –30.856 kJ
and after expansion must be defined. Therefore, (iii) (a) Change in specific entropy for isentropic
we have to consider constant-volume heating expansion process, Ds1–2 = 0
process 2-3, in order to calculate the temperature (b) Change in specific entropy during constant
at state 2. volume heating process 2–3
p3 p2
= ÊT ˆ
T3 T2 s3 – s2 = Cv ln Á 3 ˜
Ë T2 ¯
where T3 = T1
124 Thermal Engineering

R 0.29 p
where Cv = =
g - 1 1.401 - 1 750 kPa
3 2
= 0.723 kJ/kg ◊ K

Ds2–3 = 0.723 ¥ ln ÊÁ
463 ˆ
\
Ë 290.14 ˜¯ pV = C pV
1.2
=C
= 0.337 kJ/kg ◊ K
(c) Change in entropy during isothermal process
3–1 150 kPa 1

s3 – s1 = R ln Ê 3 ˆ
p
V
ÁË p ˜¯
1
T
= 0.29¥ ln ÊÁ
150 ˆ
Ë 480 ¯˜ 2

= – 0.337 kJ/kg ◊ K
p=C 1.2
Net change of entropy during cyclic process pV =C
1-2-3-1; 3
360 K 1
D scycle = 0 – 0.337 + 0.337
= 0 (since entropy is a property)
S
3 kg of air at a pressure of 150 kPa
p-V and T-s diagram
and temperature 360 K is compressed polytropically to
750 kPa according to law pV1.2=C. The gas is then cooled (i) (a) The work done during polytropic compres-
to initial temperature at constant pressure. The air is then sion process 1–2;
expanded at constant temperature till it reaches original
pressure of 150 kPa. Draw the cycle on p–V diagram and ( p2V2 - p1V1 ) = m R (T2 - T1)
W1-2 =
determine the net work and heat transfer. (1 - n) (1 - n)
Solution 3 ¥ 0.287 ¥ ( 470.75 - 360)
=
Given Three processes constitute a cycle
(1 - 1.2)
m = 3 kg air = – 476.8 kJ
State 1: p1 = 150 kPa, T1 = 360 K (b) The work done during constant pressure
cooling process 2–3;
State 2: p2 = 750 kPa pV1.2 = C
W2–3 = m R (T3 – T2)
or p1V11.2 = p2V21.2
= 3 ¥ 0.287 ¥ (360 – 470.74)
State 3: p2 = p3 = 750 kPa, T3 = T1 = 360 K
= – 95.355 kJ
To find (c) The work done during isothermal process
(i) Work transfer, and 3–1;
(ii) Heat transfer. Êp ˆ
W3–1 = m R T1 ln Á 3 ˜
Assumptions Ë p1 ¯
(i) The specific gas constant R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K Ê 750 ˆ
= 3 ¥ 0.287 ¥ 360 ¥ ln Á
(ii) The specific heat Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K Ë 150 ˜¯
(iii) The specific heat Cv = 0.7165 kJ/kg ◊ K
= 494.86 kJ
Analysis The temperature after polytropic compression Net work transfer;
n -1 1.2 -1 Wnet = W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-1
Ê p2 ˆ n Ê 750 ˆ 1.2
= – 476.8 + (–95.355) + 494.86
= 360 ¥ Á
Ë 150 ˜¯
T 2 = T1 Á ˜
Ë p1 ¯ = –73.5 kJ
= 470.75 K
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 125

(ii) (a) Heat transfer during polytropic compression

g -n
Q1-2 = ¥ Polytropic work done
g -1

=
(1.4 - 1.2)¥ (– 476.8)
1.4 - 1
= – 234.4 kJ
(b) Heat transfer during constant pressure
cooling
Q2–3 = m Cp (T3 – T2)
= 3 ¥ 1.005 ¥ (360 – 470.75)
= –334 kJ Using p1, p2, V1 and V2 to obtain constants a and C,
(c) Heat transfer during isothermal expansion Assuming pi = aVi + C
= work done during the process then 420 = a ¥ 0.004 + C ...(i)
Q3–1 = W3–1 = 494.86 kJ and 140 = a ¥ 0.02 + C ...(ii)
Net heat transfer Solving these equations, we get
Q net = Q1–2 + Q2–3 + Q3–1 a = –17500 kPa/m3
= –234.4 – 334 + 494.86 and C = 490 kPa
= –73.5 kJ Therefore, for linear law, the pressure is expressed as
for a cycle Q net = Wnet = – 73.5 kJ p = (–17500 V + 490) kPa
The work transfer during the process
Example 4.20 1 kg of gas expands reversibly 2 2
according to linear law from 4.2 bar to 1.4 bar. The
initial and final volumes are 0.004 m3 and 0.02 m3,
W1–2 =
Ú1
pdV =
Ú
1
(-17500V + 490) dV
0.02
respectively. The gas is then cooled at constant pressure È V2 ˘
= Í-17500 ¥ + 490V ˙
and finally compressed isothermally back to its initial ÍÎ 2 ˙˚0.004
state of 4.2 bar and 0.004 m3. Calculate the work done
in each process stating its direction. Sketch the cycle on 17500
= - ¥ [0.022 – 0.0042]
a p–V diagram. 2
+ 490 ¥ [0.02 – 0.004]
= –3.36 + 7.84 = 4.48 kJ
Solution
The quantity W1–2 is positive and hence, it is the work
Given Expansion, cooling and compression of gas done by the system.
m = 1 kg Volume after constant-pressure cooling process 3–1
State 1: p1 = 4.2 bar = 420 kPa, V1 = 0.004 m3 p1V1 p1V1 420 ¥ 0.004
State 2: p2 = 1.4 bar = 140 kPa, V2 = 0.02 m3 V3 = = =
p3 p2 140
State 3: p3 = p2 = 140 kPa, and p3V3 or p2V3 = p1V1
= 0.012 m3
To find The work transfer during constant pressure cooling
(i) Sketch of processes on a p–V diagram, process, p2 = p3,
(ii) Work transfer during each process. W2–3 = p2(V3 – V2)
Then W2–3 = (140 kPa) ¥ (0.012 – 0.02) m3
Assumptions
= – 1.12 kJ
(i) The gas is an ideal gas, and
It is negative, thus work is done on the system.
(ii) Each process is a reversible process.
Work transfer during an isothermal process,
Analysis The initial process is proceeded linearly and ÊV ˆ
W3–1 = p1V1 ln 1
its law may be ÁË V ˜¯
3
p = aV + C
126 Thermal Engineering

Work done per kg in isothermal compression

= 420 ¥ 0.004 ¥ ln ÊÁ
0.004 ˆ
Ë 0.012 ˜¯ Êv ˆ Êv ˆ
w1-2 = p1v1 ln Á 2 ˜ = RT1 ln Á 2 ˜
= – 1.845 kJ Ë v1 ¯ Ë v1 ¯
It is also negative thus; work done on the system is w1-2 = 0.5 ¥ 300 ¥ ln(1/8) = –312 kJ/kg
isothermal compression work. pv
Now p2 = 1 1 = 1 ¥ 8 = 8 bar
v2
Example 4.21 A perfect gas undergoes a cycle The maximum pressure in the cycle,
comprises of three processes. It is first compressed p2 = p3 = 8 bar
isothermally from 1 bar and 27°C to one-eighth of its Now considering process 3-1
initial volume. The energy is then added at constant g -1
pressure, increasing the temperature of gas and the T3 Ê p3 ˆ g
cycle is completed by isentropic expansion to original = Á ˜
T1 Ë p1 ¯
conditions. Take Cp = 1.25 kJ/kg ◊ K and R = 0.5 kJ/kg ◊ K.
g -1 g -1
Calculate the maximum cycle temperature and pressure. Ê p2 ˆ
Êp ˆ g g
Also, find the net work transfer per kg. and T3 = T1 Á 3 ˜ = T1 Á ˜
Ë p1 ¯ Ë p1 ¯
Solution The maximum temperature
1.667 -1
Given A perfect gas undergoes a cyclic process ; Ê 8 ˆ 1.667
T3 = 300 ¥ Á ˜
Ë 1¯
State 1: p1 = 1 bar T1 = 27°C + 273
= 100 kPa, = 300 K = 689.4 K = 416.4°C
State 2: T2 = T1, v2 = (1/8) v1 Work done per kg during constant pressure process
State 3: p 3 = p2 s3 = s1 w2–3 = p2(v3 – v2) = R(T3 – T2) = R(T3 – T1)
= 0.5 ¥ (689.4 – 300) = 194.6 kJ/kg
R = 0.5 kJ/kg ◊ K Cp = 1.25 kJ/kg ◊ K
Work done per kg during isentropic expansion
To find
R (T1 - T3 ) 0.5 ¥ (300 - 689.4)
(i) Maximum pressure and temperature in the cycle, w3-1 = =
1- g 1 - 1.667
and
(ii) Net work transfer in the cycle. = 291.75 kJ/kg
Net work transfer in the cycle
Analysis The specific heat at constant volume wnet = –312 + 194.6 + 291.75 = 174.35 kJ/kg
Cv = Cp – R
= 1.25 – 0.5 = 0.75 kJ/kg ◊ K Example 4.22 A system expands from the state 1 (p1,
Ratio of two specific heats V1, T1) to the state 2 (p2, V2, T2) in a reversible non-flow
process as defined below:
Cp 1.25
g = = = 1.667 (a) pV n = C
Cv 0.75
(b) A constant-pressure process followed by a
P
constant-volume process.
2 (c) A constant-volume process followed by a
3
constant-pressure process.
Show these processes on a p–V diagram and find the
pv = C g ratio of work done in these processes, if p1 : p2 = 5 : 2
pv = C
and V2 : V1 = 2 : 1 and n = 1.4.

1 Solution Processes are shown on a p–V diagram

v
Path 1. Process 1–a –2 process pVn = C
Fig. 4.21
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 127

Path 2. Process 1– b –2 constant-pressure process Process 2: 940 kJ/kg of heat is added to air to constant
followed by constant-volume process. volume.
Path 3. Process 1– c – 2 constant-volume process followd Process 3: Process 2 is followed by a reversible adia-
by constant-pressure process. batic expansion up to initial volume.
Process 4: Finally, heat is rejected at constant volume
p so as to reach the initial condition.
Path-2
1 Draw the four processes on a p V diagram.
b

Path-1
Determine the maximum temperature, net work done and
Path 3 a heat rejected per kg of air. Assume adiabatic index of
compression and expansion of 1.4 and constant-volume
specific heat as 0.717 kJ/kg ◊ K.
2
c
V Solution
Fig. 4.22 Given Air undergoes four processes in a cyclic process.
Process 1–2: Reversible adiabatic
Work done during path 1, polytropic process
p1 = 100 kPa
( p2V2 - p1V1 ) T1 = 50°C = 323 K
W1 =
(1 - n) v2 = 0.2v1
Work done during path 2, Process 2–3: Constant volume heat addition
W2 = p1(V2 – V1) + 0 q2 3 = 940 kJ/kg
Work done during path 3, Process 3–4: Reversible adiabatic expansion and
W3 = 0 + p2 (V2 – V1) v4 = v1
p2 2 V2 2 Process 4–1: Constant volume heat rejection to
Put = and =
p1 5 V1 1 approach initial state:
Constants: g = 1.4, Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg ◊ K
W1 È { p V - p V } (1 - n) ˘
2 2 1 1
= Í ˙ To find
W2 ÍÎ ÈÎ p1 (V2 - V1 )˘˚ ˙˚
(i) To draw a p–V diagram,
È p1V1 {1 - p2V2 / p1V1}˘˚
= Î
{
1 - ( 2 / 5) ¥ 2 } (ii) Maximum temperature T3 in the cycle,

{( ) }
= (iii) Net work done per kg of the cycle, and
0.4 ¥ ( 2 - 1)
(n - 1) p1V1 V2 V1 - 1 (iv) Heat rejected per kg of air.
Analysis
5
= 0.5 = (i) The p–V diagram is shown in Fig. 4.23.
10

Now
W2
=
{
p1 (V2 - V1 ) 5 10
= =
}
W3 {
p2 (V2 - V1 ) 2 4 }
Therefore W1 : W2 : W3 = 5 : 10 : 4

Example 4.23
Process 1: Air initially at 100 kPa and 50°C undergoes
reversible adiabatic comprerssion such that
its volume is reduced to one-fifth of its initial
volume.
Fig. 4.23
128 Thermal Engineering

The specific gas constant for air 0.287 ¥ (1011.68 - 1925.9)

=
R = Cv (g 1) = 0.717 ¥ (1.4 1) 1 - 1.4
= 0.287 kJ/kg . K = 655.95 kJ/kg
(ii) Maximum temperature in the cycle. Net work done per kg in the cycle
(a) Temperature after adiabatic compression wnet = 209.42 kJ/kg + 655.95 kJ/kg
1-g 1 -1.4
Ê v2 ˆ Ê 1ˆ = 446.53 kJ/kg
T2 = T1 Á ˜ = 323 ¥ Á ˜
Ë v1 ¯ Ë 5¯ (iv) Heat rejection per kg of air during the process
4 1
= 614.88 K
q4–1 = Cv (T1 T4)
(b) Temperature after constant volume heat
= 0.717 ¥ (323 1011.68)
addition
q2 3 = Cv (T3 T2) = 493.78 kJ/kg
or 940 = 0.717 ¥ (T3 614.88) ( ∵ q1–2 = 0 and q3–4 = 0 adiabatic processes)
940 Heat rejection can also be obtained.
or T3 = + 614.88 Sw = Sq
0.717
fi q4 –1 + 940 = 446.53
= 1925.9 K
or q4 –1 = 493 kJ/kg
Max. temperature, T3 = 1925.9 K or 1652.9°C
Temperature T4 can be obtained as Example 4.24 A non-flow system executes four dif-
1- g 1- g ferent thermodynamics processes in sequence continu-
T4 Êv ˆ Êv ˆ
= Á 4˜ =Á 1˜ ously as followed:
T3 Ë v3 ¯ Ë v2 ¯
1–2: Adiabatic compression,
1- g
Ê v1 ˆ 1 -1.4 2–3: Isobaric heat addition,
or T4 = T3 Á ˜ = 1925.9 ¥ (5)
Ëv ¯ 2 3–4: Adiabatic expansion, and
= 1011.68 K 4–1: Constant volume heat rejection
(iii) Net work done per kg of air in the cycle; The temperature at four silient points 1, 2, 3 and 4
are respectivley 300 K, 700 K, 1500 K, and 600 K. The
wnet = Sw
working substance is 1 kg mass of air, for which
= w1–2 + w2–3 + w3–4 + w4–1
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg ◊ K
But for constant-volume process
Determine the following for each process:
w2–3 = 0 and w4 –1 = 0
\ wnet = w1–2 + w3–4 (a) Heat transfer,
(b) Work transfer,
Calculating w1 2 and w3 4 separately;
(c) Change in internal energy Also, find
(a) Compression work per kg during the process
(d) Net work and heat transfer for the cycle, and
1 2:
(e) Change in internal energy for the cycle.
R (T2 - T1 )
w1–2 = Comment on results (d) and (e).
1- g
0.287 ¥ (614.88 - 323) Solution
=
1 - 1.4 Given Four different processes are in sequence, ex-
= 209.42 kJ/kg ecuted by a non-flow system of air.
(b) Expansion work per kg, duirng the process m = 1 kg, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K,
3–4: Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg ◊ K T1 = 300 K,
R(T4 - T3 )
w3–4 = T2 = 700 K, T3 = 1500 K,
1- g
and T4 = 600 K
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 129

To find 1 ¥ 0.287 ¥ (700 - 300)

=
(i) For each process, 1 - 1.4
(a) Heat transfer, = 287 kJ
(b) Work transfer, and (c) Change in internal energy:
(c) Change in internal energy. DU = mCv (T2 T1)
(ii) For cyclic process with comments: = 1¥ 0.718 ¥ (700 300) = 287 kJ
(a) Net work transfer, and ∵ Q1 2 = 0 \ DU = W1–2
(b) Net heat transfer. 2. Process 2–3: Isobaric heat addition
T2 = 700 K, and T3 = 1500 K, p = Const.
(a) Heat transferred,
Q2–3 = m Cp (T3 T2)
= 1 ¥ 1.005 (1500 700) = 804 kJ
(b) Work transferred,
W2–3 = p2 (V3 V2) = m R (T3 T2)
= 1 ¥ 0.287 ¥ (1500 700)
= 229.6 kJ
(c) Change in internal energy
DU2–3 = Q2 3 W2 3
= 804 229.6 = 574.4 kJ
3. Process 3–4: Adiabatic expansion process
T3 = 1500 K, T4 = 600 K
(a) Heat transferred, Q3–4 = 0
(b) Work transferred,
m R (T4 - T3 )
W3–4 =
1- g
1 ¥ 0.287(600 - 1500)
p–V and T–s diagram =
1 - 1.4
Assumption All processes are reversible processes. = 645.75 kJ
(c) Change in internal energy,
Analysis The specific gas constant DU3– 4 = W3–4 = 645.75 kJ
R = Cp Cv = 1.005 0.718 = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K 4. Process 4–1: Constant-volume heat-rejection
Ratio of two specific heats process
Cp 1.005 T4 = 600 K, T1 = 300 K v = Const.
g= = = 1.4
Cv 0.718 (a) Heat rejection,
Q4–1 = m Cv (T1 T4)
(i) Considering each process separately
= 1 ¥ 0.718 ¥ (300 600) = 215.4 kJ
1. Process 1–2: Adiabatic compression process, pV g
=C (b) Work transferred,
(a) Heat transferred: W4 –1 = 0 ( ∵ V = Const. dV = 0)
Q1–2 = 0 for adiabatic process (c) Change in internal energy,
(b) Work transfer; DU4 –1 = Q4–1 = 215.4 kJ
m R(T2 - T1 )
W1–2 =
1- g
130 Thermal Engineering

(ii) For cyclic process 1 cm = 300 kPa on p scale

(a) Net work transfer, 1 cm = 0.1 m3 on V scale.
Wnet =
Ú dW Qrej = 1000 kJ/kg
To find
= W1 2 + W2 3 + W3 4 + W4 1
(i) Work transfer during a cycle, and
= 287 + 229.6 + 645.75 + 0
(ii) Thermal efficiency.
= 584.35 kJ
(b) Net heat transfer Analysis
Qnet =
Ú dQ = Q 1– 2 + Q2–3 + Q3– 4 + Q4–1 (i) The net work transfer is the area within the curve
= Area of the circle on p–V diagram.
= 0 + 804 + 0 215.4 = 584.6 kJ p 2 p
Area = D = ¥ (Dia. on p scale)
Comment: For cyclic process 4 4
¥ (Dia. on V scale)
Ú dQ = Ú dW =
p
4
¥ (10 ¥ 300) ¥ (10 ¥ 0.1)
and
Ú dU = 0 = 2356.2 kJ/kg.
(ii) The thermal efficiency is expressed as
i.e. 287 + 574.4 645.75 215.4 = 0
Net work transfer
hth =
Example 4.25 An imaginary engine receives heat and Heat supplied
does work on a slowly moving piston at such rates that
Net work transfer
the cycle of operation of 1 kg of fluid can be represented =
Net work transfer + Heat rejected
as a circle of 10 cm diameter on a p–V diagram on which
1 cm = 300 kPa and 1 cm = 0.1 m3/kg. =
2356.2
= 0.7020
2356.2 + 1000
(a) How much work is done by each kg of fluid for
each cycle of operation? = 70.20%
(b) Calculate the thermal efficiency of the engine,
if heat rejected by the engine is 1000 kJ/kg of Example 4.26 The working substance in a Carnot
working fluid. engine is 0.04 kg of air. The maximum cycle temperature
is 930 K and the maximum pressure is 4.4 ¥ 103 kPa. The
p
heat added per cycle is 4 kJ. Determine the maximum
cylinder volume, if minimum temperature during the
cycle is 300 K.
3000 kPa

Solution
Given A Carnot cycle with
m = 0.04 kg T1 = 930 K
T3 = 300 K p1 = 4.4 ¥ 103 kPa
a V Q1– 2 = 4 kJ
b
1 m3
To find Maximum cylinder volume, V3
Fig. 4.25
Assumptions
Solution (i) Specific gas constant for air, R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K
Given An imaginary engine (ii) Ratio of two specific heats g = 1.4
m = 1 kg
Analysis Using perfect-gas equation:
Dia. of circle = 10 cm
p1V1 = m RT1
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 131

p sic energy equations derived from the first law are

1 applicable. Equations related with work done, heat
44 bar
transfer, enthalpy, internal energy do apply to va-
2 pour under specified conditions. The following
basic-energy equation can be applied to vapour by
4 taking care of units. For a unit mass system;
3
Heat transfer; dq = Tds
d q = du + pdv
and d q = dh vdp
V
V3 Internal energy; u = h pv
2
Work transfer; w= Ú
1
pdv
mRT1 The unknown state property can be obtained by
or V1 =
p1 equating constant property between two states of a
(0.04 kg) ¥ (0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (930 K) process, as given:
=
(4.4 ¥ 103 kPa) For constant-volume process; v1 = v2
3 3
= 2.426 ¥ 10 m For isentropic process; s1 = s2
After heat addition during the process 1 2; For isothermal process; p1v1 = p2 v2
For polytropic process; p1v1n = p2 v2n
Q1–2 = p1V1 ln Ê 2 ˆ
V
ÁË V ˜¯
1 Steam is stored in a container of
or 4 = 4.4 ¥ 103 ¥ 2.426 ¥ 10 3
0.45 m3 capacity. The pressure of steam is 8 bar and tem-
Ê V2 ˆ perature is 200°C. The container is cooled and pressure
¥ ln Á -3 ˜ drops to 2.5 bar. Find (a) quality of steam after cooling,
Ë 2.426 ¥ 10 ¯ and (b) heat lost to atmosphere due to cooling. Neglect
Ê V2 ˆ the volume of water.
or ln Á = 0.3746
Ë 2.426 ¥ 10- 3 ˜¯
Solution
or V2 = 2.426 ¥ 10 3 ¥ exp (0.3746)
= 3.53 ¥ 10 3 m3 Given The steam is in the container, thus
During isothermal process; V1 = V2 = 0.45 m3 = constant
T2 = T1 = 930 K p1 = 8 bar, T1 = 200°C
During isentropric expansions 2 3 p2 = 2.5 bar
1-g To find
T3 ÊV ˆ
= Á 3˜ (i) The quality of steam after cooling, and
T2 Ë V2 ¯
1 1 (ii) Heat lost to atmosphere during cooling.
Ê T3 ˆ 1-g 3 Ê 300 ˆ 1-1.4
= 3.53 ¥ 10 ¥ Á
Ë 930 ˜¯
or V3 = V 2 Á ˜ Properties of steam
Ë T2 ¯
At 8 bar and 200°C (from superheated steam table)
= 3.53 ¥ 10 3 ¥ 16.920 = 0.06 m3
v1 = 0.2608 m3/kg h1 = 2839.25 kJ/kg
Maximum volume in the cycle in 0.06 m3 or 60 litres
At 2.5 bar (from pressure entry, saturated steam table)
Tsat = 127.43°C, vg2 = 0.71871 m3/kg,
hf2 = 535.34 kJ/kg, hfg2 = 2185.55 kJ/kg
Analysis
Equations for ideal gases as p v = RT, Joule’s law,
etc., are not applicable to vapour, though the ba- (i) Quality of steam
132 Thermal Engineering

Hence Q = 1.725 ¥ (1263.06 2630.61)

= 2359.0 kJ (Rejected)

Example 4.28 A pressure cooker contains 2 kg of dry

and saturated steam at 5 bar. Find the quantity of heat
that must be rejected so as to reduce quality upto 60%
dry. Determine the pressure and temperature at the new
state.

Solution
Given A constant volume cooling process with
p1 = 5 bar x1 = 1.0
m = 2 kg x2 = 0.6
To find After cooling,
(i) Pressure and temperature at new state,
(ii) Heat transferred.

Analysis At 5 bar, the properties of steam

vg = 0.3749 m3/kg, hg = 2748.7 kJ/kg
Fig. 4.27 Constant-volume process on p-V and T-s Since the volume remains constant during cooling
diagrams process, thus
vg1 = x2 vg2
Since the volume in the container is constant, thus 0.3749
V1 = V2 or vg2 = = 0.6248 m3/kg
0.6
or v1 = v2 From steam tables, the pressure and saturation tem-
But specific volume vg2 at 2.5 bar is greater than perature can directly be obtained corresponding to va-
specific volume v1, thus steam is wet at 2.5 bar, pour specific volume of 0.6248 m3/kg , if available in the
therefore, steam table.
v1 = x vg2 But this volume is not available in the steam table.
0.2608 = x ¥ 0.7187 The specific volume of 0.6573 m3/kg at 2.75 bar and
or x = 0.3628 0.6058 at 3 bar are given.
(ii) Heat transferred during cooling Approximating the new pressure, by using linear
Mass of steam in container, interpolation formula as
V 0.45 m3 Ê y2 - y1 ˆ
= = 1.725 kg y = y1 Á ( x - x1)
m=
v1 0.2608 m3/kg Ë x2 - x1 ˜¯

The heat transferred at constant volume Here y1 = p1 = 2.75 bar y2 = p2 = 3.0 bar
Q = DU = m(Du) = m(u2 u1) x1 = vg1 = 0.6573 m3/kg x2 = vg2 = 0.6058 m3/kg
where u1 = h1 p1v1 = 2839.25 (8 ¥ 100) Using value x = 0.6248 m3/kg for calculation of pres-
¥ 0.2608 sure as
= 2630.61 kJ/kg Ê 3 - 2.75 ˆ
p = 2.75 + Á ¥ (0.62483 - 0.657)
u2 = h2 p2v2 = (hf2 + xhfg2 ) p2 (xvg2 ) Ë 0.6058 - 0.6573 ˜¯
= (535.34 + 0.3628 ¥ 2185.55) = 2.75 + ( 4.854) ¥ ( 0.0325) = 2.907 bar
(2.5 ¥ 100) ¥ (0.3628 ¥ 0.7187) = 1.0161 + 1.891 = 2.907 bar
= 1263.06 kJ/kg Similarly, other properties can be obtained at this
state.
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 133

The saturation temperature corresponding to the new = (1 0.85) ¥ 2015.3 + 2.1 ¥ (350 179.91)
state = 302.3 + 357.2 = 659.5 kJ/kg
Tsat = 133.1°C Total heat supplied to steam,
The new state is 2.907 bar and 0.6 dry. Q = m ¥ h1 = 0.9076 ¥ 659.5 = 598.5 kJ
hf = 555 kJ/kg, hfg = 2166.5 kJ/kg
The work done during superheating,
(ii) Heat transferred
Q = m (u2 u1) È Tsup ˘
w = p(v2 v1) = p Ív g ¥ - x vg ˙
where u2 = h2 p2 v2 Î Tsat ˚
= (h f 2 + x2 h fg 2 ) - p2 ( x2 v g 2 ) È 350 + 273 ˆ
w = 1000 ¥ Í0.19444 ¥ ÊÁ ˜
= (555 + 0.6 ¥ 2166.5) 290.7 ¥ 0.6 ¥ 0.6248 Î Ë 179 .91 + 273 ¯
= 1745.91 kJ/kg ˘
and u1 = h1 p1v1 - 0.85 ¥ 0.19444 ˙
˚
= hg1 - p1 v g1 = 2748.7 500 ¥ 0.3749 = 1000 ¥ (0.2675 0.1653) = 102.18 kJ/kg
= 2561.25 kJ/kg Total external work done
Hence, heat transferred We = mw = 0.9075 ¥ 102.18 = 92.73 kJ
Q = 2 kg ¥ (1745.91 2561.25) (kJ/kg) The percentage of total heat supplied as external work
= 1630.68 kJ (rejected) 92.73
= ¥ 100 = 15.5%
Example 4.29 A quantity of steam at 10 bar and 0.85 598.5
dry occupies a volume of 0.15 m3. Determine the heat
Example 4.30 A closed vessel of 0.2 m3 capacity
supplied to raise the temperature of steam to 350°C at
contains steam at 8 bar and 200°C.
constant pressure and percentage of this heat supplied,
which appears as external work. (a) What is the weight of steam contained in the
vessel ?
Solution (b) The vessel is cooled and steam becomes just dry
and saturated. What would be the pressure at this
Given p1 = 10 bar = 1000 kPa Tsup = 350°C
state ? Estimate specific entropy.
x = 0.85 V1 = 0.15 m3
(c) The vessel is further cooled till the temperature
To find drops to 160.8°C. Find the pressure and condition
(i) Heat supplied, of steam at this state.
(ii) External work, and
(iii) Percentage of heat supplied as external work Solution
done Given The steam in a closed vessel
Assumption Specific heat of superheated steam, V = 0.2 m3 p = 8 bar Tsup = 200°C
Cps = 2.1 kJ/kg ◊ K x2 = 1.0 T3 = 160.8°C

Properties From steam table at 10 bar To find

Tsat = 179.91°C (i) Weight of steam
hf = 762.81 kJ/kg,
(ii) (a) Pressure p2 of steam in saturation state
hfg = 2015.3 kJ/kg, vg = 0.19444 m3/kg
(b) Specific entropy of saturated steam
Analysis Mass of steam (iii) Pressure p3 and quality x3 of steam at the state 3.
V (0.15 m3 ) Assumption Specific heat of superheated steam as
m= = = 0.9076 kg
x vg 0.85 ¥ (0.19444 m3/kg) 2.1 kJ/kg ◊ K
Heat supplied per kg of steam during superheating Analysis
h1 = (1- x) h fg + C ps (Tsup - Tsat ) (i) At 8 bar, the properties of steam
134 Thermal Engineering

Therefore, the pressure at 160.8°C, using linear

interpolation formula
Ê y2 - y1 ˆ
y = y1 + Á ( x - x1 )
Ë x2 - x1 ˜¯
Ê p2 - p1 ˆ
or p3 = p1 + Á ˜ (T - Tsat1 )
Ë Tsat 2 - Tsat1 ¯
Ê 7.005 - 6.178 ˆ
p3 = 6.178 + Á ¥ (160.8 - 160)
Ë 165 - 160 ˜¯
= 6.31 bar
Fig. 4.28 Similarly, specific volume of steam

v3 = 0.3071 + Ê 0.2727 - 0.3071ˆ ¥ (160.8 – 160)

3
Tsat = 170.43° C vg = 0.2404 m /kg
ÁË 165 - 160 ˜¯
hg = 2769.13 kJ/kg
The specific volume of superheated steam = 0.3016 m3/kg
Tsup The condition of steam can be calculated by
v 1 = vg ¥
Tsat equating the volume at two states;
200 + 273 ˆ
= 0.2404 ¥ Ê
v1 = v 3
ÁË 170.43 + 273 ˜¯ or 0.25643 = x3 ¥ 0.3016
0.255
= 0.25643 m3/kg or x3 = = 0.85
0.3016
Note It can also be obtained directly from
superheated steam table.
Example 4.31 Dry saturated steam at 1.4 MPa un-
The mass of steam in the vessel dergoes a reversible hyperbolic expansion in a non-flow
V system until its pressure is 0.80 MPa. Calculate the work
m=
v1 done during the process.
0.2 m3
= = 0.78 kg
0.25643 m3 / kg
Weight of steam = mg = 0.78 ¥ 9.81 = 7.65
(ii) When steam is cooled to just become saturated
(state 2), its specific volume remains constant, but
pressure reduces, i.e., v g 2 = 0.25643 m3/kg.
(a) From steam tables, saturation pressure cor-
responding to 0.25643 m3/kg is 7.5 bar (ap-
prox.)
(b) The specific entropy at this pressure is Fig. 4.29
sg = 6.6847 kJ/kg ◊ K
(iii) When the vessel is cooled to T3 = 160.8°C (state Solution
3), taking this as saturation temperature, the Given Reversible hyperbolic expansion of steam:
pressure can be calculated by linear interpolation.
State 1: p1 = 1.4 MPa (Dry)
At Tsat1 = 160°C vg1 = 0.3071 m3/kg
x1 = 1
p1 = 6.178 bar
State 2: p2 = 0.80 MPa, after hyperbolic expansion.
At Tsat2 = 165°C vg2 = 0.2727 m3/kg
p2 = 7.005 bar To find Work done during the process.
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 135

Properties of steam at pressure

p1 = 1.4 MPa Tsat1 = 195.07°C,
vg1 = 0.14084 m3/kg, hg1 = 2790.00 kJ/kg
At a pressure of 0.80 MPa, after hyperbolic expansion
Tsat2 = 170.43°C, vg2 = 0.2404 m3/kg
hf2 = 721.1 kJ/kg hfg2 = 2048 kJ/kg
Analysis For hyperbolic process:
p1v1 = p2 v2
1.4 ¥ 0.14084 = 0.8 ¥ v2
and v2 = 0.2464 m3/kg
The work done per kg of steam during isothermal
process,
Ê v2 ˆ
w = p1 v1 ln Á ˜
Ë v1 ¯
Ê 0.2464 ˆ
= (1.4 ¥ 103) ¥ 0.14084 ¥ ln Á
Ë 0.14084 ˜¯
= 110.34 kJ/kg
Fig. 4.30

Example 4.32 Dry saturated steam at 1550 kPa is Analysis The steam is superheated during the process,
isothermally expanded to 100 kPa pressure. Calculate the thus it behaves as an ideal gas, i.e.,
change in internal energy, work done, and heat transfer p1v1 = p2v2
during the process. 1550 ¥ 0.1275 = 100 ¥ v2
or v2 = 1.976 m3/kg
Solution The temperature at the state 2;
Given Reversible isothermal expansion of dry saturated T2 = T1 = 199.86°C
steam: The enthalpy of steam at the state 2
State 1: p1 = 1550 kPa (Dry) x1 = 1 h2 = hg 2 + Cps (T2 Tsat 2)
State 2: p2 = 100 kPa, after isothermal expansion. = 2675.46 + 2.1 ¥ (199.86 – 99.63)
= 2885.94 kJ/kg
To find
(i) Heat transfer, (i) The change in specific internal energy:
(ii) Work done, and Du = u2 u1 = (h2 p2v2) (h1 p1v1)
(iii) Change in internal energy during the process. = h2 h1 (∵ p2 v2 = p1v1)
= 2885.94 2790.8 = 95.14 kJ/kg
Assumptions
(ii) The work done per kg of steam during isothermal
(i) The steam in superheated region as an ideal gas. process,
(ii) The specific heat for superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/ Ê v2 ˆ
kg ◊ K. w = p1 v1 ln Á ˜
Ë v1 ¯
= (1550) ¥ 0.1275 ¥ ln ÊÁ
Properties of steam at pressure p1 = 1550 kPa 1.976 ˆ
Ë 0.1275 ¯˜
Tsat1 = 199.86°C, vg1 = 0.1275 m3/kg = 541.65 kJ/kg
hg1 = 2790.8 kJ/kg, sg1 = 6.4289 kJ/kg ◊ K (iii) The heat transferred by steam during isothermal
At pressure 100 kPa, after isothermal expansion process,
Tsat2 = 99.63°C, vg2 = 1.6937 m3/kg q = w + Du = 541.65 + 95.14
hg2 = 2675.46 kJ/kg, = 636.79 kJ/kg
136 Thermal Engineering

Example 4.33 A piston–cylinder arrangement con- v1 0.5

or x1 = = = 0.295
tains 1 kg of water at 100 kPa. The initial volume is v g1 1.694
0.5 m3. The heat transferred to the water is an amount Enthalpy of water h1 = hf1 + x1hfg1
which is just necessary to cause a slow expansion at
= 417.46 + 0.295 ¥ 2258
constant temperature. The process is terminated when
= 1083.57 kJ/kg
the volume is doubled. Determine the magnitude of heat
transfer. Solve the problem if the process of expansion is Since the steam is wet, therefore, during further
hyperbolic. heat addition, its temperature and pressure remain
constant, thus,
Solution v2 = x2 vg = 1 m3
1
Given Water in a piston–cylinder arrangement x2 = = 0.59
1.694
m1 = 1 kg, v1 = 0.5 m3
3 Enthalpy h2 = hf2 + x2hfg2 = 417.46 + 0.59 ¥ 2258
v2 = 1 m p1 = 100 kPa
= 1749.68 kJ/kg
To find
Heat added to water,
(i) Heat supplied to water at constant temperature,
Q = m (u2 u1)
and
where u1 = h1 p1v1 = 1083.57 100 ¥ 0.5
(ii) Heat supplied during the hyperbolic process.
= 1033.57 kJ/kg
Properties of water at 100 kPa
u2 = h2 p2 v2 = 1749.68 – 100 ¥ 1
Tsat = 99.63°C vg = 5.694 m3/kg
hf = 417.46 kJ/kg hfg = 2258 kJ/kg = 1649.68 kJ/kg
\ Q = 1 ¥ (1649.68 – 1033.57)
Analysis
= 616.11 kJ
(i) Heat supplied at constant temperature
(ii) If expansion is hyperbolic
The initial volume,
p1v1 = p2 v2
v1 = x1 vg1 = 0.5 (since m = 1 kg) p1 v1 100 ¥ 0.5
or p2 = = = 50 kPa
p v2 1
From steam table at 50 kPa,
1 2
vg2 = 3.24 m3/kg, hf2 = 340.47 kJ/kg,
1 bar
hfg2 = 2305.4 kJ/kg,
Specific volume; v2 = x2 vg2 = 1
v 1
x2 = 2 = = 0.3086
v g 2 3.24
0.5 m3 1 m3 V h2 = h f 2 + x2 h fg 2
(a) p–V diagram for constant-temperature heating = 340.47 + 0.3086 ¥ 2305.4
p = 1051.92 kJ/kg
Work done during the hyperbolic process
Ê v2 ˆ
1 bar 1 W = m p1 v1 ln Á ˜
Ë v1 ¯
Ê 1 ˆ
= 1 ¥ 100 ¥ 0.5 ¥ ln Á = 34.65 kJ
0·5 bar 2 Ë 0.5 ˜¯
Internal energy change for m = 1 kg
0.5 m3 1m 3 V DU = m(u2 u1)
(b) p–V diagram for hyperbolic expansion = m[(h2 – p2v2) – (h1 – p1v1)]
Fig. 4.31 = m (h2 – h1)
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 137

= 1 ¥ (1051.92 1083.57) sf3 = 5.146 kJ/kg ◊ K sfg3 = 6.387 kJ/kg ◊ K,

= 1083.57 kJ/kg sg3 = 7.533 kJ/kg ◊ K
or DU = 31.63 kJ (decrease)
Analysis
The heat transfer Q = DU + W
(i) During isentropic expansion 1 2
= 31.65 + 34.65 = 3.00 kJ
s1 = s2 = s f 2 + x2 s fg 2
Example 4.34 Steam at 2 MPa and 250°C is expand- 6.5453 = 1.727 + x2 ¥ 5.213
ed isentropically to 0.35 MN/m2 and it is then expanded 6.5453 - 1.727
or x2 = = 0.924
hyperbolically to 0.06 MN/m2. Using steam tables, de- 5.213
termine Condition of steam after hyperbolic expansion 1 2;
(a) final condition of steam, p2 v2 = p3v3
Tsup3
(b) change in specific entropy during hyperbolic pro- or p2 (x2 vg2) = p3 v g3 ¥
cess. Tsat3
0.35 ¥ (0.924 ¥ 0.5243)
Solution È Tsup ˘
= 0.06 ¥ Í2.73 ¥ ˙
Î (86 + 273) ˚
Given Isentropic and hyperbolic expansion of steam;
0.16955 ¥ 359
State 1: p1 = 2 MPa, T1 = 250°C or Tsup 3 =
0.1638
State 2: p2 = 0.35 MPa, s1 = s2 = 371.6 K = 96.6°C
State 3: p3 = 0.06 MPa, p2 v2 = p3 v3 Degree of superheat = 96.6 86 = 10.6°C
To find Hence, steam is superheated by 10.6°C.
(i) Final condition of steam, and (ii) Change in specific entropy during the process 2–3
(ii) Change in entropy during hyperbolic expansion. Ds = s3 s2
where s2 = sf2 + x2 sfg2
Properties of steam
= 1.727 + 0.924 ¥ 5.213
From steam tables = 6.5453 kJ/kg ◊ K
At 2 MPa (2000 kPa) and 250°C: Ê Tsup 3 ˆ
h1 = 2902.5 kJ/kg s1 = 6.5453 kJ/kg ◊ K s3 = s g3 + C ps ln Á ˜
Ë Tsat3 ¯
v1 = 0.111 m3/kg
Ê 371.6 ˆ
= 7.533 + 2.1 ¥ ln Á
Ë 86 + 273 ˜¯
At 0.35 MPa or at 350 kPa:
Tsat = 138.9°C, hf2 = 584.33 kJ/kg = 7.605 kJ/kg ◊ K
hfg2 = 2148.1 kJ/kg, sf2 = 1.727 kJ/kg ◊ K Now change in entropy,
sfg2 = 5.213 kJ/kg ◊ K vg2 = 0.5243 m3/kg D s = 7.605 6.5453 = 1.061 kJ/kg ◊ K
At 0.06 MPa or 60 kPa:
Tsat = 86°C = 359 K vg 3 = 2.73 m3/kg Example 4.35 1 kg of steam at 8 bar, 250°C expands
hf3 = 359.9 kJ/kg hfg3 = 2293.6 kJ/kg polytropically to 2 bar according to p v1.3 = constant.
Determine the quality of steam at final state, heat transfer
1
T 250°C and change in entropy during expansion process.

Pa Solution
5M
2 0.3 Pa
6M Given Polytropic expansion of steam:
0.0
3 m = 1 kg
p1 = 8 bar = 800 kPa
T1 = 250°C = 523 K
p2 = 2 bar = 200 kPa
s 1.3
p v = constant
Fig. 4.32
138 Thermal Engineering

The change in internal energy

Du = u2 u1
where u1 = h1 p1v1
= 2948 800 ¥ 0.2931
= 2713.52 kJ/kg
u2 = h2 p2v2 = (hf 2 + x2 hfg2) p2v2
= (504.7 + 0.961 ¥ 2202)
200 ¥ 0.8514
Fig. 4.33 = 2450.54 kJ/kg
Thus Du = 2450.54 2713.52
To find = 262.98 kJ/kg.
(i) The final quality of steam, The heat transfer per kg of steam
(ii) Heat transfer, and
q = Du + w = 262.98 + 214
(iii) Change in entropy.
= 48.98 kJ/kg
Assumptions (iii) The entropy change during expansion
(i) The reversible process, and Ds = s2 s1
(ii) Superheated steam as perfect gas. where s2 = s f2 + x2 s f g 2
Properties of steam The properties of superheated = s f2 + x2 ( s g 2 - s f 2 )
steam at 8 bar, 250°C: = 1.5301 + 0.961 ¥ (7.1271 1.5301)
v1 = 0.2931 m3/kg, = 6.9 kJ/kg ◊ K
h1 = 2948 kJ/kg
Thus Ds = 6.9 7.034 = 0.125 kJ/kg ◊ K
s1 = 7.034 kJ/kg ◊ K
The properties of steam at 2 bar: Example 4.36 A vessel with a partition in it, contains
vg2 = 0.8857 m3/kg hf2 = 504.7 kJ/kg initially 2 kg of dry and saturated steam at 7.0 bar in one
hfg2 = 2202 kJ/kg sf2 = 1.5301 kJ/kg ◊ K compartment and 1 kg of steam with dryness fraction of
sg2 = 7.127 kJ/kg ◊ K 0.8 at 3.5 bar in the other compartment. After the parti-
Analysis tion is removed, the pressure of the mixture is found to be
5 bar. Neglecting the volume of water, find
(i) The steam expands polytropically as
(a) Dryness fraction of the mixture
p1 v11.3 = p2 v21.3
1 1
(b) The heat interaction between the vessel and the
Ê p1 ˆ 1.3 Ê 8 ˆ 1.3 surroundings
or v2 = Á ˜ v1 = ÁË ˜¯ ¥ 0.2931
Ë p2 ¯ 2
A B
= 0.8514 m3/kg
2 kg 1 kg
Specific volume v2 is less than vg2, hence the
7 bar 3.5 bar
steam is wet after expansion, thus,
x=1 x = 0.8
v2 = x2 vg2
v2 0.8514
or x2 = = = 0.961 Solution
v g 2 0.8857
Given p1 = 7 bar m1 = 2 kg x1 = 1
(ii) The polytropic work done
p2 = 3.5 bar m2 = 1 kg x2 = 0.8
p2 v2 - p1v1
w= p3 = 5 bar of mixture
1- n
200 ¥ 0.8514 - 800 ¥ 0.2931 To find
= (i) Dryness fraction of steam after mixing,
1 - 1.3
= 214 kJ/kg (ii) Heat interactions between vessel and surroundings.
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 139

Properties of Steam Properties of steam from steam v3 0.32174

table: or dryness fraction x3 = = = 0.858
v g3 0.3749
At 7 bar vg1 = 0.2729 m3/kg hg1 = 2763.5 kJ/kg From the first law of thermodynamics,
At 3.5 bar vg 2 = 0.5243 m3/kg hf2 = 584.33 kJ/kg Q = W + DU
hfg2 = 2148.5 kJ/kg For a constant–volume process,
At 5.0 bar vg 3 = 0.3749 m3/kg hf 3 = 640.23 kJ/kg W =0
hfg 3 = 2108.5 kJ/kg and DU = Internal energy after mixing
Internal energy before mixing.
Analysis The volume of the 1st compartment
\ Q = U3 (U2 + U1)
V1 = m1vg1 = 2 ¥ 0.2729 = 0.5458 m3
where U3 = m [h3 p3 v3] = m[(hf3 + xhfg 3) p3 v3]
The volume of the 2nd compartment, = 3 ¥ [(640.23 + 0.858 ¥ 2108.5) (5 ¥ 100
V2 = m2 (x2 vg 2) = 1 ¥ (0.8 ¥ 0.5243) = 0.41944 m3 ¥ 0.32174)]
After the removal of partition, the total volume of the = 6865.36 kJ
compartment U1 = m1 [h1 p1v1]
V3 = V1 + V2 = 0.5458 + 0.41944 = 0.96524 m3 = 2 ¥ [(2763.5) (7 ¥ 100 ¥ 0.2729)]
= 5144.94 kJ
The mass of steam after removal of partition;
U2 = m2 [(hf2 + x hfg2) (p2 ◊ x vg2)]
m = m1 + m2 = 2 + 1 = 3 kg
= 1 ¥ [(584.33 + 0.8 ¥ 2148.1) (3.5 ¥ 100
Specific volume of steam; ¥ 0.8 ¥ 0.5243)]
V 0.96524 = 2156.0 kJ
v3 = = = 0.32174 m3/kg
m 3 Thus Q = 6865.36 (5144.94 + 2156.0)
But specific volume of dry saturated steam at 5 bar; = 435.56 kJ
vg 3 = 0.3749 m3/kg, is greater than v3 Heat is rejected from vessel.
Thus v3 = x 3 vg 3

Summary
The characteristic gas equation for an ideal gas is The summary of equations for ideal processes are
pV = m RT given below.
where R is the specific gas constant and it is 1. Constant-volume Process
obtained as p1 p2
Law V = C, =
Ru Universal gas constant 8.31447 T1 T2
R= = = Work transfer W =0
M Molecular weight M
Heat transfer Q = m Cv (T2 T1)
The thermodynamic properties p, V and T are
related as = DU
p1V1 p V Change in entropy DS = m Cv ln(T2/T1)
= 2 2 2. Constant-Pressure Process
T1 T2
For all type of processes, the change in internal V1 V2
Law p = C, and =
energy and change in enthalpy can be calculated T1 T2
as follows: Work transfer W = p (V2 V1)
Change in internal energy Heat transfer Q = m Cp(T2 T1)
DU = m Cv (T2 T1) = DH
Change in enthalpy DH = m Cp(T2 T1) Change in entropy DS = m Cp ln(T2/T1)
140 Thermal Engineering

3. Isothermal Process Change in entropy DS = 0

Law T = C, or pV = C, 5. Polytropic Process
p1V1 = p2V2 Law pV n = C
Work transfer W = p1V1 ln(V2/V1) 1- n
T2 ÊV ˆ
= m RT1 ln (p1/p2) Properties relation = Á 2˜
Heat transfer Q =W T1 Ë V1 ¯
Change in entropy DS = m R ln(V2/V1) n -1
Êp ˆ n
= m R ln(p1/p2) = Á 2˜
Ë p1 ¯
4. Isentropic Process
Work transfer
Law pV g = C,
g -1
ÊV ˆ
1-g
Ê p2 ˆ g p2V2 - p1V1 m R (T2 - T1 )
T2
= Á 2˜ = Á ˜ W= =
T1 Ë V1 ¯ Ë p1 ¯ 1- n 1- n

Work transfer Heat transfer Q = mCn (T2 T1)

where polytropic specific heat
W1 =
( p2V2 - p1V1 ) = m R (T2 - T1 ) C p - nCv
2
1- g 1- g Cn =
1- n
= DU
Ê T2 ˆ
Heat transfer Q =0 Change in entropy DS = m Cn ln Á ˜
Ë T1 ¯

Glossary
Non-flow process A process in which mass of system Isothermal process Constant-temperature process
does not change Isentropic process Constant-entropy process
Isochoric process Constant-volume process Polytropic process A general representation of all
Isobaric process Constant-pressure process processes by a relation pV n = constant.
Isenthalpic process Constant-enthalpy process

Review Questions
1. Define an ideal gas. given by
2. What is an equation of state? R (T1 - T2 )
3. Show that for an ideal gas, Cp Cv = R. W1- 2 =
g -1
4. State the difference between standard symbols E
where T1 and T2 are initial and final temperatures
and U.
and R is the charecteristic gas equation.
5. Define an adiabatic process. Show that a
8. How is polytropic index determined and within
reversible adiabatic process for a given mass of a
what limits can it change?
perfect gas is pV g = constant.
9. Define polytropic specific heat and prove that
6. How are the state parameters p, V and T related
in a polytropic process? What are values of the C p - Cv
Cn =
polytropic index for isobaric, isochoric, isother- 1- n
mal and adiabatic processes? What is the significance of its negative sign?
7. Show that the work transfer per kg for a perfect 10. For a polytropic process, derive the following
gas during an adiabatic expansion process is relations:
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 141

g -n (g – n): (n – 1): (g – 1)
Q1- 2 = ¥ polytropic work transfer
g -1 12. The internal energy of a certain closed system is
g -n given by U = M + N pV. Show that if it undergoes
and Q1- 2 = ¥ adiabatic work transfer
n -1 a reversible non-flow process with Q = 0, the
11. Show that when an ideal gas is compressed poly- relation between p and V is pV g = C, where C is
tropically with index n, the heat rejection, in- N +1
some constant and g = .
crease in internal energy and work done is in the N
ratio

Problems
1. 1 kg of gas expands isentropically through a mally. It is finally cooled at a constant volume to
volume ratio of 5. The initial pressure and tem- bring the system to initial state.
perature are 28 bar and 220°C, respectively. Find (a) Show the process on p–V and T–S diagrams.
(a) final pressure and temperature, (b) work done (b) Calculate the heat transfer and work transfer
during expansion, and (c) change in entropy. For in each case.
a gas take [W = 16 kJ, 18.46 kJ and Q = − 4.28 kJ,
Cp = 1.024 kJ/kg ◊ K and Cv = 0.713 kJ/kg ◊ K. 18.46 kJ, − 11.7 kJ]
[(a) 2.94 bar, − 28.6°C (b) 178 kJ (c) 0] 6. Air initially at 4 bar, 60°C, expands isothermally
2. 0.1 kg of gas at a pressure of 1 bar and 15°C is to 200 kPa and then it expands isentropically to
compressed adiabatically to 28 bar. Assuming 100 kPa. Sketch the processes on p–V and T–S
that pv = 287T for one kg of gas and the index of diagrams and calculate for entire expansion
adiabatic compression is 1.404, calculate (a) the process
final volume and temperature, (b) ratio of com- (a) heat transfer,
pression, and (c) work done during the compres- (b) change in specific internal energy, and
sion. [(a) 0.0785 m3, (b) 487°C (c) 324.7 kJ]
(c) change in specific entropy.
3. A volume of 2.5 litres of a gas at 14 bar and
[(a) 66.24 kJ/kg (b) – 43 kJ/kg
1100°C expands to a pressure of 280 kPa
according to pV1.28 = C. Determine (a) final (c) 0.198 kJ/kg ◊ K.]
volume, (b) final temperature and (c) work done 7. 0.4 kg of air at 6 bar receives an amount of
by gas during expansion. heat at constant volume, so that its temperature
[(a) 8.8 litre, (b) 692.5°C, (c) 3.7 kJ] rises from 383 K to 923 K. It is then expanded
polytropically according to pV1.32 = constant to
4. The air initially at 75 kPa, 727°C, 0.12 m3 is com-
initial temperature and finally, it is compressed
pressed isothermally until the volume is one half
isothermally to its original volume. Calculate (a)
of the initial volume. Further, it is cooled at a con-
pressure at end states, and (b) work transfer and
stant pressure till its volume is again halved.
heat transfer during each process. Take
(a) Sketch the process on p–V and T–S planes.
Cv = 0.718 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K.
(b) Determine the total work transfer for the
two processes. [(a) p2 =14.45 bar, p3 = 0.3845 bar, (b) W1–2 =
0, Q1–2 = 155 kJ, W2–3 = 193 kJ, W2–3 = 38.64,
(c) Calculate the total heat transferred.
W3–1 = Q3–1 = −120.886 kJ]
[(b) − 10.74 kJ (c) − 22 kJ]
8. 0.5 kg air undergoes a Carnot cycle with 50%
5. Air initially at 1.00 bar has a specific volume
efficiency. The initial pressure and volume of
0.12 m3/kg. It is compressed polytropically ac-
air are 7 bar and 0.12 m3, respectively. The heat
cording to the law pv1.3 = constant to a pressure
supplied to air during isothermal expansion is 40
of 4.2 bar. It is then allowed to expand isother-
kJ. Calculate:
142 Thermal Engineering

(a) maximum and minimum temperature of the pressure of 5 bar and then expanded adiabatically
cycle, to its initial volume. Determine for this quantity of
(b) volume at the end of isothermal expansion, gas: (a) Heat transfer during the compression (b)
(c) the work and heat transfer for each of four Change in internal energy during the expansion
processes. (c) the mass of the gas.
[(a) Tmax = 312.4°C, Tmin = 19.7°C, (b) V2 = Take g = 1.4 and Cp = 1 kJ/kg ◊ K.
0.193 m3 (c) W1–2 = 40 kJ, W2–3 = 105 kJ, W3–4 [(a) − 44.3 kJ (b) − 35.5 kJ (c) 0.35 8 kg]
= −20 kJ, W4–1 = −105 kJ, Q1–2 = 40 kJ, Q2–3 = 15. A volume of 0.36 m3 of a gas at 288 K and 1.03
Q4–1 = 0, Q3–4 = 20 kJ]. bar is compressed reversibly and adiabatically to
9. 2 kg of air at 150°C and 3 bar expands according 10 bar. It is then cooled at constant pressure to its
to pV1.2 = constant, to a final pressure of 1 bar. original temperature after which it expands iso-
Find heat transfer, work transfer, change in inter- thermally. Find the heat transfer at constant pres-
nal energy and change in entropy. sure, heat transfer during isothermal expansion
Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K and g = 1.4 and work transfer during the cycle.
[101 kJ, 203.12 kJ, –99.1 kJ and 0.26 kJ/K.] Take g = 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K.
10. One kilogram of oxygen is compressed isother- [−119.12 kJ, 84.28 kJ, −35.2 kJ]
mally in a closed system from 100 kPa and 25°C 16. A volume of 115 litres of air at 1.05 bar and 90°C
to 300 kPa. Calculate (a) work transfer, (b) heat is compressed adiabatically until the volume
transfer, and (c) change in internal energy. reaches 11.5 litres. Find the change in internal
11. 1 kg of air initially at 1 bar and 40°C is com- energy and change in enthalpy.
pressed adiabatically until its pressure is 50 bar. [45.69 kJ, 63.96 kJ]
The air then receives 125.6 kJ of heat at constant 17. In a closed system, 0.070 kg of air is compressed
pressure. Find for each process, the change in in- polytropically from 100 kPa and a volume of
ternal energy. 0.060 m3 to a volume of 0.030 m3 with a poly-
[ U1–2 = 464.6 kJ, U2–3 = 89.73 kJ,] tropic exponent of 1.4. Compute (a) final tem-
12. 1 kg of air at 20 bar, 200°C is expanded reversibly perature, (b) the work done, (c) the change in
to 12 bar, 125°C in such a way that the process is internal energy, and (d) the heat transfer.
represented by a straight line on a p–V diagram. 18. 0.028 m3 of air initially at 260°C and 700 kPa
Determine (a) law of pressure relating volume, is expanded at constant pressure to 0.084 m3. A
(b) work and heat transfer, and (c) change in polytropic process is carried according to law
1.5
internal energy. pV = constant. The system is brought to initial
[(a) p = 40 −294 V (bar); (b) 43.82 kJ, − 9.9 kJ; state by a constant temperature process.
(c) − 53.9 kJ] (a) Sketch the processes on p–V and T–S
13. A gas at a pressure of 14 bar and a temperature diagrams,
of 343°C is expanded adiabatically to a pressure (b) Determine the net heat transfer and work
of 1.05 bar. The gas is heated at constant volume transfer,
until it again attains 343°C temperature, when (c) Find the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
its pressure is found to be 2.222 bar and finally [(b) 52.9 kJ, 52.9 kJ, (c) 38.57%]
it is compressed isothermally until the original 19. A closed system contains an ideal gas R =
pressure of 14 bar is attained. Sketch the p–V 0.27 kJ/kg ◊ K and Cv = 0.5 kJ/kg ◊ K. The system
diagram for these operations and for 0.5 kg mass undergoes the following process in a cycle. At
of the gas, calculate the change in internal energy the state 1, the temperature is 450 K and pressure
during the adiabatic expansion. is 4.5 bar. The gas is then heated at constant
Take Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K. [–115.8 kJ] pressure until the temperature becomes 900 K at
14. A quantity of perfect gas occupies a volume of the state 2. The gas is then compressed at constant
0.3 m3 at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature temperature unitl the value of entropy equals that
of 20°C. This is compressed isothermally to a at states 1 and 3 and finally, there is an isentropic
 First Law Applied to Non-Flow Systems 143

expansion from the state 3 to the state 1. Sketch reached to 11.5 litres. Find the change in internal
the p–V and T–S diagrams. Calculate (a) pressure energy and change in enthalpy.
at the state 3, (b) heat transfer from the state 1 to [45.69 kJ, 63.96 kJ]
state 3, and (c) cyclic work transfer. 25. Air trapped in a cylinder expands frictionlessly
[(a) 32.48 bar, (b) −133.8 kJ/kg, against a piston so that pV = constant. Initially the
(c) −133.8 kJ/kg] air is at 400 kN/m2, 4°C, and occupies a volume
20. 50 litres of air at 1.013 bar and 100°C temperature of 0.02 m3. The local value of g is 9.51 m/s2.
is compressed to 28 bar. Volume of air at the end (a) To what pressure must the air expand in
of polytropic compression is found to be 4 litres. order to perform 8100 J of work?
Air is now heated at constant volume till pressure (b) What is the mass of air in the system?
rises to 56 bar. Assuming Cp = 1.00 kJ/kg ◊ K and [(a) 145.3kN/m2 (b) 0.1 kg]
Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg ◊ K over complete range of work- 26. 100 kg of air at 300 kPa and 10°C is trapped in-
ing. Determine (a) polytropic index of compres- side a vertical cylinder, which is fittted at the top
sion, and (b) entropy change in each process. with the weighted piston so that the pressure of
[(a)1.314 (b) −7.93 × 10−3 kJ/K, 0.023 kJ/K] the air is held constant, there is no heat transfer.
21. A cylinder of an engine at the beginning of suc- A paddle wheel in the cylinder is turned until
tion stroke contains 400 cm3 of gas at a pressure the volume of air has increased by 20 percent.
of 100 kPa, and temperature of 110°C. If com- Determine : (a) the work done on the air and the
pression takes place according to law pV1.3 = con- amount of the work done on the air by paddle
stant, determine the temperature and pressure of wheel. [(a) – 0.409 kJ (b) 0.571 kJ]
the gas when the volume is 80 cm3. Also calculate 27. 0.05 kg of steam at 15 bar is contained in a rigid
the work done on the gas during the compression vessel of volume 0.0076 m3, what is the tempera-
and change of internal energy of 1 kg of gas if Cv ture of steam? If the vessel is cooled, at what tem-
= 0.750 kJ/kg ◊ K. perature will the steam be just dry and saturated?
If the presure is increased to 40 bar during The cooling is continued until the pressure in
combustion at constant volume, determine the the vessel is 11.0 bar. Calculate the final dryness
temperature of gas. fraction of steam and heat rejected between initial
[− 0.0826 kJ, 177.5 kJ/kg, 2788°C] and final states.
22. A certain quantity of air has a volume of [(a) 72.36°C, (b) 192.5°C,
0.028 m3 at a pressure of 1.25 bar and 25°C. It is (c) 0.856, (d) 19.48 kJ]
compressed to a volume of 0.0042 m3 according 28. A cylinder of volume 0.1 m3 contains nitrogen
to the law pV 1.3 = constant. Calculate the final gas at 101 kPa and 20°C. If 0.5 kg of nitrogen is
temperature and work done during compression. pumped into the cylinder, calculate the new pres-
Also detemine the reduction in pressure at a sure, when the cylinder has returned to its initial
constant volume process required to bring the air temperature. Assume that the specific gas con-
back to its original temperature. stant for nitrogen is 0.297 kJ/kg ◊ K. [536.1 kPa]
[T2 = 253.48°C, W1–2 = − 8.945 kJ, 29. A vessel of 1 m3 capacity contains steam of
p2–3 = 6.393 bar] dryness fraction of 0.80. The pressure gauge on
23. If air in a cylinder is kept at constant pressure the vessel shows 9.8 bar and local barometer
by a gas tight dead weight piston. The cylinder reads 720 mm of Hg. How many kg of steam is
is 600 mm in diameter, contains a quantity of air contained in the steam vesslel? [6.89 kg]
at 27°C in such a way that the piston is 150 mm 30. A vessel having a capacity of 0.6 m3 contains
from the base of cylinder. If heat is supplied to the steam at 15 bar and 250°C. The steam is blown
air, increasing the temperature to 55°C, how far off until the pressure drops to 4 bar. Then the
the piston will move? [14 mm] valve is closed and vessel is cooled until the
24. A volume of 115 litres of air at 1.05 bar and 90°C pressure falls to 3 bar. Assuming that during the
is compressed adiabatically until the volume blowing-off period, the entropy remains constant,
144 Thermal Engineering

determine Calculate the initial and final pressures of the gas.

(i) the mass of steam blown off, The universal constant is 8314 J/kgmol.K. The
(ii) the quality of steam in the vessel after cool- molecular mass of nitrogen is 28.
ing, and [1.35 bar, 2.22 bar]
(iii) the heat transferred during the cooling pro- 34. A high altitude chamber, whose volume is 30 m3
cess is put into operation by reducing the pressure
[(a) 0.963, (b) 2.601 kg (c) –620 kJ] from 1 bar to 0.35 bar and the temperature from
31. A rigid vessel of 1 m3 volume contains steam 27°C to 5°C.
at 19 bar and 300°C. The vessel is cooled until (i) How many kg of air must be removed from
the steam is just dry and saturated. Calculate the the chamber during the process?
mass of steam in the vessel, the final pressure, (ii) Express this mass as a volume measured at
and the heat removed during the process. 1 bar and 27°C.
[7.55 kg, 15 bar and –1361 kJ] [21.68 kg, 18.67 m3]
32. 1 kg of steam at 120 bar and 400°C expands 35. 0.44 kg of gas having a volume 0.28 m3 and a
reversibly in a perfect insulated cylinder behind pressure of 1.4 bar is compressed to a pressure of
a piston until the pressure falls to 38 bar and the
14 bar according to pV1.3 = C. Find the change of
steam becomes just dry and saturated. Calculate
internal energy.
the work done by the steam. [196.34 kJ/kg]
Take Cp = 1.041 kJ/kg ◊ K
33. A mass of 3 kg of nitrogen occupying 2 m3 is
heated from 30°C to 225°C at a constant volume. and Cv = 0.743 kJ/kg ◊ K.
(68.54 kJ)

Objective Questions
1. The polytropic index n in equation pV n = constant
for a isochoric process is (c) change in internal energy is zero
(a) 1 (b) 1.4 (d) enthalpy change is maximum
(c) 0 (d) 4. In a reversible adiabatic process, the work transfer
2. A process that does not involve heat transfer is is equal to
called (a) decrease in enthalpy
(a) isothermal process (b) isolated process (b) decrease in internal energy
(c) Steady process (d) adiabatic process (c) heat ransfer
t
3. In an isothermal process (d) the product of pressure and change in
(a) temperature increases gradually volume
(b) volume remains constant

4. (b) 3. (c) 2. (d) 1. (d)

Answers
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 145

5
First Law Applied to
Flow Processes

Introduction
Most engineering problems involve flow of mass across a system boundary. The mass and energy analyses
for an open system are discussed with the help of continuity equation and the first law of thermodynamics
in this chapter. For analysis of an open system, the control-volume concept is used. The rate of work and
heat interactions with their sign convention is also considered across the control surface. The steady flow
work, relation between Ú pdv and - Ú vdp work are also carried out in the chapter. The steady-flow energy
equation is applied to the nozzle, diffuser, turbine compressor, pump, boiler, condenser and throttling
processes.

5.1 FLOW PROCESS AND FLOW

ENERGY

Most engineering problems involve mass flow in

and out of a system, such as turbines, compressors,
nozzles and pumps, etc. Such systems are called
open systems. Therefore, their analysis is carried
out with the concept of control volume, control sur-
Flow process and control volume
face and flow energy.
A flow process constitutes an open system as Consider a fluid entering the control volume
shown in Fig. 5.1, in which the working substance through a cross-sectional area A as shown in
enters and leaves the control surface of a system. Fig. 5.2. If p is the fluid pressure acting uniformly
Energy interaction in the form of heat and work at the imaginary piston at the entrance of the con-
may also take place within the system. trol volume, the force applied on the fluid element
Flow energy or flow work refers to work re- by imaginary piston is
quired to push a certain mass of fluid into and out of F = pA(kN)
the control volume. It is necessary for maintaining If the fluid is pushed by a distance L then
continuous flow through a control volume. the flow work Wf = p AL = pV ...(5.1)
146 Thermal Engineering

L Imaginary where m = mass flow rate in kg/s,

piston
Ac = cross sectional area of flow in m2,
p1, V1 A Control
Surface
v = sp. volume of fluid in m3/kg,
Control V = fluid velocity in m/s.
volume 1
Further, v =
p2, V2
r
Therefore, m = r AcV ...(5.3)
Fig. 5.2 The volume flow rate through a cross-sectional
area per unit time is called fluid discharge rate and
the flow work at entrance Wf1 = p1V1 (kJ) it is designated as V , and is expressed as
the flow work at exit Wf 2 = p2V2 (kJ) V = AcV (m3/s) ...(5.4)
Steady-Flow Process
5.2 MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS A steady-flow process can be defined as a process
OF AN OPEN SYSTEM during which all properties of fluid at each location
within the system remain constant with respect to
5.2.1 Conservation of Mass
time. That is, the fluid properties can change from
Principle—Continuity of Mass
point to point within the control volume but at any
The conservation of mass is one of the most fun- fixed location they remain the same during the en-
damental principle for flow systems. It states that tire process. Steady means no change with time.
the mass of a system can neither be created nor The steady-flow process requires the following par-
destroyed but its amount remains constant during ticular conditions:
any process. It only changes its form (phase). For 1. The fluid properties (intensive or extensive)
example, when 16 kg oxygen reacts with 2 kg of within the control volume remain constant at
hydrogen, 18 kg of water is formed. The conserva- each location with respect to time.
tion of mass principle for a control volume (CV)
2. The properties of the fluid crossing the
can be expressed as
boundary (inlet and outlet) remain constant
Total mass entering CV – Total mass leaving CV at each point of the boundary.
= Net change in mass within CV 3. The mass-flow rate into the system is always
The amount of mass flowing through a cross- equal to the mass flow rate out the system.
section per unit time is called the mass flow rate 4. Heat and work interactions within the
and it is calculated as surroundings occur at a steady rate.
m = Ac V ...(5.2)
v 5.2.3 Total Energy of Closed and
Open Systems
As explained earlier, the total energy of a non-
flow (closed) system comprises of internal energy,
potential energy and kinetic energy as shown in
Fig. 5.4(a). For unit mass
V2
e = u + ke + pe = u + + gz (J/kg)
2
Fig. 5.3 where V is the velocity and z is the elevation of
volume the system relative to some reference. In an open
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 147

Non-flow system q = total energy of the fluid, including

Potential flow work per unit mass, J/kg
Kinetic
2
S m1 = total mass flow rate into the control
V
e=u+
2
+ gz volume in kg/s
Internal
and S m2 = total mass flow rate out of the
control volume in kg/s.
(a) Total energy of a non-flow system
.
Q
Flow system 2
Flow
. out
Potential Sm2, q2
Kinetic Control Volume
V2 2
1 of
q = u + pv + + gz Flow
2 . in Steady-flow Device .
Sm1, q1 W z2
Flow Internal
energy z1 1

(b) Total energy of a flow system

Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5

or flow system as shown in Fig. 5.4(b), the fluid Energy balance on the control volume reveals:
entering and leaving possesses an additional form Total energy Total energy Total energy
of energy—flow energy (or flow work), pv which rate crossing rate leaving rate entering
pushes the fluid in and out. Then total energy of the boundary as = control – the control
flowing fluid on a unit-mass basis (denoted by q), heat and work surface 2 surface 1
becomes
or Q – W = S m2 q 2 – S m1 q1 ...(5.7)
q = pv + e = u + pv + ke + pe
V2 For a single-stream (one inlet and one exit)
= u + pv + + gz ...(5.5) system, the mass-flow rate at the inlet and exit
2
Using h = u + pv can be expressed as m1 and m2 . The inlet and exit
V2 states of the fluid for control volume are designated
Then q =h+ + gz ...(5.6)
2 by subscripts 1 and 2, respectively.
5.3 ENERGY BALANCE IN Q – W = m2 q2 – m1 q1 ...(5.8)
STEADY FLOW Using q from Eq. (5.5);

Consider a steady-flow device within a control vol- È V2 ˘

Q – W = m2 Íu2 + p2v2 + 2 + z2 g ˙
ume as shown in Fig. 5.5. The working substance ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
enters the device at the section 1 and leaves at the
È V2 ˘
section 2. - m1 Íu1 + p1v1 + 1 + z1 g ˙
Let Q = rate of heat transfer to control volume ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
in W For steady flow, the mass-flow rate through the
W = rate of shaft work done by the fluid in entire control volume remains constant, thus m1 =
control volume in W m2 = m , then
p = pressure in N/m2 È
Q - W = m Í(u2 - u1 ) + ( p2 v2 - p1v1)
u = specific internal energy in J/kg Î
h = specific enthalpy in J/kg Ê V2 V2 ˆ ˘
V = velocity of fluid in m/s + Á 2 - 1 ˜ + (z2 - z1) g ˙ ...(5.9)
z = elevation above datum in m Ë 2 2 ¯ ˙˚
148 Thermal Engineering

Using h = u + pv W = 0, since they do not involve any

È Ê shaft, thus no work interaction,
V22 V12 ˆ
then Q - W = m Í( h2 - h1) + Á - Dpe = 0, fluid experiences usually
ÍÎ Ë 2 2 ˜¯
very little or no change in its
˘ elevation between inlet and
+ (z2 - z1) g ˙ (J/s)...(5.10) outlet.
˚
Dividing both sides by m , the steady-flow en-
ergy equation on a unit-mass basis as
Ê V2 V2 ˆ
q – w = ( h2 - h1) + Á 2 - 1 ˜ + ( z2 - z1) g
Ë 2 2 ¯
...(5.11)
or q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe (J/kg)
Q
where q= (heat transfer per unit mass, J/kg)
m
W
w= (work transfer per unit mass, J/kg)
m
Dh = Du + D(pv) (specific enthalpy change,
J/kg)
The above equation can be arranged as
q – w = Du + D(pv) + Dke + Dpe (J/kg) ...(5.12)
If the fluid has negligible change in kinetic ener- Fig. 5.6
gy and potential energy then the steady flow equa-
tion reduces to For nozzles and diffusers the steady-flow energy
q – w = Dh = Du + D(pv) (J/kg) ...(5.13) equation,
V 2 - V12
h2 – h1 + 2 =0 ...(5.14)
2
Some common steady-flow devices are discussed
below: Water turbine is a device which takes in water from
a height. The water enters into the turbine, a part of

Nozzles and diffusers as shown in Fig. 5.6 are used

in a number of engineering devices. A nozzle is a
device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the
expense of pressure drop. A diffuser is a device that
increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down.
Nozzles and diffusers are the devices in which
cross sectional area changes along the flow. The
following point should be noted for flow through
these devices.
Q = 0, the heat transfer rate is
negligible, Fig. 5.7
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 149

Water from. a
reservoir m, V1

Turbine z1
wheel

Generator
z2 = 0

Boundary
Stationary blades Rotating blades

Fig. 5.9
Water. flow
out m, V2
Gas or steam in .
Q (if any)

its potential energy is converted into useful work

(shaft work), which is used to generate electric Turbine
.
W
power in a generator.
The following facts should be kept in mind,
while analysing a water turbine;
Rate of work done by turbine, Gas or steam out
W = + ve
Heat transfer rate from turbine,
Q = 0, Change in potential energy,
Change in specific internal energy, Dz = 0 (if elevations are not mentioned)
Du = u2 – u1 = 0, Heat-transfer rate,
(no change in temperature of water) Q ª 0 (if turbine is insulated)
Specific volume of water, v1 = v2 = v (remains Q = – ve (if turbine is not insulated)
constant) The steady-flow energy equation
The steady flow energy equation reduces
È V22 - V12 ˘
È Ê V2 V2 ˆ Q - W = m Í( h2 - h1) + + ( z2 - z1 ) g ˙
m Í( p2 v2 - p1 v1) + Á 2 - 1 ˜ ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
ÍÎ Ë 2 2 ¯
...(5.16)
˘
+ (z2 - z1) g ˙ + W = 0 ...(5.15)
˙˚
A compressor is a device, which takes in low
pressure gas and compresses it to higher pressure.
These are the devices (Fig. 5.9 and 5.10) in which
(i) Reciprocating Compressor The reciprocating
the fluid (steam or gas) expands, work is produced
compressor is shown in Fig. 5.11. It has inlet and
on the shaft of the turbine. The work produced by a
outlet gas-flow streams and work and heat inter-
turbine is given to the generator to produce electric
actions at its control volume. For a reciprocating
power. According to sign convention, the work
compressor:
done by the turbine is considered positive.
Rate of work input W = –ve,
Rate of work done W = + ve
150 Thermal Engineering

Inlet

The water pump (Fig. 5.13) increases the pressure

of incompressible fluid like water, therefore, these
are power consuming devices. The particular con-
ditions for water pumps;
Tip

Impeller
eye
Deliver

compressor Air in take

Shaft

Fluid in
.
h1, V1 Q

Electric
Compressor
(a) Impeller of centrifugal compressor
motor
. Discharge
W
scroll
Air
flow
Fluid out
h2, V2

Fig. 5.12 compressor

Heat rejection (if any) Q = –ve,

Change in potential energy Dpe = 0, Air
Impeller flow
Change in kinetic energy Dke = 0,
Diffuser passages Vanes
The steady-flow energy equation for reciprocat-
(b) Centrifugal compressor
ing compressor becomes
Q – W = m ( h2 - h1 ) (J/s) ...(5.17) Fig. 5.13

(ii) Centrifugal Compressor/Root Blower Generally, Rate of work input to pump,

the change in potential energy is taken negligible, W = –ve,
or No heat-transfer rate from the pump,
Dpe = 0, Q = 0,
Rate of work input is W = –ve Change in specific internal energy,
Heat rejection (if any) Q = –ve Du = u2 – u1 = 0,
Then steady-flow energy equation becomes Specific volume of water,
È v1 = v2 = v = constant
Ê V2 V2 ˆ ˘
Q – W = m Í( h2 - h1 ) + Á 2 - 1 ˜ ˙ (J/s) The steady-flow energy equation reduces to
ÍÎ Ë 2 2 ¯ ˙˚
...(5.18) È Ê V2 V2 ˆ ˘
– W = m Í( p2 v2 - p1 v1) + Á 2 - 1 ˜ + ( z2 - z1) g ˙
ÍÎ Ë 2 2 ¯ ˙˚
...(5.19)
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 151

q – w = Dh + Dke + pe
Here q = 0, w = 0, Dpe = 0, then
Dh + Dke = 0
V2 V2
or h1 + 1 = h2 + 2
2 2
When V1 = V2 then h1 = h2
For a perfect gas Cp T1 = Cp T2
T1 = T2
Thus for a perfect gas, the temperature before
and after throttling is always same.

Fig. 5.14 These are the devices where the objective is to

transfer heat energy between hot and cold fluids,
therefore, the heat transfer rate cannot be taken as
zero.
It is an irreversible process. Whenever a fluid ex-
pands from a region of high pressure to low pres-
sure through a porous plug, partly open valve, an
orifice, a capillary tube or through any other ob-
struction without exchanging any energy as heat
and work transfer with surroundings and with neg-
ligible change in kinetic and potential energies, the
enthalpy of the fluid remains constant and fluid is Cold fluid in
said to undergo a throttling process.
Figure 5.14 shows steady flowing fluid through
an insulated duct, passes through an orifice at Hot fluid in Hot fluid out
section X – X. Applying steady flow energy equation
between sections 1–1 and 2–2,
1 Duct Orice 2 Cold fluid out
X
Fig. 5.16

They do not involve any shaft work or work in-

teraction. Therefore,
1
X
2 W = 0 and Q π 0 (compulsory)
If change in potential energy is negligible then,
Fluid in Fluid out Dpe = 0, (generally)
The steady-flow energy equation for these de-
(a) Adjustable valve
vices may be expressed as
È V 2 - V12 ˘
(b) Capillary tube Q = m Íh2 - h1 + 2 ˙ (J/s) ...(5.20)
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚
152 Thermal Engineering

Note The remaining terms for all devices have It should be noted that the area behind curve is
usual meanings, if specific conditions are not men-
tioned.
equal to steady flow work - vdp . Ú
5.6 RELATION BETWEEN NON-FLOW
Ú vdp WORK Ú pdv AND FLOW
The steady-flow energy equation (5.11) for unit
mass-flow rate is expressed as Ú vdp
V2 V2 The steady-flow energy equation for unit mass-flow
q – w = h2 - h1 + 2 - 1 + ( z2 - z1) g
2 2 rate
It can be written in differential form as V2 V2
q – w = h2 - h1 + 2 - 1 + ( z2 - z1) g
dq – dw = dh + VdV + gdz 2 2
Using h = u + pv It can be written in differential form as
Therefore dh = du + pdv + vdp dq – dw = dh + VdV + gdz
Inserting it above, we get Using h = u + pv and
dq – dw = du + pdv + vdp + VdV + gdz dq = du + pdv
p
Inserting it above, we get
du + pdv – dw = d(u + pv) + VdV + gdz
1
p1
or du + pdv – dw = du + d(pv) + VdV + gdz

Process 1-2
\ pdv – dw = d(pv) + VdV + gdz
or pdv = dw + d(pv) + VdV + gdz
p
p2 2
2

0
–
z
1
vdp

v
c
1

v1 v2
Process 1-2
Fig. 5.17
Ú vdp

d 2
According to the first law of thermodynamics
for the moving system, if an observer moving with 0 e
v
f
the fluid,
dq = du + pdv
Fig. 5.18
Ú pdv Ú vdp
Then du + pdv – dw = du + pdv + vdp + VdV + gdz Integrating both sides, we get
or – dw = vdp + VdV + gdz
V22 - V12
Integrating both sides and rearranging, we get
Ú Ú
pd v = d w + D ( p v) +
2
+ ( z2 - z1) g
V 2 - V12
Ú
w = - vdp - 2
2
- ( z2 - z1) g ...(5.21) Inserting w from Eq. (5.21), we get
If the kinetic and potential energy changes are
negligible, the above equation is reduced to
Ú pdv = - Ú vdp + D( pv)
or – vdp = p v + Ú pdv – p v
Ú
w = - vdp ...(5.22) Ú 1 1 2 2 ...(5.23)
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 153

p p p
1 1
p1 c p1

Area 1-2-f - e -1
Co
m
Area o-1-e-0-c pr
es
sio
n

Area d -2 -f -o
p2 d 2 p2 d 2

e e f f
0 v1 0 v1 v2 0 v2

Fig. 5.19

The three areas of Fig. 5.18 are shown separately

Ú
Reservoir u2
in Fig. 5.19. Thus the - vdp work can also be
p1 , h 1
related with non-flow work Ú pdv graphically as
Ú pdv = area e-1-2-f Fig. 5.20
- Ú vdp = area c-1-2-d negligible. Applying energy equation to flow process
= area c-1-e-o + area e-1-2-f V22 - V12
q – w = (u2 – u1) + (p2 v2 – p1v1) +
– area d-2-f-o 2
+ (z2 – z1)g
Ú
- vdp = p1v1 + Ú pd v - p v 2 2 The above equation reduces to
0 = (u2 – u1) – p1v1
It proves that the steady flow work - vdp is the Ú or
or
u2 = u1 + p1v1
u2 = h1
sum of net flow work and non-flow work Ú pdv . The internal energy of the gas in the cylinder is equal
to the enthalpy of air in the reservoir.
Example 5.1 A small rigid evacuated cylinder filled
from a large high-pressure reservoir. Assuming adiabatic Example 5.2 In a steady-flow system, a substance
conditions, determine the internal energy of the gas in flows at a rate of 5 kg/s. It enters the system at a pressure
the cylinder after charging. of 6 bar, velocity 300 m/s, internal energy 2000 kJ/kg
and specific volume of 0.38 m3/kg. It leaves the system
Solution
at a pressure of 1.5 bar, velocity 150 m/s, internal energy
Given Adiabatic conditions, q = 0 1600 kJ/kg and specific volume of 1.26 m3/kg. During
its passage through the system, the substance losses
To find Internal energy of the gas in the cylinder.
80 kJ/kg of heat to the surroundings. Determine the
Assumptions power of the system, stating whether it is from or to the
(i) No shaft work done during the process, w = 0. system. Neglect any changes in the potential energy.
(ii) Since there is no back pressure, therefore,
Solution
p2 v2 = 0.
(iii) Change in potential energy is negligible, z1 = z2. Given A steady-flow system, with negligible potential
(iv) Change in kinetic energy is negligible, V1 = V2. energy change.
m = 5 kg/s, q = – 80 kJ/kg
Analysis As the cylinder is very small as compared to
reservoir, therefore, the changes in the reservoir are also V1 = 300 m/s V2 = 150 m/s
p1 = 6 bar = 600 kPa p2 = 1.5 bar = 150 kPa
154 Thermal Engineering

u1 = 2000 kJ/kg u2 = 1600 kJ/kg To find Specific internal energy change device.
v1 = 0.38 m3/kg v2 = 1.26 m3/kg
Assumptions
Dz = 0
(i) Steady-state conditions, and
To find Power of the system and its direction with
(ii) Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2.
reference to system.
Analysis The steady-flow energy equation for 1 kg of Analysis The steady-flow energy equation is given by
mass of the substance. V22 - V12
q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe q – w = (u2 – u1) + (p2 v2 – p1v1) +
2
= Du + D(pv) + Dke + 0 + (z2 – z1) g
Calculating each quantity separately Substituting the values of properties with proper care
Du = u2 – u1 = 1600 – 2000 = – 400 kJ/kg of units
D(pv) = p2v2 – p1v1 (– 9000) – 135 ¥ 103
= 150 ¥ 1.26 – 600 ¥ 0.38 = – 39 kJ/kg = u2 – u1 + (100 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.62)
2 2
V22 - V12 150 - 300 – (600 ¥ 103 ¥ 0.37)
Dke = =
2 2 270 2 - 16 2
= –33.75 ¥ 103J/kg = – 33.75 kJ/kg + + (0 – 32) ¥ 9.81
Now – 80 – w = – 400 – 39 – 33.75 = – 472.75 2
– 144,000 = u2 – u1 + 62000 – 222000 + 36322
or w = 472.75 – 80 = 392.75 kJ/kg
– 313.92
The power output of the system
P = m w = 5 ¥ 392.75 = 1963.75 kW u2 – u1 = – 20008 J/kg ª –20.0 kJ/kg (decrease)
Power developed by system.
Example 5.4 75 kg/min air enters the control volume
Example 5.3 In a steady-flow apparatus 135 kJ work of a steady-flow system at 2 bar and 100°C, at an eleva-
is done by each kg of fluid. The specific volume of the tion of 100 m above the datum. The same mass leaves
fluid, pressure and velocity at the inlet are 0.37 m3/kg, the control volume at 150 m elevation from datum with
600 kPa and 16 m/s, respectively. The inlet is 32 m above pressure of 10 bar and at a temperature of 300°C. The
floor level. The discharge is at floor level. The discharge entrance velocity is 40 m/s and exit velocity is 20 m/s.
conditions are 0.62 m3/kg, 100 kPa and 270 m/s. The total During the process 54,000 kJ/h of heat is transferred to
heat loss between inlet and outlet is 9 kJ/kg of the fluid. control volume and rise in enthalpy is 8 kJ/kg. Calculate
In flowing apparatus, does the specific internal energy the power developed.
increase or decrease and by how much?
Solution
Solution Given m = 75 kg/min = 1.25 kg/s
Given A steady-flow apparatus as shown in Fig. 5.21.
q = –9 kJ/kg = –9000 J/kg
.
m = 1 kg/s 1
V1 = 16 m/s
p1 = 600 kPa
= 600 ¥ 105 N/m2
w = 135 kJ/kg = 135 ¥ 103 J/kg
v1 = 0.37 m3/kg 1
Control
z1 = 32 m
volume .
2 m = 1 kg/s
V2 = 270 m/s
3 2
Floor level p2 = 100 kPa = 100 ¥ 10 N/m
v2 = 0·62 m3/kg
2 z2 = 0

Fig. 5.21
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 155

Property Inlet Outlet

Pressure (bar) 10 8.93
Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) 2827 2341
Velocity (m/s) 20 120
Elevation (m) 3.2 0.5

Fluid flow rate through the device is 2.1 kg/s. The

work output of the device is 750 kW.

Fig. 5.22 Solution

Q = 54,000 kJ/h Given Flow through a steady-flow device as shown in

= 15 ¥ 103 W (heat supply to system) Fig. 5.23.
p1 = 2 bar p2 = 10 bar To find Heat-transfer rate from the device.
V1 = 40 m/s V2 = 20 m/s
Assumption Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/s2.
z1 = 100 m z2 = 150 m
T1 = 100°C T2 = 300°C Analysis Applying steady-flow energy equation
Dh = 8 kJ/kg = 8 ¥ 103 J/kg ÔÏ V 2 - V12 Ô¸
Q - W = m Ì( h2 - h1) + 2 + ( z2 - z1 ) g ˝
To find The power developed by the system. ÓÔ 2 ˛Ô
Analysis The steady-flow energy equation is given by Calculating each item separately
h2 – h1 = 2341 – 2827 = – 486 kJ/kg
È Ê V22 V12 ˆ ˘
Q - W = m Í( h2 - h1 ) + Á - ˜ + ( z2 - z1 ) g ˙ V22 - V12 120 2 - 20 2
ÍÎ Ë 2 2 ¯ ˙˚ =
2 2
Substituting the values of properties with proper care = 7000 J/kg = 7 kJ/kg
of units (z2 – z1)g = (0.5 – 3.2) ¥ 9.81
20 2 - 40 2 = – 26.487 = – 0.0264 kJ/kg
(15 ¥ 103) – W = (1.25) ¥ [(8 ¥ 103) +
2 Substituting the value in steady-flow energy equation
+ (150 – 100) ¥ 9.81]
Q – 750 kW = (2.1 kg/s) ¥ (– 486 kJ/kg
or W = (15 ¥ 103 ) – (1.25 )
¥ (8 ¥ 103 – 600 + 490.5 ) + 7 kJ/kg – 0.0264 kJ/kg)
= (15 ¥ 103) – 9863.125 or Q = 750 – 1006 = – 256 kW
= 5136.87 W ª 5.13 kW (Heat is rejected)

Example 5.5 In a steady-flow device, the inlet and Nozzle

outlet conditions are given below. Determine the heat
loss/gain by the system. Example 5.6 Air enters a convergent nozzle with
a velocity of 40 m/s. The enthalpy of air decreases by

Fig. 5.23
156 Thermal Engineering

180 kJ/kg. Determine the exit velocity. Assume adiabatic

conditions in the nozzle.
Solution
Given V1 = 40 m/s,
Dh = – 180 kJ/kg = – 180 ¥ 103 J/kg, Schematic diagram of convergent-divergent
Q = 0 ( for adiabatic conditions) nozzle
To find Exit velocity of air at nozzle exit
To find
Assumptions (i) Exit velocity of the fluid,
(i) No change in potential energy, or z1 = z2. (ii) Mass flow rate, and
(ii) Properties of the system remain constant at (iii) Exit area of the nozzle.
their locations.
Assumption Properties of the system remains constant
Insulation at their locations.
.
Q=0
Analysis
(i) Since the nozzle does not have any work and
V1 = 40 m/s V2 = ? heat interaction, hence the steady-flow energy
equation reduces to
V22 - V12
0 = h2 – h1 +
2
Fig. 5.24 nozzle 0 = (3000 ¥ 103 J/kg – 2757
V 2 - (60 m) 2
¥ 103 J/kg) + 2
Analysis Since the nozzle does not have any work and 2
heat interaction, hence the steady-flow energy equation or V22 = 2 ¥ 243 ¥ 103 J/kg + 3600 m2
reduces to = 489600
V 2 - V12 or V2 = 699.71 m/s
0 = h2 - h1 + 2
2 (ii) The mass-flow rate can be calculated by using the
V 2 - (40 m)2 continuity equation;
0 = -180 ¥ 103 + 2
2 A1 V1 A2 V2
or V22 = 2 ¥ 180 ¥ 103 + 1600 = 361600 m = =
v1 v2
or V2 = 601.33 m/s
(0.1 m2 ) ¥ (60 m/s)
or m =
Example 5.7 At the inlet to a convergent–divergent (0.187 m3/s )
nozzle the enthalpy of the fluid passing is 3000 kJ/kg and = 32.08 kg/s
the velocity is 60 m/s. At the discharge end, the enthalpy (iii) The exit area of the nozzle can also be calculated
is 2757 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and the heat loss by continuity equation;
during flow is negligible. Find (a) velocity of the fluid at
m v2 (32.08 kg/s) ¥ (0.498 m3/kg)
the exit of the nozzle, (b) if the inlet area is 0.1 m2 and A2 = =
V2 (699.71 m/s)
the specific volume at the inlet is 0.187 m3/kg, find the
mass flow rate of the fluid, and (c) if the specific volume = 0.0228 m2
at the outlet is 0.498 m3/kg, find the area at the exit of
Example 5.8 Steam enters the nozzle, operating at
the nozzle.
steady state at 30 bar and 350°C with negligible velocity
Solution and exits at 15 bar and a velocity of 500 m/s. The mass-
flow rate is 2.22 kg/s. Determine (a) the exit temperature
Given A convergent–divergent nozzle shown in of steam, and (b) exit area of nozzle.
Fig. 5.24 with data
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 157

Solution Tsup2
and v2 = v g2
Given Flow of steam through a nozzle; Tsat 2
p1 = 30 bar T1 = 350°C (292.65 + 273)
= 0.13177 ¥
V1 = 0 p2 = 15 bar (198.32 + 273)
V2 = 500 m/s m = 2.22 kg/s = 0.15814 m³/kg
To Find (ii) The exit area can be calculated from the continuity
(i) Exit temperature of steam, and equation
A V
(ii) Exit area of the nozzle. m = 2 2
v2
Assumptions m v2 2.22 ¥ 0.15814
A2 = =
(i) No heat loss at the boundary of the nozzle, q = 0. V2 500
(ii) No change in potential energy, Dpe = 0 = 7.02 ¥ 10 – 4 m2
(iii) Specific heat of superheated steam as 2.1 kJ/kg ◊ K = 7.02 cm2
Properties of steam
Example 5.9 Helium at 300 kPa, 60°C, enters a noz-
At 30 bar and 350°C: h1 = 3115.3 kJ/kg
zle with negligible velocity and expands steadily without
At 15 bar, Tsat 2 = 198.32 C vg 2 = 0.13177, heat transfer in a quasi-equilibrium manner to 120 kPa.
hg2 = 2792.2 kJ/kg The process is such that pv1.67 = constant. Calculate the
exit velocity.

Solution
Given A nozzle with data as shown in Fig. 5.27.

Analysis
(i) The steady-flow energy equation for unit mass
q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe
For nozzle; w = 0 and q = 0
\ 0 = h2 – h1 + Dke
( V22 - V12) (500 2 - 0 2)
Dke = =
2 2 To find Exit velocity of the fluid.
3
= 125 ¥ 10 J/kg
And h2 = h1 – Dke = 3115.3 – 125 Assumptions
= 2990.3 kJ/kg (i) No change in potential energy, or z1 = z2
Further, the h2 at 15 bar > 2792.2 kJ/kg for dry (ii) Properties of the system remain constant at their
and saturated steam. locations.
Therefore, steam is superheated at this (iii) The gas constant for helium as 2078.5 J/kg ◊ K. as
pressure. 8314
R= J/kg ◊ K
h2 = hg 2 + Cps (Tsup2 – Tsat2) 4
2990.3 = 2792.2 + 2.1 ¥ (Tsup – 198.32) Analysis The steady-flow energy equation for nozzle
2990.3 - 2792.2 V22 - V12
Tsup 2 = + 198.32 q – w = ( h2 - h1 ) + + ( z2 - z1 ) g
2.1 2
= 94.33 + 198.32 = 292.65 C where w = 0 ( no work done in a nozzle), inlet velocity
V1 is negligible and change in potential energy is also
158 Thermal Engineering

negligible and the equation is reduced to than that of air entering. Cooling water in the compressor
jackets absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 58 kW. (a)
V22
0 = ( h2 - h1 ) + Compute the power input to the compressor, and (ii) ratio
2
of inlet pipe diameter to outlet pipe diameter.
This equation cannot be used for calculation of exit
velocity V2, because h2 – h1 is also unknown. Thus, using Solution
the equation
V22 - V12 Given An air compressor with m = 0.5 kg/s of air
Ú
w = - vdp -
2
– (z2 – z1)g
.
Q = –58 kW V2 = 5 m/s
Using the assumptions p2 = 700 kPa
V22
Ú
v2 = 0.19 m3/kg
0 = - vdp -
2 u2 = u1 + 90 kJ/kg
2 Air
or V22 = -2
Ú 1
vdp
.
W=?
compressor

.
but p and v are related as pvn = C m = 0.5 kg/s
V1 = 7 m/s
C1 / n p1 = 100 kPa
or v =
p1/ n v1 = 0.95 m3/kg
2
Then V22 = - 2C1/ n
Ú1
p -1/ n dp

Ê p -1/ n + 1 - p -1/ n + 1 ˆ
= - 2C1/ n Á 2 1
˜ To find Shaft power input to compressor
Ë ( - 1 / n) + 1 ¯
Assumptions
using C1/n = p11/n v1 = p21/n v2
(i) No change in potential energy, or z1 = z2
Êp v -pvˆ (ii) Properties of the system remain constant at their
we get V2 2
= - 2n Á 2 2 1 1 ˜
Ë n -1 ¯ locations.
Ê n ˆ Analysis
= -2 Á R (T2 - T1 )
Ë n - 1˜¯ (i) The steady-flow energy equation with the above
n -1 1.67 -1
assumptions is given by
Êp ˆ n Ê 120 ˆ 1.67
where T2 = T1 Á 2 ˜ = 333 ¥ Á
Ë p1 ¯ Ë 300 ˜¯ Q -W

= 230.56 K È Ê V22 V12 ˆ ˘

= m Í(u2 - u1 ) + ( p2 v2 - p1 v1) + Á - ˜˙
Using the values ÍÎ Ë 2 2 ¯˙
˚
Ê 1.67 ˆ
V22 = –2 ¥ Á ¥ 2078.5 Calculating each term separately;
Ë 1.67 - 1˜¯
¥ [(230.56 – 333)] Change in flow work;
p2 v2 – p1v1
or V22 = – 2 ¥ 2.4925 ¥ 2078.5 ¥ (–102.44)
= (700 kPa) ¥ (0.19 m3/kg) – (100 kPa)
= 1061414 m2/s2
¥ (0.95 m3/kg) = 38 kJ/kg
or V2 = 1030.25 m/s
Change in kinetic energy;
2 2
Compressor, Pumps V22 V12 5 -7
DKe = - = = –12 J/kg
2 2 2
Example 5.10 Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5 kg/s = –0.012 kJ/kg
through an air compressor, entering at 7 m/s velocity, Using in the above equation
100 kPa pressure and 0.95 m3/kg specific volume and –58 kW – W = (0.5 kg/s) ¥ [90 kJ/kg + 38 kJ/
leaving at 5 m/s, 700 kPa and 0.19 m3/kg, respectively. kg – 0.012 kJ/kg]
The internal energy of the air leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 159

or W = –58 – 0.5 ¥ 127.988 of air leaving is 70 kJ/kg greater than that of air enter-
= –121.994 kW ing, and increase in enthalpy of circulating water is
93 kJ/kg. Compute the amount of heat transferred to the
ª –122 kW (input)
atmosphere from the compressor per kg of air.
(ii) The mass-flow rate can be expressed as
AV AV
m = 1 1= 2 2 Solution
v1 v2
A1 p d12 v1 V2 0.95 ¥ 5 Given Work input, w = –175 kJ/kg,
or = = = = 3.5714
A2 p d22 v2 V1 0.19 ¥ 7 h2 – h1 = 70 kJ/kg,
d1 qwater = – 93 kJ/kg
= 3.5714 = 1.89 (Enthalpy increase of water = heat rejected by system)
d2
To find
Example 5.11 Air at 100 kPa and 280 K is compressed
(i) The amount of heat transferred to atmosphere
steadily to 600 kPa and 400 K. The mass-flow rate of air
is 0.02 kg/s and heat losses of 16 kJ/kg occurs during the Assumptions
process. Assuming the changes in potential and kinetic (i) The heat transfer, q = qwater + qatmosphere ,
energies are negligible, determine the necessary power (ii) z1 = z2, since no information is provided regarding
input to the compressor. the potential energy change,
(iii) Neither inlet velocity nor outlet velocity is given,
Solution
therefore, we assume change in kinetic energy is
Given Steady compression of air negligible, i.e., V1 = V2.
p1 = 100 kPa p2 = 600 kPa T1 = 280 K
Analysis The steady-flow energy equation for unit-
T2 = 400 K m = 0.02 kg/s q = – 16 kJ/kg mass flow rate
Dke = 0 Dpe = 0 q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe
To find Power input to the compressor. Using the values
q – (–175 kJ/kg) = (70 kJ/kg) + 0 + 0
Assumptions
or q = –175 kJ/kg + 70 kJ/kg
(i) Steady flow process, and = –105 kJ/kg
(ii) The specific heat at constant pressure is Since heat transfer q = qwater + qatmosphere
1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K.
(– 105 kJ/kg) = (– 93 kJ/kg) + qatmosphere
Analysis Applying steady-flow energy equation for or qatmosphere = – 105 + 93 = –12 kJ/kg
1 kg of air;
q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe Example 5.13 A centrifugal air compressor com-
For air, an ideal gas presses 5.7 m3/min of air from 85 kPa, 0.35 m3/kg to
Dh = Cp (T2 – T1) 650 kPa, 0.1 m3/kg. If the suction-line diameter is 10 cm
= 1.005 ¥ (400 – 280) = 120.6 kJ/kg and the discharge line diameter is 6.25 cm, determine
Then – 16 – w = 120.6 + 0 + 0 (i) the mass flow rate of fluid in kg/min, (ii) the change in
or w = – 136.6 kJ/kg
It is the work input to the compressor.
The power input to compressor
p = m w = 0.02 ¥ (–136.6)
= –2.732 kW

Example 5.12 In a test of water-cooled air compres-

sor, it is found that the shaft work required to drive the
compressor is 175 kJ/kg of air delivered and the enthalpy Fig. 5.29
160 Thermal Engineering

flow work between the boundaries, and (iii) the inlet and
m v2 (0.271 kg/s) ¥ (0.1 m3/kg)
outlet velocities. and V2 = =
(p /4) d22 (p /4) ¥ (0.0625 m) 2
Solution = 8.83 m/s
Given A centrifugal compressor with
Example 5.14 Air is compressed steadily at a rate
V = 5.7 m3/ min, of 0.46 kg/s from 100 kPa, 20°C to a final pressure of
v1 = 0.35 m3/kg, 320 kPa. The compression is polytropic with a polytropic
p1 = 85 kPa = 85 ¥ 103 N/m2, index of 1.32. The volume of air changes from 3 m3/kg to
v2 = 0.1 m3/kg, 0.8 m3/kg. The inlet velocity is 25 m/s, while exit velocity
p2 = 650 kPa = 650 ¥ 103 N/m2, is 130 m/s. The delivery connection is 12 m above the
d1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m inlet. What is the shaft power of the compressor? Is it a
d2 = 6.25 cm = 0.0625 m, power-absorbing or power-producing device?

To find Solution
(i) Mass-flow rate of fluid in kg/min, Given An air compressor with mass flow rate, m =
(ii) Change in flow work between the boundaries, 0.46 kg/s, of air
(iii) Inlet and exit velocities.
Assumptions
(i) No change in potential energy, or z1 = z2 ,
(ii) No heat transfer at system boundary,
(iii) Properties of the system remains constant at their
locations.
Analysis
(i) The mass-flow rate of air
V 5.7 m3/min
m = =
v1 0.35 m3/kg
= 16.3 kg/min = 0.271 kg/s
To find Shaft power input to compressor.
(ii) The change in flow work
Assumptions
D(pV) = m ( p2 v2 – p1 v2)
(i) No heat transfer at system boundary.
= 16.3 ¥ (650 ¥ 0.1 – 85 ¥ 0.35)
(ii) Properties of the system remain constant at their
= 574 kJ/min = 9.57 kW locations.
(iii) Inlet and exit velocities (iii) Acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s².
These velocities can be calculated from the continuity
equation as Analysis The relation for steady work is expressed as
AV A V V22 - V12
m = 1 1= 2 2
v1 v2 Ú
w = - vdp -
2
- ( z2 - z1) g

m v1 m v1 The p and v are related as pvn = C

or V1 = =
A1 (p / 4) d12 C1/n
3
or v =
(0.271 kg/s) ¥ (0.35 m /kg) p1/n
= = 12 m/s
(p /4) ¥ (0.1 m)2 Ê p2 v2 - p1v1 ˆ V22 - V12
we get w = - n Á - - ( z2 - z1) g
Ë n - 1 ˜¯ 2
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 161

Using the values with proper care of units using assumption, then

È 320 ¥ 0.8 - 100 ¥ 3 ˘

w = - 1.32 ¥ Í
1.32 - 1
˙ Ú Ú
w = - v dp = - v dp
Î ˚ During compression of water, the specific volume re-
130 2 - 252 12 ¥ 9.81 mains constant, therefore, total power input
- -
2 ¥ 1000 1000 p2

The kinetic energy and potential energy changes are

W = mv
Ú p1
dp = – m v( p2 – p1)

divided by 1000 to get each quantity in kJ/kg. = – (10 kg/s) ¥ (0.001 m3/kg) ¥ (5000 – 500) (kPa)
w = 181.5 – 8.1375 – 0.117 = – 45 kW (input power)
= 173.25 kJ/kg
Example 5.16 In a water-cooled compressor, 0.6 kg
The power input to the compressor of air is compressed per second. The power required to
W = mw run the compressor is 40 kW. The heat lost to the cooling
= (0.46 kg/s) ¥ (173.25 kJ/kg) water is 30% of input, and 10% of input is lost in bearing
= 79.7 kW and other frictional effects. The air enters the compressor
at 1 bar and 30°C. If the changes in potential energy and
Example 5.15 Water at the rate of 10 kg/s is com- kinetic energy are neglected, estimate the exit tempera-
pressed adiabatically from 5 bar to 50 bar in a steady ture of air. Take Cp for air as 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K.
flow process. Calculate the power required, assuming
that the specific volume of water to be 0.001 m3/kg, which Solution
remains almost constant.
Given A water-cooled compressor;
m = 0.6 kg/s W = – 40 kW (work input)
Solution
p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa T1 = 30°C = 303 K
Given Compression of water The total losses of input may be considered as
m = 10 kg/s p1 = 5 bar = 500 kPa
Q = (0.3 + 0.1) of input = 0.4 ¥ 40
p2 = 50 bar = 5000 kPa Q =0
= –16 kW (losses),
v = 0.001 m3/kg
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K
To find Power input to pump
To find Exit temperature of air
Assumptions
(i) No change in potential energy, and
(ii) No change in kinetic energy.
Analysis The steady-flow energy equation;
Q - W = m (Dh + Dke + Dpe)
Fig. 5.31 Dropping out, Dke and Dpe, and using the values
(– 16 kW) – (– 40 kW) = (0.6 kg/s) ¥ (Dh)
Assumption
we get Dh = 40 kJ/kg
(i) Change in potential energy, Dpe = 0,
(ii) Change in kinetic energy Dke = 0, The change in specific enthalpy can be expressed as
Analysis In a steady flow process, the work transfer Dh = Cp (T2 – T1)
can be obtained as or 40 = 1.005 ¥ (T2 – 303)

Ú
w = - vdp - D ke - D pe or T2 = 342.8 K = 69.8°C
162 Thermal Engineering

Example 5.17 A centrifugal pump delivers 50 kg of The flow rate of water can be expressed as
3 3
water per second. The inlet and outlet pressures are 1 bar V = m v = (50 kg/s) ¥ (0.001 m /kg) = 0.05 m /s
and 4.2 bar respectively. The suction is 2.2 m below the and V = V1 A1 = V2 A2
centre of the pump and delivery is 8.5 m above the centre
V V (0.05 m3/s) ¥ 4
of the pump. The suction and delivery pipe diameters are V1 = = 2
=
20 cm and 10 cm, respectively. Determine the capacity of
A1 (p /4) d1 p ¥ (0.2 m)2
electric motor to run the pump. = 1.59 m/s
V V (0.05 m3/s) ¥ 4
Solution or V2 = = =
A2 (p /4) d22 p ¥ (0.1 m) 2
Given A centrifugal water pump with flow rate = 6.37 m/s
m = 50 kg/s Calculating each term of the steady-flow energy
d1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m equation separately:
d2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m (i) Since the temperature remains constant during
p1 = 1 bar = 1 ¥ 105 N/m2, pumping, therefore, the specific internal energy
p2 = 4.2 bar = 4.2 ¥ 105 N/m2 change,
z1 = 8.5 m Du = 0
z2 = – 2.2 m (ii) The change in kinetic energy,
To find The power input to pump V22 - V12 6.372 - 1.592
Dke = =
2 2
= 19.02 J/kg = 0.019 kJ/kg
(iii) Change in potential energy,
Dpe = g(z2 – z1)
= (9.81m/s²) ¥ [8.5 m – (–2.2 m)]
= 105 J/kg = 0.105 kJ/kg
(iv) Change in flow work,
D(pv) = p2v2 – p1v1 = v( p2 – p1)
= (0.001 m3/kg) ¥ (420 kPa – 100 kPa)
= 0.32 kJ/kg
Substituting the values of each term in the
equation we get,
0 – W = 50 ¥ (0 + 0.32 + 0.019 + 0.105)
or W = –22.2 kW
Fig. 5.32
Turbine
Assumptions
(i) No temperature change of water during pumping, Example 5.18 Steam enters a turbine with a velocity
thus Du ª 0. of 40 m/s and specific enthalpy of 2500 kJ/kg; and
(ii) No heat transfer during the pumping. leaves with a velocity of 90 m/s and specific enthalpy of
(iii) Specific volume of water is constant and is 2030 kJ/ kg. Heat losses from the turbine to surroundings
0.001 m³/kg. are 240 kJ/min and the steam-flow rate is 5040 kg/h.
(iv) Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s. Neglect the change of potential energy. Find the power
developed by the turbine.
Analysis The steady-flow energy equation is given by
Q - W = m (Du + D(pv) + Dke + Dpe) Solution
Given A steam turbine as shown in Fig. 5.33.
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 163
.
1 Q = – 240 kJ/min = – 4 kW p1 = 7.2 bar 1
h1 = 2500 kJ/kg T1 = 850 oC
V1 = 40 m/s V1 = 160 m/s
Steam
turbine . Gas turbine
Dpe = 0 W=? W¢ = ?
.
m = 5040 kg/h = 1.4 kg/s
Q=0
2
h2 = 2030 kJ/kg 2
p2 = 1.15 bar
V2 = 90 m/s
cp = 1.04 kJ/kg.K T2 = 450oC
Fig. 5.33 V2 = 250 m/s

Fig. 5.34
To find Power developed by the turbine.
Assumptions
Analysis The steady-flow energy equation is
Q – W = m (Dh + Dke + Dpe) (i) No change in potential energy, or Dpe = 0
Calculating each term of the steady-flow energy (ii) Properties of the system remains constant at their
equation separately locations
(i) Change in specific enthalpy, Analysis The steady-flow energy equation is
Dh = h2 – h1 = 2030 – 2500 q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe
= – 470 kJ/kg Calculating each term of the steady-flow energy
(ii) Change in kinetic energy, equation separately
V22 - V12 Change in specific enthalpy,
Dke =
2 Dh = Cp (T2 – T1)
90 2 - 40 2 = (1.04) ¥ (450 – 850) = – 416 kJ/kg
= = 3250 J/kg
2 Change in kinetic energy,
= 3.25 kJ/kg V22 - V12 (250)2 - (160)2
Dke = =
Substituting the values of each term in the equation, 2 2
we get, = 18450 J/kg = 18.45 kJ/kg
(– 4 kW) – W = (1.4 kg/s) ¥ (– 470 kJ/kg Substituting the values of these terms in steady-flow
+ 3.25 kJ/kg + 0) energy equation, we get
or W = 653.45 – 4 = 649.45 kW 0 – w = (– 416 kJ/kg) + (18.45 kJ/kg) + 0
or w = 397.55 kJ/kg
Example 5.19 The gas turbine of a turbojet engine
receives a steady flow of gases at a pressure of 7.2 bar, Example 5.20 A hydraulic turbine is supplied with
a temperature of 850°C and a velocity of 160 m/s. It dis- 25 m3/s of water. At the turbine inlet, the water is at 5 bar,
charges the gases at a pressure of 1.15 bar, a temperature and 25°C with an elevation above datum of 100 metres
of 450°C, and a velocity of 250 m/s. Determine the ex- and a flow velocity of 1 m/s. At the turbine exit, the water
ternal work output of the turbine in kJ/kg of the gas flow. is at 1.2 bar and 25.1°C with zero elevation and a flow
The process may be assumed to be adiabatic and Cp for velocity of 11 m/s. The turbine loses 5 J of heat per kg of
combustion gases may be taken as 1.04 kJ/kg ◊ K. water flowing through it. Assuming that the water is an
incompressible fluid with specific heat of 4.178 kJ/kg ◊ K,
Solution determine
(a) the change in potential energy,
Given A gas turbine of a turbojet engine as shown in
Fig. 5.34. (b) the change in internal energy, and
(c) the power output in MW.
To find The work developed by the turbine in kJ/kg.
164 Thermal Engineering

Solution (Water has a single specific heat, which is given

as 4.178 kJ/kg ◊ K.
Given A hydraulic turbine is shown in Fig. 5.35.
(iii) Change in kinetic energy,
V = 25 m3/s p1 = 5 bar
p2 = 1.2 bar T1 = 25°C Ê V 2 - V12 ˆ
DKE = m ¥ Á 2 ˜
V1 = 1 m/s T2 = 25.1°C Ë 2 ¯
z1 = 100 m z2 = 0 (11m) 2 - (1 m) 2
V2 = 11 m/s Cp = 4.178 kJ/kg ◊ K = (25000 kg/s) ¥
2
q = –5 J/kg = 15 ¥ 105 J/s = 1500 kW
The total heat-loss rate
Water from a
reservoir Q = m q = (25000 kg/s) ¥ (–5 J/kg)
.
V = 25 m3/s, = –125 ¥ 103 J/s = – 125 kW
V1 = 1 m/s, The steady-flow energy equation is given by
p1 = 5 bar,
T1 = 25°C Q - W = m (Dh + Dke + Dpe)
Turbine Substituting the values of each term in the
wheel equation, we get,
z1 = 100 m –125 kW – W = 10445 kW + 1500 kW
.
– 24.525 ¥ 103 kW
W or W = 12445 kW or 12.445 MW
Boundary
Example 5.21 Steam initially at 1.5 MPa and 300°C
expands reversibly and adiabatically in a steam turbine
q = –5 J/kg
Water flow out
z2 = 0 to 40°C. Determine the
V2 = 11 m/s, (a) condition of steam after expansion,
p2 = 1.2 bar, (b) work done by the turbine per kg of steam.
T2 = 25.1oC

Fig. 5.35 Solution

Given Isentropic expansion of steam;
To find
p1 = 1.5 MPa T1 = 300°C
(i) The change in potential energy, Q =0 T2 = 40°C
(ii) The change in internal energy, and
(iii) Power developed by the turbine in MW. To find
(i) Condition of steam after expansion,
Analysis The mass-flow rate of water
m = Volume ¥ density T

= 25 m3/s ¥ 1000 kg/m3 1 1.5 MPa, 300°C

= 25000 kg/s
(i) The change in potential energy,
DPE = m g (z2 – z1)
= (25000) ¥ (9.81) ¥ (0 – 100)
= –24.525 ¥ 106 J/s 2
40°C
= – 24.525 ¥ 103 kW
(ii) The change in internal energy
DU = DH = m Cp DT
= (25000) ¥ (4.178) ¥ (25.1 – 25) s
= 10445 kW Fig. 5.36
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 165

(ii) Turbine work output. ditions are 1.25 bar and 40 m/s. The mass-flow rate of air
is 1000 kg/h. The flow of air is assumed to be reversible
Assumptions
adiabatic. Calculate
(i) The kinetic energy change is negligible. (a) the temperature of air at exit, and
(ii) The potential energy change is negligible. (b) the power output of the turbine.
(iii) No heat transfer occurs during expansion. Assume Cp = 1.053 kJ/kg ◊ K and adiabatic index =
Properties of steam At 1.5 MPa (1500 kPa) and 300°C: 1.375.
h1 = 3038.9 kJ/kg s1 = 6.92 kJ/kg ◊ K
Solution
At 40°C p2 = 7.3 kPa sf2 = 0.572 kJ/kg ◊ K
sg2 = 8.257 kJ/kg ◊ K hf2 = 167.57 kJ/kg Given A turbine with operating data as shown in
hfg2 = 2406.7 kJ/kg Fig. 5.37.
m = 1000 kg/h = 0.278 kg/s
Analysis
Cp = 1.053 kJ/kg ◊ K,
(i) From observation of the magnitude of entropy g = 1.375
values at the two states, we find that the steam To find
should be wet at exhaust. For isentropic (i) The temperature of air at exit,
expansion, (ii) The power output of the turbine.
s1 = s2 = sf2 + x(sg2 – sf2)
Assumptions
6.92 = 0.572 + x(8.257 – 0.572)
(6.92 - 0.572) (i) No change in potential energy, or Dpe = 0,
or x = = 0.826 (ii) Properties of the system remains constant at their
7.685
(ii) Steady-flow work per kg of steam, locations.
q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe Analysis
Substituting the values in the above equation, we
get (i) The exit temperature can be calculated by
the using property relationship for reversible
w = h1 – h2
adiabatic process;
Where h2 = hf2 + xhf g2
(g -1)
= 167.57 + 0.826 ¥ 2406.7
T2 Êp ˆ g
= 2155.5 kJ/kg = Á 2˜
T1 Ë p1 ¯
and w = h1 – h2 = 3038.9 – 2155.5
(g -1)
= 883.4 kJ/kg Êp ˆ g
or T2 = T1 Á 2 ˜
Ë p1 ¯
Example 5.22 A turbine operating on air has inlet
(1.375 - 1)
conditions of 10 bar, 750 K, and 200 m/s, while exit con-
Ê 1.25 ˆ 1.375
= 750 ¥ Á
Ë 10 ˜¯
p1 = 10 bar = 1 ¥ 106 N/m2
T1 = 750 K
1 = 750 ¥ 0.567 = 425.3 K
V1 = 200 m/s

.
m = 1000 kg/h = 0.278 kg/s Air turbine
Cp = 1.053 kJ/kg.K, .
W=?
g = 1.375
.
Q=0
2
p2 = 1.25 bar = 125 ¥ 103 N/m2
V2 = 40 m/s

Fig. 5.37
166 Thermal Engineering

(ii) The steady-flow energy equation is Analysis The mass rate of steam leaving the turbine
Q – W = m (Dh + Dke + Dpe) m3 = m1 + m2 = 5 + 15 = 20 kg/s
Calculating each term of steady-flow energy equation Total enthalpy of steam coming from the boiler 1;
separately: H1 = m1 h1 = (5 kg/s) ¥ (3911.72 kJ/kg)
Change in specific enthalpy, = 19558.6 kJ/s
Dh = Cp (T2 – T1) Total enthalpy of steam coming out of the boiler 2;
= (1.053) ¥ (425.3 – 750) H2 = m2 h2 = (15 kg/s) ¥ (3480.6 kJ/kg)
= –341.83 kJ/kg = 52209 kJ/s
Change in kinetic energy, Total enthalpy of steam leaving the turbine
V22 - V12 40 2 - 200 2 H3 = m3 h3 = m3 (hf 3 + x3 hfg3)
Dke = = = (20 kg/s) ¥ (191.81 + 0.96
2 2
= –19200 J/kg ¥ 2392.82) (kJ/kg)
= –19.2 kJ/kg = 49778.3 kJ/s
Substituting the values of these terms in the steady- Applying steady-flow energy equation
flow energy equation, we get, Q - W = DH + DKE + DPE
0 – W = (0.278 kg/s) ¥ [(– 341.83 kJ/kg) Calculating each item separately
+ (–19.2 kJ/kg) + 0] Given Q = 0; DKE = 0 and DPE = 0
or W = 100.3 kW Then DH = Exit enthalpy – Inlet enthalpy
= H3 – (H1 + H2)
Example 5.23 A steam turbine receives steam from = 49778.3 – (19558.6 + 52209)
two boilers One flow is 5 kg/s at 3 MPa, 700°C and the = – 21989.25 kJ/s
other flow is 15 kg/s at 800 kPa, 500°C. The exit state Then – W = DH = – 21989.25 kW
is 10 kPa, with a quality of 96%. Find the total power or W = 21989.25 kW = 21.99 MW
output of the adiabatic turbine.
Example 5.24 The mass-flow rate of steam into a
Solution steam turbine is 1.5 kg/s and the heat transfer from the
Given A steam turbine receiving steam from two boil- turbine is 8.5 kW. The steam is entering in the turbine at
ers: the pressure of 2 MPa, temperature of 350°C, velocity
Boiler 1: m1 = 5 kg/s p1 = 3 MPa T1 = 700°C of 50 m/s, elevation of 6 m and is leaving the turbine
Boiler 2: m2 = 15 kg/s p2 = 800 kPa T2 = 500°C at a pressure of 0.1 MPa, quality of 100 %, velocity of
200 m/s, elevation of 3 m. Determine the power output
Exit : Q =0 p3 = 10 kPa x3 = 0.96
of the turbine.
To find Power output of the turbine
Solution
Assumptions
Given Flow through a turbine
(i) Steady flow through the turbine,
m = 1.5 kg/s, Q = –8.5 kW
(ii) Changes in kinetic and potential energies are
negligible. p1 = 2 MPa, p2 = 0.1 MPa
T1 = 350°C x2 = 1.0
Properties of steam V1 = 50 m/s V2 = 200 m/s
At 3 MPa or 3000 kPa and 700°C; z1 = 6 m z2 = 3m
v1 = 0.14838 m3/kg, h1 = 3911.72 kJ/kg
To find Power output of the turbine.
At 800 kPa and 500°C;
v2 = 0.44331 m3/kg, h2 = 3480.6 kJ/kg Assumptions
At 10 kPa; (i) Steady flow condition,
vg3 = 14.673 m3/kg, hf 3 = 191.81 kJ/kg, (ii) Acceleration due to gravity as.
hfg3 = 2392.82 kJ/kg, hg 3 = 2584.63 kJ/kg g = 9.81 m/s2
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 167
.
2 MPa Q = –8.5 kW To Find
50 m/s, (i) Dryness fraction of steam after isentropic expan-
350°C
1.5 kg/s sion and adiabatic heat drop, and
6m (ii) Pressure after throttling and increase in entropy
Steam during throttling.
turbine .
W Analysis Properties of steam
At pressure 25 bar, hf1 = 962 kJ/kg
0.1 MPa hfg1 = 1839 kJ/kg
200 m/s sf 1 = 2.5543 kJ/kg ◊ K
x =1,
3m sg1 = 6.2536 kJ/kg ◊ K
Fig. 5.38 At pressure 15 bar, hf 2 = 844.75 kJ/kg
hfg2 = 1947.2 kJ/kg
Analysis Properties of steam: sf 2 = 2.3145 kJ/kg ◊ K
State 1: 2MPa, 350°C, (From superheated steam table) sg2 = 6.4406 kJ/kg ◊ K
h1 = 3136.96 kJ/kg (i) The dryness fraction of steam after isentropic
State 2: 0.1 MPa, (From pressure entry steam table) expansion,
x = 1.0 h2 = 2675.45 s1 = s 2
Using steady-flow energy equation. sf1 + x(sg1 – sf1) = sf2 + x2 (sg2 – sf2)
Q - W = m (Dh + Dke + Dpe) 2.5543 + 0.9 ¥ (6.2536 – 2.5543)
Calculating each quantity separately = 2.3145 + x2 (6.4406 – 2.3145)
Dh = h2 – h1 = 2675.45 – 3136.96 5.8848 - 2.3145
= – 461.51 kJ/kg or x2 = = 0.865
4.1256
V22 - V12 ( 200) 2 - (50) 2 Enthalpy drop during isentropic expansion
Dke = =
2 2 Dh = h1 – h2 = (hf + x1hfg ) – (hf + x2hfg )
1 1 2 2
= 18750 J/kg = 18.75 kJ/kg = (962 + 0.9 ¥ 1839) – (844.75 + 0.865
Dpe = (z2 – z1) g = (3 – 6) ¥ 9.81 ¥ 1947.2)
= – 29.43 J/kg = – 0.0294 kJ/kg = 88.0 kJ/kg
Using these values in the above equation; (ii) The pressure after throttling
– 8.5 – W = 1.5 ¥ [– 461.51 + 18.75 – 0.0294] Since h2 = h3
or – W = 8.5 + 1.5 ¥ (– 442.78) The enthalpy of steam after throttling
or W = 655.68 kW h3 = h2 = 844.75 + 0.865 ¥ 1947.2
= 2529.08 kJ/kg
Example 5.25 Steam initially at a pressure of 25 bar
Pressure corresponds to this enthalpy when steam
and 0.9 dry expands isentropically to 15 bar and it is then
is just dry.
throttled until it is just dry. Find
= 0.016 bar
(a) the quality of steam after isentropic expansion
Entropy at this pressure
and adiabatic heat drop,
s3 = 8.834 kJ/kg ◊ K
(b) the pressure after throttling, increase in entropy
Change in entropy
during throttling,
= s3 – s2 = s3 – [sf2 + x2 (sg2 – sf2)]
Solution = 8.834 – [2.3145 + 0.865 (6.4406 – 2.3145]
= 2.945 kJ/kg K
Given Isentropic expansion and throttling of steam
p1 = 25 bar x1 = 0.9 dry Example 5.26 The power output of a steam turbine is
p2 = 15 bar, x3 = 1 5 MW. The inlet conditions are 2 MPa of pressure, 400°C
168 Thermal Engineering

of temperature, 50 m/s of velocity and 10 m of elevation.

V22 - V12
The exit conditions are 15 kPa, 0.9 dry quality, 180 m/s, Dke =
2
and 6 m elevation.
(180 m/s) 2 - (50 m/s) 2
(a) Compute the magnitude of Dh, Dke, and Dpe. =
2
(b) Determine the work done per kg mass of steam. = 14950 J/kg = 14.95 kJ/kg
(c) Calculate the mass flow rate of steam. and Dpe = g (z2 – z1)
= (9.81 m/s2) ¥ (6 m – 10 m)
Solution = –39.24 J/kg = – 0.0392 kJ/kg
Given Steam turbine W = 5 MW (ii) Work done by the turbine per kg of steam
p1 = 2 MPa = 200 kPa V1 = 50 m/s Applying steady-flow energy equation for unit
T1 = 400°C + 273 = 673 K, z1 = 10 m mass
p2 = 15 kPa x2 = 0.9 q – w = Dh + Dke + Dpe
V2 = 180 m/s z2 = 6 m 0 – w = –885. 87 + 14.95 – 0.0392
or w = 870.95 kJ/kg
2 Mpa q=0
o
(iii) The required mass-flow rate for a 5-MW power
400 C
50 m/s 1 output
10 m
Steam m = W = 5 ¥ 1000 = 5.74 kg/s
turbine .
W = 5 kW w 870.95

15 kPa Example 5.27 A turbine operating on a steady flow

0.9 dry 2
of air is to produce 1 kW of power by expanding air from
180 m/s
6m 300 kPa, 350 K, 0.346 m3/kg to 120 kPa. For preliminary
Fig. 5.39 design, the inlet velocity is assumed to be 30 m/s, the
exit velocity is assumed to be 50 m/s and the expansion
To Find follows the law pv1.4 = constant. Determine the required
mass-flow rate of air.
(i) The magnitude of Dh, Dke and Dpe,
(ii) Work done per kg mass of steam, Solution
(iii) The mass flow rate of steam.
Given An air turbine as shown in Fig. 5.40.
Assumptions
(i) Steady-state conditions through the turbine, To find Mass-flow rate of air.
(ii) No heat loss from the boundary of turbine, (q = 0). Assumptions
Analysis (i) No change in potential energy, or z1 = z2,
(i) At the inlet conditions, 2 MPa and 400°C: (ii) No heat transfer from the turbine,
h1 = 3247.6 kJ/kg (iii) Properties of the system remains constant at their
At the turbine exit, at 15 kPa: locations.
hf = 225.94 kJ/kg p1 = 300 kPa
hfg = 2373.1 kJ/kg T1 = 350 K
h2 = hf2 + xhfg2 V1 = 30 m/s
v1 = 0.346 m3/kg Turbine .
W = 1 kW = 1000 W
= 225.94 + 0.9 ¥ 2373.1 pv1.4 = C

= 2361.73 kJ/kg
Now, Dh = h2 – h1 p2 = 120 kPa
V2 = 50 m/s
= 2361.73 – 3247.6
= – 885.87 kJ/kg
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 169

Analysis The steady-flow energy equation for analysis w = 82953.18 J/kg @ 83 kJ/kg
is given by The mass-flow rate can be obtained as
V22 - V12 W 1 kW
q – w = h2 – h1 + + g (z2 – z1) m= = = 0.012 kg/s = 43.3 kg/h
2 w 83 kJ/kg
where q = 0 and change in potential energy is also negli-
gible and then equation reduces to Example 5.28 Consider a gas turbine power plant
V 2 - V12 with air as the working fluid. Air enters at 100 kPa, 20°C,
– w = h2 – h1 + 2 r1 = 1.19 kg/m3 with a velocity of 130 m/s through an
2
If the work per unit mass is determined, the mass flow opening of 0.112 m2 cross-sectional area. After being
rate can be calculated as compressed, heated and expanded through the turbine,
W = mw the air leaves at 180 kPa, 150°C, r2 = 1.48 kg/m3,
But with this equation also, we cannot proceed for through an opening of the same size. The power output
calculation of exit velocity V2, because h2 – h1 is also of the plant is 375 kW. The internal energy and enthalpy
unknown and cannot be directly calculated. Thus using of air are given in kJ/kg by u = 0.717 T and h = 1.004 T,
the equation where T is the temperature on kelvin scale. Determine the
net amount of heat transferred to air in kJ/kg.
Ú
w = - vdp - D ke - D pe
Solution
Dropping potential energy change
Given A gas turbine of a power plant
Ú
w = - vdp - D ke
A = 0.112 m2
p and v are related as pvn = C u = 0.717 T (kJ/kg)
C1 / n and h = 1.004 T ( kJ/kg)
or v = 1/ n
p To find Heat transferred per kg.
2
Then w = - C1 / n
Ú1
p -1/ n dp - D ke

È p ( -1/ n) + 1 - p1( -1/ n) + 1 ˘

= - C1 / n Í 2 ˙ - D ke
ÍÎ ( -1 / n ) + 1 ˙˚
Using C1/n = p11/n v1 = p21/n v2
Ê p v - p1v1 ˆ
We get w = - n Á 2 2 - D ke
Ë n - 1 ¯˜ Fig. 5.41
1
-
v2 Ê p2 ˆ n Assumptions
Using = Á ˜
v1 Ë p1 ¯ (i) No change in potential energy, or z1 = z2.
È ( n -1) ˘ (ii) Properties of the system remains constant at their
Ê n ˆ ÍÊ p2 ˆ n ˙
We get w = - Á pv - 1˙ - D ke locations.
Ë n - 1˜¯ 1 1 ÍÍÁË p1 ˜¯ ˙
Î ˚ Analysis The steady-flow energy equation for unit
Using the values mass flow rate;
Ê 1.4 ˆ V22 - V12
w = –Á ¥ 300 ¥ 103 q – w = h2 – h1 + + g (z2 – z1)
Ë 1.4 - 1˜¯
2
The mass-flow rate
ÈÊ 120 ˆ 0.4 /1.4 ˘ 50 2 - 30 2 m = r1 V1 A1
¥ 0.346 ÍÁË ˜ - 1˙ -
Í 300 ¯ ˙ 2 = (1.19 kg/m3) ¥ (130 m/s) ¥ (0.112 m2)
Î ˚
= 17.326 kg/s
170 Thermal Engineering

The exit velocity of fluid Solution

m (17.326 kg/s)
V2 = = Given A steam power plant operates as a steady flow
r2 A2 (1.48 kg/m3 ) ¥ (0.112 m2 )
system as shown in Fig. 5.42.
= 104.5 m/s
To find Power output from the power plant.
The work done per unit mass;
Assumptions
W 375 kW
w= = = 21.64 kJ/kg (i) Boiler and turbine together as a system,
m 17.326 kg/s
(ii) Properties of the system remain constant at their
The specific change in enthalpy;
locations.
h2 – h1 = Cp (T2 – T1)
= (1.004 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (423 K – 293 K) Analysis The steady-flow energy equation for a com-
= 130.52 kJ/kg bined system is given by
The change in kinetic energy; Q – W = m [Dh + Dke + D pe]
V22 - V12 Calculating each term separately
Dke =
2
(i) The net heat-transfer rate,
(104.52 - 130 2 ) ( m2 / s 2 ) Q = Heat supplied to the boiler
=
2 – heat rejected from the system
= – 2990 J/kg = – 2.99 kJ/kg = m (h2 – h1) – Qrej
Substituting these values in the steady-flow energy = (1 kg/s) ¥ (3140 – 840)(kJ/kg)
equation – 20 kW = 2280 kJ/kg
q – 21.64 = 130.52 – 2.99 + 0 (ii) The change in specific enthalpy;
or q = 148.55 kJ/kg Dh = h3 – h1
= 2640 kJ/kg – 840 kJ/kg
In a steam power plant, the steady
= 1800 kJ/kg
flow conditions prevail, 3600 kg of water per hour enters
(iii) The change in kinetic energy;
the boiler at a specific enthalpy of 840 kJ/kg and a speed
of 300 m per minute at 5-m elevation. The water receives V32 - V12 (50 2 - 52 ) (m 2 /s 2 )
Dke = =
heat at constant pressure in the boiler and increases 2 2
specific enthalpy to 3140 kJ/kg and then steam formed = 1237.5 J/kg = 1.237 kJ/kg
enters the turbine. The steam leaves the turbine at the (iv) The change in potential energy
speed of 3000 m/min at an elevation of 1 m and a specific D pe = g (z3 – z1)
enthalpy of 2640 kJ/kg. Heat losses from the turbine and
= (9.81 m/s²) ¥ (1 m – 5 m)
boiler are 72000 kJ/h. Determine the power output of the
power plant. = – 39.24 J/kg = – 0.039 kJ/kg

. .
QS Qrej = –72000 kJ/h = –20 kW

.
m = 3600 kg/h = 1 kg/s h2 = 3140
h1 = 840 kJ/kg 1 KJ/kg
V1 = 300 m/min = 5 m/s Boiler
2 .
z1 = 5 m Turbine W
Control volume
3
V3 = 3000 m/min = 50 m/s
h3 = 2640 kJ/kg
z3 = 1 m

Fig. 5.42
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 171

Substituting the values of these terms in steady flow The temperature T2, after polytropic expansion
energy equation 1- n
T2 Ê V2 ˆ
2280 kW – W = (1 kg/s) ¥ (1800 + 1.237 – 0.039) = Á ˜
T1 Ë V1 ¯
(kJ/kg) = 180.197 kW
1- n
or W = 478.8 kW Ê V2 ˆ
or T2 = T1 Á ˜
Ë V1 ¯
Example 5.30 Helium gas is expanded polytropically
= 573 ¥ (2.5)1 – 1.5135 = 358.1 K
in a turbine from 4 bar, 300°C to 1 bar such that the final
The gas constant R for helium,
volume is 2.5 times the initial volume. The velocity of gas
Ru 8.314
at the exit is 50 m/s. What is the mass-flow rate of gas R = = = 2.0785 kJ/kg K
required to produce 1 MW turbine output? How much M 4
The steady flow work/kg during expansion is ex-
is the heat transfer during the process? Also determine
pressed as
exit area of the turbine. Assume specific heat of helium =
5.193 kJ/kg at constant pressure. Ú
w = - vdp - D ke - D pe
where for polytropic expansion process
Solution
2 Ê n ˆ
Given Polytropic expansion of helium gas through a (a) - Ú
1
vdp = - Á
Ë n - 1˜¯
(p2 v2 – p1 v1)
turbine n
= - R (T2 – T1)
Helium gas
. n -1
Q =?
p1 = 4 bar 1.513
= - ¥ 2.0785 ¥ (358.1
T1 = 300°C
. (1.513 - 1)
Gas turbine W = 1 MW – 573)
= 1317.37 kJ/kg
Cp = 5.193 kJ/kg.K p2 = 1 bar V22 - V12 (50 m)2 - (0) 2
(b) Dke = =
V2 = 2.5 V1 2 2
V2 = 50 m/s = 1250 J/kg = 1.25 kJ/kg
(c) Dpe = 0
Therefore, the specific work done during
To find expansion
(i) Mass-flow rate of helium through the turbine, w = 1317.37 + 1.25 + 0
(ii) Heat transferred during expansion process, and = 1318.62 kJ/kg
(iii) Exit area of the turbine. Further, turbine output
W = mw
Assumptions
or 1000 kW = m ¥ 1318.62
(i)The molecular weight of the helium = 4 kg/kmol. or m = 0.7583 kg/s or 2730 kg/h
(ii)Steady flow conditions through the turbine. (ii) Heat transferred during the steady flow process
(iii)Universal gas constant Ru = 8.314 kJ/kmol ◊ K.
Q - W = m (Dh + Dke + Dpe)
(iv) Inlet velocity of helium gas is negligible i.e.,
V1 = 0. where Dh = Cp (T2 – T1)
(v) Change in potential energy is negligible. = 5.193 ¥ (358.1 – 573)
= – 1115.97 kJ/kg
Analysis Therefore, the heat transferred,
(i) The index of expansion of helium gas Q – 1000 = 0.7583 ¥ (– 1115.97 + 1.25 + 0)
p1V1n = p2V2n or Q = 1000 – 845.3 = 154.7 kW
Ê 4ˆ (iii) Exit area of the turbine can be obtained by using
ln Á ˜
ln ( p1 / p2) Ë 1¯ continuity equation;
or n = = = 1.513
ln (V2 /V1) ln ( 2.5) V2 = A2 V2
172 Thermal Engineering

where p1 V1 = m R T1 To find
0.7583 ¥ 2.0785 ¥ 573 (i) Rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger,
V1 =
400 (ii) Power output from turbine, and
3 (iii) Exit velocity of air from nozzle.
= 2.257 m /s
and V2 = 2.5 V1 = 5.644 m3/s Assumptions
V 5.664
Therefore, A2 = 2 = = 0.113 m2 (i) Steady flow condition,
V1 50 (ii) Since no information regarding the elevation is
= 11.3 ¥ 104 mm2 provided, thus assuming no change in potential
energy, i.e., z1 = z2 = z3 = z4
Example 5.31 Air-enters at 15°C through a heat
exchanger at a velocity of 30 m/s where its temperature Analysis Considering steady flow process through
is raised to 800°C. It then enters a turbine with the same each device separately.
velocity of 30 m/s and expands until the temperature (i) Control volume: Air heat exchanger
falls to 650°C. On leaving the turbine, air is taken at a Initial state: T1 = 15°C, V1 = 30 m/s
velocity of 60 m/s to a nozzle where it expands until the Final state: T2 = 800°C, V2 = 30 m/s
temperature has fallen to 500°C. If the air-flow rate is Applying steady flow energy equation to heat
2 kg/s, calculate. exchanger,
(a) Rate of heat transfer to the air in the heat
ÔÏ V22 - V12 Ô¸
exchanger, Q - W = m Ì( h2 - h1) + + ( z2 - z1) g ˝
ÔÓ 2 Ô˛
(b) Power output of the turbine, assuming no heat
loss, and
1 2
(c) Velocity of air at the exit from nozzle, assuming
no heat loss. Take specific enthalpy of air as h
Heat
= CpT, where Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K and T is the exchanger
temperature in °C.
Fig. 5.45
Solution
For a heat exchanger
Given Air undergoes a steady-flow process through a W = 0, V1 = V2 and z1 = z2 (assumed)
heat exchanger, turbine and nozzle as shown below. Then Q = m (h2 – h1) = m Cp (T2 – T1)
Air m = 2 kg/s = ( 2 kg/s) ¥ (1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K)
h = CpT Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K ¥ (800 – 15) (K)
State 1: T1 = 15°C V1 = 30 m/s = 1577.85 kJ/s
State 2: V2 =30 m/s, T2 = 800°C (ii) Control volume: Air turbine
State 3: T3 = 650°C, V3 = 60 m/s
Initial state: T2 = 800°C, V2 = 30 m/s
Q2–3 = 0
Final state: T3 = 650°C, V3 = 60 m/s
State 4: T4 = 500°C, Q3–4 = 0
and Q2 – 3 = 0
.
Q Applying steady-flow energy equation to turbine
1 2 ÔÏ V32 - V22 Ô¸
Q - W = m Ì( h3 - h2) + + ( z3 - z2) g ˝
Heat ÓÔ 2 ˛Ô
Turbine .
exchanger W Using the data it reduces to
3
ÏÔ V32 - V22 ¸Ô
Nozzle 4
– W = m ÌC p (T3 - T2) + ˝
ÔÓ 2 Ô˛
Fig. 5.44
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 173

2 or V42 = 2 ¥ 1005 ¥ (650 – 500)

Turbine .
+ (60)2 = 305100
W or V4 = 552.36 m/s
Q=0
z2 = z3 3
Example 5.32 A heat exchanger receives air at a
velocity of 25 m/s and 20°C. The temperature of air in-
Fig. 5.46
creases to 780°C in a heat exchanger.
Ï The air then passes through the turbine. The velocity
60 2 - 30 2 ¸
or – W = 2 ¥ Ì1005 ¥ (650 - 800) + ˝ of air while entering the turbine is 25 m/s. The air
Ó 2 ˛ expands in the turbine, where its temperature falls to
= 2 ¥ (– 150750 + 1350)
630°C. On leaving the turbine, air passes through the
= – 298800 W nozzle. The velocity of air entering the nozzle is 60 m/s.
or W = 298800 W = 298.80 kW The air expands in the nozzle till its temperature falls to
(iii) Control volume: Nozzle 500°C. The air-flow rate is 2.5 kg/s. Determine
Initial state: T3 = 650°C, V3 = 60 m/s (a) Rate of heat transfer to air in the heat exchanger
Final state: T4 = 500°C (b) Power output from the turbine, assuming no heat
For nozzle W = 0, Q = 0, z3 = z4 loss
(c) The velocity at the exit from nozzle, assuming no
heat loss

Solution
Given Air undergoes a steady flow process through a
heat exchanger, turbine and nozzle as shown below:
Air m = 2.5 kg/s
Fig. 5.47 State 1: T1 = 20°C V1 = 25 m/s
State 2: V2 = 25 m/s, T2 = 780°C
Then steady-flow energy equation reduces to
State 3: T3 = 630°C, V3 = 60 m/s
ÔÏ V42 - V32 Ô¸ Q2–3 = 0
0 = m Ì( h4 - h3 ) + ˝
ÓÔ 2 ˛Ô State 4: T4 = 500°C, Q3–4 = 0
2 (h3 – h4) + V32 = V42 To find
or 2
V4 = 2 Cp (T3 – T4) + V3 2 (i) Rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger,
(ii) Power output from turbine, and
(iii) Exit velocity of air from nozzle.

Air 1 2
V1 = 25 m/s
o
T1 = 20 C
.
m = 2.5 kg/s V2 = 25 m/s
Heat T2 = 780 C
o

exchanger
Turbine
.
W

3
V3 = 60 m/s V4 = ?
T3 = 630oC o
T4 = 500 C
Nozzle 4

Fig. 5.48
174 Thermal Engineering

Assumptions V42 = 2 (h3 – h4) + V32

(i) Steady flow condition, or V42 = 2 Cp (T3 – T4) + V32
(ii) Since no information regarding the elevation is or V42 = 2 ¥ 1005 ¥ (630 – 500) + (60)2
provided, thus assuming no change in potential = 264900 m2/s2
energy, i.e., z1 = z2 = z3 = z4, or V4 = 514.68 m/s
(iii) Specific heat of air at constant pressure is
1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K.
Analysis Applying steady-flow process through each
Example 5.33 The steam at 2 MPa and 300°C
device separately.
is throttled to an atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa.
(i) Control volume: heat exchanger Determine the final temperature of air. Take the specific
W = 0, Dpe = 0 Dke = 0 heat of superheated steam as 2.2 kJ/kg ◊ °C.
Initial state: T1 = 20°C, V1 = 25 m/s
Final state: T2 = 780°C, V2 = 25 m/s Solution

The steady flow energy equation reduces to Given The throttling of steam
Q = m (h2 – h1) = m Cp (T2 – T1)
= (2.5) ¥ (1.005) ¥ (780 – 20) p1 = 2 MPa p2 = 100 kPa
T1 = 300°C T2 = ?
= 1909.5 kJ/s = 1909.5 kW
(ii) Control volume: Air turbine Fig. 5.49
Initial state: T2 = 780°C, V2 = 25 m/s To find The temperature of air after throttling.
Final state: T3 = 630°C, V3 = 60 m/s
Assumptions
Q2 – 3 = 0
(i) Flow through the throttle valve is assumed
Steady flow energy equation reduces to adiabatic, Q = 0.
ÔÏ V 2 - V22 Ô¸ (ii) Throttling valves do not involve any type of work
– W = m Ì( h3 - h2 ) + 3 ˝ interaction, therefore, W = 0.
ÓÔ 2 ˛Ô
(iii) No information regarding elevations and inlet
ÏÔ V 2 - V22 ¸Ô and exit velocity is provided, thus assuming,
or – W = m ÌC p (T3 - T2 ) + 3 ˝
ÔÓ 2 Ô˛ Dpe = 0, Dke = 0.

ÏÔ Analysis For a throttling device, the enthalpy of the

or – W = (2.5) ¥ Ì(1.005) ¥ (630 - 780) system before and after throttling remains constant. Thus,
ÓÔ h1 = h2
(60) 2 - ( 25) 2 ¸Ô The enthalpy of steam at 2 MPa and 300°C can be
+ ¥ (10 -3) ˝ obtained from the steam table for superheated steam as
2 Ô˛
h1 = 3023.5 kJ/kg
or W = 373.156 kW This enthalpy equals the exit enthalpy, thus
(iii) Control volume: Nozzle h2 = 3023.5 kJ/kg
W = 0, Dpe = 0 Q =0 But the exit pressure is 100 kPa, the properties of
Initial state: T3 = 630°C, V3 = 60 m/s saturated steam at 100 kPa;
Final state: T4 = 500°C hg,100 kPa = 2675.5 kJ/kg,
Then Steady flow energy equation reduces to Tsat = 99.63°C
ÏÔ V42 - V32 ¸Ô Since the enthalpy after throttling is greater than
0 = m Ì( h4 - T3 ) + ˝ enthalpy of saturated steam at 100 kPa, thus the quality
ÓÔ 2 ˛Ô of steam will be superheated. It can be obtained as
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 175

h2 = hg, 100 kPa + Cps (T2 – Tsat) During the throttling process enthalpy remains con-
stant;
or 3023.5 kJ/kg = 2675.5 kJ/kg + (2.2 kJ/kg ◊ °C)
h1 = h2
¥ (T2 – 99.63)(°C)
or Cp T1 = Cp T2 or T1 = T2
3023.5 - 2675.5
or T2 = + 99.63 Then specific volume at exit
2.2
RT2 0.287 ¥ 368
= 258.81°C v2 = =
p2 3.5 ¥ 100
Example 5.34 Air flows at the rate of 2.3 kg/s in a = 0.301 m3/kg
15-cm diameter pipe. It has a pressure of 7 bar and a The exit velcoity, from continuity equation
temperature of 95°C before it is throttled by a valve to m v2 2.3 ¥ 0.301
3.5 bar. Find the velocity of air demonstration of the V2 = =
A2 (p / 4)(0.15) 2
restrictions.
= 39.2 m/s
Solution
Mixing of Streams
Given Throttling of air as shown in Fig. 5.50
Example 5.35 A certain water heater operates under
1 2
d1 = 0.15 m steady flow conditions, receiving 4.2 kg/s of water at
p1 = 7 bar p2 = 3.5 bar
.
75°C temperature and an enthalpy of 313.93 kJ/kg. The
m = 2.3 kg/s d2 = 15 cm water is heated by mixing with steam, which is supplied
T1 = 95°C
to a heater at a temperature of 100.2°C and an enthalpy
Fig. 5.50 of 2676 kJ/kg. The mixture leaves the heater as liquid
water at a temperature of 100°C and an enthalpy of
To find The velocity of air after throttling 419 kJ/kg. How much steam must be supplied to the
heater per hour?
Assumptions
(i) Adiabatic conditions ( Q = 0), Solution
(ii) Steady flow process,
Given Heating of water with steam mixing as shown
(iii) Change in potential energy is negligible, i.e.,
in Fig. 5.51
(z1 = z2)
(iv) Air properties, R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K, Cp = 1.005 Steam
kJ/kg ◊ K T2 = 100.2°C
h2 = 2676 kJ/kg
Analysis For the given data, initial specific volume
RT1 0.287 ¥ 368 Water
v1 = =
p1 700 T3 = 100°C
= 0.151 m3/kg h3 = 419 kJ/kg

From continuity equation the initial velocity Water

.
AV m = 4.2 kg/s
m = 1 1 T1 = 75°C
v1 h1 = 313.93 kJ/kg
m v1 m v1
or V1 = =
A1 (p /4) d12
2.3 ¥ 0.151 To find Mass-flow rate of steam to heater.
or V1 = = 19.63 m/s
p
¥ (0.15) 2 Assumptions
4
(i) No heat loss to surroundings,
176 Thermal Engineering

(ii) Steady flow process, The initial energy of fluid in cylinder

(iii) Change in kinetic and potential energies is E1 = m1u1 + (m2 – m1)ui ...(5.26)
negligible. Energy of system at the end of charging
Analysis For adiabatic mixing streams, the steady flow E2 = m2u2 ...(5.27)
energy equation can be expressed as When the mass (Dmsystem) enters the cylinder,
m1h1 + m2 h2 = ( m1 + m2) h3 the cylinder volume becomes (m2 – m1)vi. The
or 4.2 ¥ 313.93 + m2 ¥ 2676 = (4.2 + m2 ) ¥ 419 work is done on the system to force the gas into the
cylinder at pressure pi acting in the supply mains.
or 1318.5 + 2676 m2 = 1759.8 + 419 m2
W = – (m2 – m1) p i vi.
or 2257 m2 = 441.3
where suffix i indicates the condition in the tank
or m2 = 0.1955 kg/s
after charging of cylinder.
Applying the first law of thermodynamics to this
system
Q -W = E2 - E1
Many practical processes involve unsteady flow,
Net energy transfer Change in energy
which cannot be analysed with the steady-flow by heat, work and mass
energy equation. While charging and discharging a or Q + (m2 – m1) p ivi
gas cylinder, the properties of gas inside the cylinder = m2u2 – [m1u1 + (m2 – m1)ui]
vary with time. The mass flow rates into and out of
or Q + (m2 – m1)(pivi + ui)
the cylinder are not same and there is accumulation
= m2u2 – m1u1
of mass inside the cylinder. Such flow processes are
transient and analysis of such processes is made by or Q + (m2 – m1)hi = m2u2 – m1u1
control mass analysis and then by control volume If the cylinder is insulated (Q = 0) and initially
analysis. evacuated (m1 = 0), then during adiabatic charging,
the specific enthalpy of gas in the supply main is
equal to the specific internal energy energy of the
Supply line
gas in the cylinder at the end of charging. That is
hi = u2 ...(5.28)
For an ideal gas h = Cp T and u = Cv T, then
T2 = g Ti ...(5.29)

Control volume Example 5.36 A spherical vessel of 1.5-m diameter

containing air at 315 K is evacuated until the vaccum
inside the vessel is 730 mm of Hg ; the evacuation process
is carried out at constant temperature. Determine the
mass of air pumped out. Also, calculate the pressure in
the tank, if remaining air is cooled to 275 K.
Mass of the gas, which enters the cylinder during
For air R = 0.287 kJ/kg ◊ K. Take atmospheric pres-
charging process can be expressed as sure as 760 mm of Hg.
m2 – m1 = Dmsystem ...(5.24)
Energy balance: Solution

E2 – E1 = DEsystem ...(5.25) Given Spherical vessel of constant capacity

V = Constant patm = 760 mm of Hg,
where suffix 1 = initial state, and 2 = final state of
R = 0.287 kJ/ kg ◊ K
control volume.
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 177

State 1: D = 1.5 m or ro = 0.75 m Example 5.37 An oxygen cylinder has a capacity of

T1 = 315 K 300 litres and contains oxygen at a pressure of 3.10 MPa
State2: pvacuum = 730 mm of Hg T2 = 315 K and a temperature of 18°C. The stop valve is opened and
State 3: T3 = 275 K some gas is used. If the pressure and temperature of the
oxygen left in the cylinder falls to 1.7 MPa and 15°C re-
To find
spectively, determine the mass of oxygen used.
(i) Mass of air pumped out, and If the stop valve is closed, the oxygen remaining in the
(ii) Pressure of air in the tank after cooling. cylinder gradually attains its initial temperature of 18°C.
Determine the amount of heat transferred through the
Assumption Density of mercury, r = 13.59 ¥ 103
cylinder wall from the atmosphere. The density of oxygen
kg/m3. at 0°C and 0.101325 MPa is 1.429 kg/m3 and g = 1.4 for
Analysis oxygen.
(i) The volume of spherical tank
Solution
4 3 4 3
V = p r o = p ¥ (0.75)
3 3 Given An oxygen cylinder with
= 1.767 m3 V = 300 lit = 300 ¥ 10–3 m3 = 0.3 m3
p1V State 1: p1 = 3.1 MPa= 3100 kPa
The initial mass of air ; m1 =
RT1 T1 = 18°C + 273 = 291 K
p2V
Final mass of air, m2 = (T1 and V are State 2: p2 = 1.7 MPa = 1700 kPa
RT1
constant) T2 = 15°C + 273 = 288 K
The mass of air pumped out State 3: T3 = 18°C + 273 = 291 K
(p1 - p2 )V r = 1.429 kg/m3
fi m1 – m2 = ...(i) T0 = 0°C + 273 = 273 K
RT1
Absolute pressure of air in the tank after evacution p0 = 0.101 325 MPa g = 1.4
p2 = pam – pvaccum = 760 – 730 To find
= 30 mm of Hg (i) Mass of oxygen used,
Then p1 – p2 = 760 – 30 = 730 mm of Hg (ii) Heat transfer Q2–3.
or p1 – p2 = rgh
Ê 730 ˆ Assumptions
= 13.59 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81¥ Á m
Ë 1000 ˜¯ (i) Oxygen as a perfect gas,
= 97322 Pa = 97.32 kPa (ii) Reversible process.
Using in Eq (i) with other numerical values
Analysis
97.32 ¥ 1.767
m1 – m2 = = 1.90 kg (i) The density of oxygen at 0°C (or 273 K) and
0.287 ¥ 315
0.101325 MPa (101.325 kPa) is given as 1.428
(ii) Pressure of air in the tank after cooling;
p2 p3 kg/m3. Using perfect gas equation for unit mass;
= p0
T2 T3 = RT0
r
T3 (101.325 KPa)
or p3 = p 2 ¥ or R =
T2 (1.429 kg/m3 ) ¥ (273 K)
275 = 0.259 kJ/kg ◊ K
= 30 mm of Hg ¥
315
= 26.2 mm of Hg From the characteristic gas equation, the initial
This pressure can be expressed in kPa as mass of the oxygen in the cylinder,
p3 = r g h p1V1 (3100 KPa) ¥ (0.3 m3 )
m1 = =
26.2 RT1 (0.259 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (291 K)
= 13.59 ¥ 103 ¥ 9.81 ¥ ¥ 10 -3
1000
= 12.3 kg
= 3.49 kPa
178 Thermal Engineering

The mass of the oxygen remaining in the cylinder To find

after its use. (i) Mass of steam admitted into cylinder,
p2 V2 (ii) Temperature of steam.
m2 =
RT2
Properties of steam
(1700 KPa) ¥ (0.3 m3 )
= At 10 bar (Saturated)
(0.259 kJ/kg ◊ K) ¥ (288 K)
v1 = 0.1944 m3/kg
= 6.83 kg
h1 = 2778.08 kJ/kg
Therefore, the mass of oxygen used
u1 = 2582.64 kJ/kg
Dm = m1 – m2 = 12.3 – 6.83 = 5.46 kg
At 40 bar and 400°C (Superheated)
(ii) The heat transferred during temperature change
v2 = 0.07341 m3/kg
of remaining oxygen in the cylinder
h2 = 3213.51 kJ/kg
Q2–3 = m2 Cv (T3 – T2)
R 0.259 Analysis The initial mass of steam in the tank
where Cv = =
g - 1 1.4 - 1 V 2 m3
= 0.6475 kJ/kg ◊ K m1 = = = 10.288 kg
v1 0.1944 m3/kg
Then Q2–3 = (6.83 kg) ¥ (0.6475 kJ/kg ◊ K) The mass of steam after steam admission at 4.0 MPa
¥ (291 K – 288 K)
V 2 m3
= 13.26 kJ m2 = = = 27.244 kg
v2 0.07341 m3/kg
A 2 m3 tank with perfectly insulated The mass of steam admitted into tank
walls contains saturated steam at a pressure of 1.0 MPa. madmitted = m2 – m1 = 27.244 – 10.288
This tank is connected to a steam line through a valve. = 16.956 kg
The valve is opened and the superheated steam at 4 MPa
For transient filling,
and 400°C flows into the tank until the pressure in the
tank is 4 MPa. Calculate the mass and temperature of Q + (m2 – m1)hi = m2u2 – m1u1
steam that enters the tank. For insulated tank Q = 0; then
16.956 ¥ 3213.51
Solution
= 27.244 u2 – 10.288 ¥ 2582.64
Given A tank of fixed capacity V = 2 m3 It gives u2 = 2975.27 kJ/kg
State 1: p1 = 1 MPa = 10 bar (Saturated steam) Interpolating at 40 bar between u(450°C) = 3010.13
State 2: p2 = 4 MPa = 40 bar kJ/kg and u(400°C) = 2919.88 kJ/kg, the final temperature
T2 = 400°C (Superheated steam) to be 430°C.

Summary
The mass-flow rate through a cross-section is mass-flow rate of the system is
expressed as
È
m = rAV (kg/s) Q - W = m Íu2 - u1 + p2 v2 - p1 v1
The volume-flow rate through a cross-section is ÍÎ
V 2 - V12 ˘
given by + 2 + (z2 - z1 ) g ˙
V = AV = m v (m3/s) 2 ˙˚
Using h = u + pv
The steady-flow energy equation for a given
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 179

then Q - W and duct, the shaft work w or W is always

zero.
È V 2 - V12 ˘
= m Íh2 - h1 + 2 + (z2 - z1 ) g ˙ (J/s) (ii) For throttle valve h1 = h2.
ÍÎ 2 ˙˚ (iii) For work consuming devices like water
Dividing both sides by m , the steady flow energy pumps, blowers, and compressors, the shaft
equation on a unit mass basis as work (input) W (or w) is always negative.
V22 - V12 (iv) For a water pump, v1 = v2, u1 = u2 and q = 0.
q – w = h2 – h1 + + g (z2 – z1) (v) For a turbine engine, the shaft work W (or
2
The steady flow process can be modeled for the w) is always positive.
following devices as follows: (vi) The other terms in the steady-flow energy
(i) For flow through a nozzle, diffuser, boiler, equation have their usual meaning if not
condenser, heat exchanger, throttle valve specified in the problem.

Glossary
Internal energy Total energy minus kinetic and poten- Diffuser Converts kinetic energy into pressure energy
tial energy Turbine Rotary engine used to generate power
Enthalpy Sum of internal energy and product of pres- Compressor A device which increases the pressure of a
sure and volume fluid
Steady No change with time Water pump Lifts water through an elevation at the
Steady flow process A process of fluid flow with con- cost of power input
stant properties at each location with respect to time Heat exchanger A device that transfers heat energy
Flow energy Work associated with fluid push in and between two fluids at different temperatures
out of a control volume Throttling Device A flow-control valve which reduces
Nozzle Converts pressure energy into kinetic energy pressure irreversibly

Review Questions
1. State the continuity equation with its nomencla- 8. Draw a control volume and write the energy and
ture. mass transfer and derive an expression for steady-
2. What is the total energy of a flow system? Identify flow energy equation.
different forms of energy that constitute the total 9. Write the steady-flow energy equation and state
energy of a system. the significance of various terms involved.

Ú
3. Define and explain how following properties are
10. State the significance of - vdp .
related with heat energy
(i) intrenal energy , and (ii) enthalpy.
4. Define and explain the flow work.
Ú
11. What is the relation between - vdp and Ú pdv ?
5. Distinguish between energy of a non-flow system 12. Differentiate between pv work and
Ú pdv work.
and a flow system.
6. What is flow energy? Do fluids at rest possess any
13. Explain the significance of
Ú pdv in case of
flow energy?. (a) flow process, and (b) non-flow process.
7. What is a steady flow process? What are the 14. Deduce the steady-flow energy equation for
conditions for a steady flow process? (a) reciprocating compressor, and (b) water pump.
180 Thermal Engineering

15. State the consequences of the first law of thermo- 19. Why are throttling devices commonly used in
dynamics. refrigeration and air-conditioning appliances?
16. When air enters a diffuser and decelerates, does 20. Would you expect the temperature of a liquid to
its pressure increase or decrease? Deduce the change as it is throttled? Explain.
steady-flow energy equation for a diffuser. 21. Apply steady-flow energy equation to each of the
17. Define the mass and volume flow rates. How are following :
they related to each other? (a) Boiler (b) Nozzle (c) Centrifugal pump
18. How is a steady flow system characterised? (d) Steam turbine (e) Water turbine

Problems
1. A stream of gases at 7.5 bar, 750°C and 140 m/s transfers to surroundings and engine foundation
is passed through a turbine of a jet engine. The is 25 MJ/h. The fuel–air mixture enters the engine
stream comes out of the turbine at 2.0 bar, 550°C at the rate of 150 kg/h. Determine the change in
and 280 m/s. The process may be assumed enthalpy of the air–fuel mixture stream in kJ/kg.
adiabatic. The enthalpies of gas at the entry and Neglect changes in kinetic energy and potential
exit of the turbine are 950 kJ/kg and 650 kJ/kg energy. [–1864 kJ/kg]
of gas respectively.Determine the capacity of the 5. 12 kg of a fluid per minute goes through a
turbine if the gas flow is 5 kg/s. [1353 kW] reversible steady flow process. The properties of
2. A steam turbime has the following data: fluid at the inlet are p1 = 1.4 bar, r1 = 25 kg/m3,
V1 = 120 m/s and u1 = 920 kJ/kg and at the exit
Parameter Inlet Outlet are p2 = 5.6 bar, r2 = 5 kg/m3, V2 = 180 m/s and u2
Steam pressure (bar) 14 0.07 = 720 kJ/kg. During the passage, the fluid rejects
Internal energy (kJ/kg) 2730 2340 60 kJ/s and rises through 60 metres. Determine
Specific volume (m³/kg) 0.166 18.6 (a) the change in enthalpy (Dh), and (b) work
Velocity of steam (m/s) 120 330 done during the process (W).
[Dh = – 93.6 kJ/kg ; W = – 44.2 kW]
The heat rejected from the turbine is 20 kJ/kg and
the power output is 20 kW. Neglecting changes in 6. A gas flows steadily through a rotary compressor.
potential energy, determine the mass flow rate of The gas enters the compressor at a temperature
steam. [0.0471 kg/s] of 16°C, a pressure of 100 kPa, and an enthalpy
of 391.2 kJ/kg. The gas leaves the compressor at
3. In one of the section of the heating plant in which a temperature of 245°C, a pressure of 0.6 MPa
there are no pumps, a steady flow of water enters and an enthalpy of 534.5 kJ/kg. There is no heat
at a temperature of 50°C and a pressure of 3 bar transfer to or from the gas as it flows through the
(h = 240 kJ/kg). The water leaves the section at a compressor.
temperature of 35°C and at a pressure of 2.5 bar
(h = 192 kJ/kg). The exit pipe is 20 m above the (a) Evaluate the external work done per unit
entry pipe. Assuming change in kinetic energy to mass of gas, assuming the gas velocities at
be negligible, evaluate the heat transfer from the entry and exit to be negligible.
water per kg of water flowing. [47.8 kJ/kg] (b) Evaluate the external work done per unit
4. A petrol engine operates steadily with a work mass of gas when the gas velocity at entry
output of 36 kW. The heat transfer rate to cooling is 80 m/s and that at the exit is 160 m/s.
water is 125 MJ/h. The sum of all other heat [143.3 kJ/kg, 152.9 kJ/kg]
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 181

7. In a steady flow process, the working fluid flows of the gas flow. The process may be assumed to be
at a rate of 240 kg/min. The fluid rejects 120 kJ/s adiabatic and Cp of gas as 1.04 kJ/kg ◊ K.
passing through the system. The conditions of [397.55 kJ/kg]
fluid at inlet and outlet are given as V1 = 300 m/s,
12. The centrifugal air compressor of a gas turbine
p1 = 6.2 bar, u1 = 2100 kJ/kg, v1 = 0.37 m3/kg
receives atmospheric air at 1 bar and 300 K.
and V2 = 150 m/s, p2 = 1.3 bar, u2 = 1500 kJ/kg,
It discharges the air at 4 bar and 480 K with
v2 = 1.2 m3/kg. The suffix 1 indicates the conditions
a velocity of 100 m/s. The mass-flow rate
at inlet and 2 indicates at outlet of the system.
compressor is 15 kg/s. Determine the power input
Neglecting the change in potential energy,
to compressor. [2810 kW]
determine the power capacity of the system in
MW. [2.7086 MW] 13. A blower handles 1 kg/s of air at 20°C and
consumes a power of 15 kW. The inlet and outlet
8. 15 kg of air per min. is delivered by a centrifugal
velocities are 100 m/s and 150 m/s respectively.
compressor. The inlet and outlet conditions of
Find the exit air temperature, assuming adiabatic
air are V1 = 10 m/s, p1 = 1 bar, v1 = 0.5 m3/kg
condition. Take Cp of air as 1.005 kJ/kg ◊ K.
and V2 = 80 m/s, p2 = 7 bar, v2 = 0.15 m3/kg.
The increase in enthalpy of air passing through [28.38°C]
the compressor is 160 kJ/kg, and heat loss to the 14. A gas flows steadily through a rotary compressor.
surroundings is 720 kJ/min. Assuming that inlet The gas enters the compressor at a temperature
and discharge lines are at the same level, find of 16°C a pressure of 100 kPa and an enthalpy of
(a) Motor power required to drive the compres- 391.2 kJ/kg. The gas leaves the compressor at a
sor, temperature of 245°C, a pressure of 0.6 MPa and
an enthalpy of 534.5 kJ/kg. If the flow through the
(b) Ratio of inlet to outlet pipe diameter.
compressor is adiabatic, calculate
[(a) 52.78 kW (b) d1/d2 = 5.16]
9. A compressor takes air at 100 kN/m2 and (a) Work input to the compressor per unit
delivers the same at 550 kN/m2. The compressor mass of gas, assuming no change in kinetic
discharges 16 m3 of free air per minute. The energy of the gas,
density of air at inlet and exit are 1.25 kg/m2 (b) Work input per kg of gas, if its inlet velocity
and 5 kg/m3. The power of the motor driving is 80 m/s and exit velocity is 160 m/s
the compressor is 40 kW. The heat lost to the [(a) 143.3 kJ/kg, (b) 152.9 kJ/kg]
cooling water circulated around the compressor 15. A centrifugal compressor supplies air at 0.5 MPa,
is 30 kJ/kg of air passing through the compressor. 200°C and 250 m/s velocity to a stationary gas
Neglecting changes in PE and KE, determine the turbine plant. The air enters the compressor from
change in specific internal energy. [60 kJ/kg] an atmosphere at 1 bar, 35°C and with negligible
10. 60 kg of water is delivered by a centrifugal pump velocity. Determine the work input per unit
per second. The inlet and outlet pressures are 1 mass of the air. Assuming adiabatic flow, will an
bar and 4 bar respectively. The suction is 2 m electric motor of 1200 kW rating be adequate for
below the centre of the pump and delivery is driving this compressor, if the mass-flow rate of
8 m above the centre of the pump. Determine the the air is 8 kg/s? [197.07 kJ/kg, No]
capacity of the electric motor to run the pump. 16. Calculate the work input per kg to pump water
The suction and delivery pipe diameters are insentropically from 100 kPa, 30°C to 5 MPa.
20 cm and 10 cm and respectively. [27.15 kW] [4.92 kJ/kg]
11. A gas turbine of a turbojet engine receives 17. Determine the power required to derive a pump
a steady flow of gases at a pressure of 7.2 bar, which raises the water pressure from 1 bar at
temperature of 850°C and a velocity of 160 m/s. entry to 25 bar at exit and delivers 2000 kg/h of
It discharges the gases at a pressure of 1.15 bar, a water. Neglect the changes in volume, elevation,
temperature of 450°C and a velocity of 250 m/s. velocity and take specific volume of water as
Determine the work output of the turbine in kJ/kg 0.001045 m³/kg. [–1.393 kW]
182 Thermal Engineering

18. Exhaust gases from a diesel engine enter a turbine 23. Air at 50 bar and 300 K is flowing through a
of a turbocharger at 2 bar, 600°C and 50 m/s. pipeline. An evacuated and insulated cylinder
The gases leave the turbine at 1 bar, 270°C and of 0.1-m3 volume is connected to the pipeline
220 m/s. The inlet area is 7.1 cm2. The heat loss through a valve. The valve is opened and the
from the turbine may be assumed 15 kJ/kg of cylinder is filled with air till the pressure in the
gases. Determine cylinder reaches 50 bar and then the valve is
(a) Mass flow rate of exhaust gases, closed. Determine the temperature of air in the
(b) Power output from the turbine. cylinder at the end of the filling operation and
mass of air that is filled in the cylinder. Take g =
Assume properties of gases are same as that of
1.4. [420 K and 4.15 kg]
air. [(a) 0.02833 kg/s (b) 8.32 kW]
19. Air enters a control volume at 10 bar, 400 K and 24. Steam at a pressure of 20 bar and 500°C is
20 m/s through a flow area of 20 cm2. At the exit, flowing in a pipe. An evacuated tank is connected
the pressure is 6 bar, the temperature is 345.7 K, to this pipe through a valve. The valve is opened
and the velocity is 330.2 m/s. The air behaves as and the tank is filled with steam until the pressure
an ideal gas. For steady-state operation, determine is 20 bar and then the valve is closed. The process
takes place adiabatically and changes in kinetic
(a) the mass flow rate, in kg/s
and potential energy can be assumed negligible.
(b) the exit flow area, in cm2
Determine the temperature of steam in the tank at
[(a) 0.3484 kg/s, (b) 1.744 cm2] the end of the filling operation. [698.4°C]
20. Air enters a control volume operating at steady
25. An insulated cylinder with a volume of 0.1 m3
state at 1.2 bar, 300 K, and leaves at 12 bar,
contains air at 50 bar and 300 K. The valve of the
440 K with a volumetric flow rate of 1.3 m³/min.
cylinder is opened allowing some of air to escape
The work input to the control volume is 240 kJ
till the air pressure in the cylinder reduces to 30
per kg of air flowing. Neglecting potential and
bar. Calculate the temperature of air left in the
kinetic energy effects, determine the heat transfer
cylinder and mass of air that escaped from the
rate, in kW. [– 3 kW]
cylinder. [29.2 K, 1.775 kg]
21. Air expands through a turbine from 10 bar, 900 K
26. A rigid and insulated tank of 0.5-m3 volume con-
to 1 bar, 500 K. The inlet velocity is very small
tains nitrogen at 20 bar and 400 K. The valve
compared to exit velocity of 100 m/s. The turbine
is opened, allowing some of the nitrogen to es-
operates at steady state and devlops a power of
cape till pressure in the tank reduces to 4 bar.
3200 kW. Heat transfer between the turbine and
Assuming nitrogen as an ideal gas, calculate the
its surroundings and potential energy effects are
mass of nitrogen discharged from the tank.
negligible. Calculate the mass flow rate of air in
kg/s and the exit area in m². [5.75 kg]

[8.06 kg/s, 0.115m2] 27. A rigid vessel of 1-m3 capacity contains steam at
20 bar and 300°C. A valve on the tank is opened,
22. In a conference hall, comfort temperature condi-
allowing some steam to escape until the pressure
tions are maintained in winter by circulating hot
reduces to 2 bar, and the temperature of the tank
water through a piping system. The water enters
is maintained constant while steam discharges
the system at 3-bar pressure and 50°C tempera-
from the tank. Calculate the energy transferred as
ture with an enthalpy of 240 kJ/kg and leaves at
heat. [41.942 MJ]
2.5 bar, and 30°C with an enthalpy of 195 kJ/kg.
The exit of water is 15 m above its entry. The hot 28. A container has a capacity of 3-m3. It contains
water supplies 30 MJ/h heat to the conference air at 1.5 bar and 298 K. Additional air is now
hall. Calculate the quantity of water circulated pumped until its pressure rises to 30 bar and tem-
through the pipe per minute. Assume there is no perature to 333 K. Calculate the mass of air added
pump in the system and change in kinetic energy to the container. If the container is allowed to cool
is negligible. [11.15 kg/mim] to its initial temperature, determine the pressure
of air in the container. Assuming air as an ideal
 First Law Applied to Flow Processes 183

gas, calculate the heat transfer and change in en- 35. Dry saturated steam at 800 kPa enters a steady
tropy during the cooling process. flow system and is expanded reversibly and iso-
[88.9 kg, 26.85 bar, – 2346.74 kJ, – 7.44 kJ/K] thermally to 500 kPa. There is no change of ki-
netic energy. The flow rate is 5.0 kg/s. Calculate
29. A vessel of 3-m3 capacity contains air at a pressure
the work done during expansion. [95.5 kJ/kg]
of 0.5 bar and a temperature of 25°C. Additional
air is now pumped into the system until the pres- 36. A turbine in a steam power plant operating under
sure rises to 30 bar and the temperature rises to steady state receives 1 kg/s superheated steam at
60°C. Determine the mass of air pumped in and 4 MPa and 300°C. The steam enters the turbine
express the quantity as a volume at a pressure of with the velocity of 10 m/s at an elevation of
1.02 bar and a temperature of 20°C. The gas is 5 m from the ground level. The turbine discharges
allowed to attain its temperature again at 25°C. the wet steam of 0.85 quality at 50 kPa pressure
Calculate the pressure in the vessel. Determine with a velocity of 50 m/s at an elevation of
the heat transferred and change in entropy of the 10 m above the ground level. The energy losses as
gas during the cooling process. heat from the turbine casing are estimated to be
10 kW. Estimate the power output of the turbine.
[Add. Mass = 92.41 kg, Equivalent volume
If the changes in kinetic energy and potential
= 76.2 m3, 26.84 bar, 2363 kJ, − 7.509 kJ/K]
energies are neglected, how much error will be
30. Steam at 0.6 MPa, 200°C enters an insulated introduced? [682.17 kW, 0.183%]
nozzle with a velocity of 50 m/s. It leaves at a
37. The power developed by a turbine in a certain
pressure of 5.5 bar and a velocity of 600 m/s.
steam power plant is 1200 kW. The heat supplied
Determine the final temperature, if the steam is
to the steam boiler is 3360 kJ/kg, the heat rejected
superheated in the final state and the quality, if it
by the system to cooling water in the condenser
is saturated. [x = 0.99]
is 2520 kJ/kg and the feed pump work required
31. Steam at 800 kPa, 300°C is throttled to 200 kPa. to pump the condensate back into the boiler is
Change in kinetic energy is negligible. Determine 6 kW. Calculate the steam flow through the cycle
the final temperature of the steam. [292.4°C] in kg/s. [5125.7 kg/h]
32. Steam enters a steam turbine at a pressure of 1 38. Steam at 5 MPa, 500°C enters a nozzle steadily
MPa, 300°C and a velocity of 50 m/s. The steam with a velocity of 80 m/s, and it leaves at 2 MPa
leaves the turbine at a pressure of 150 kPa and a and 400°C. The inlet area of the nozzle is 38 cm2,
velocity of 200 m/s. Determine the turbine output and heat is being lost at a rate of 8 kJ/s. Determine
per kg of steam flowing, assuming the process to (a) the mass flow rate of the steam, (b) the exit
be reversible adiabatic. [377.5 kJ/kg] velocity of the steam, and (c) the exit area of the
33. Consider the reversible adiabatic flow of steam nozzle.
through a nozzle. Steam enters a nozzle at 1 MPa, [(a) 4.43 kg/s, (b) 612.5 m/s, (c) 5.09 cm2]
300°C with a velocity of 30 m/s. The pressure of
39. Steam at 3 MPa and 400°C enters an adiabatic
steam at the nozzle exit is 0.3 MPa. Determine the
nozzle steadily with a velocity of 40 m/s and
exit velocity of steam leaving the nozzle.
leaves at 2.5 MPa and 300 m/s. Determine (a) the
[737 m/s] exit temperature and (b) the ratio of the inlet to
34. Steam is supplied to a turbine at 5.4 MPa, 300°C exit area A1/A2. [(a) 370°C, (b) 0.165]
expanded isentropically to an exhaust pressure at 40. Steam at 0.1 MPa and 150°C enters a diffuser
105.3 kPa. To what pressure must the incoming with a velocity of 180 m/s and leaves as saturated
steam be throttled in order to reduce the work vapour at 120°C with a velocity of 50 m/s. The
done per kilogram to two third of the work exit area of the diffuser is 0.08 m2. Determine
obtained without throttling? Assume the flow (i) the mass rate of steam (ii) the rate of heat
through the turbine is still reversible adiabatic transfer and (iii) the inlet area of the diffuser.
and exhaust pressure is also same. [510 kPa]
[(a) 4.484 kg/s, (b) 352 kW, (c) 0.054 m2]
184 Thermal Engineering

41. Steam flows steadily through adiabatic turbine rate of the steam is 25 kg/s. Determine (a) the
where the inlet conditions of the turbines are change in kinetic energy; (b) the power output
12.5 MPa, 500°C and 80 m/s and exit conditions and (c) the turbine inlet area.
are 10 kPa, 0.92 dry and 40 m/s. The mass-flow [(a) – 2.4 kJ/kg (b) 23.8 MW (c) 0.0080 m2]

Objective Questions
1. An adiabatic heat exchanger is used to heat cold (b) the system is in equilibrium with its sur-
water from 15°C entering at a rate of 5 kg/s by roundings
hot air at 90°C entering also at 5 kg/s. If the exit (c) properties change with time
temperature of air is 20°C, the exit temperature of Ê ∂v ˆ
water is (d) when Á ˜ is constant
Ë ∂t ¯
(a) 27°C (b) 85°C 6. A heat exchanger is used to heat cold water
(c) 32°C (d) 52°C from 15°C entering at a rate of 2 kg/s by hot air
2. A control volume refers to at 100°C entering at 3 kg/s. The heat exchanger
(a) a fixed region in space is not insulated and is losing heat at a rate of 40
(b) a fixed quantity of matter kJ/s. If the exit temperature of air is 20°C, the exit
(c) an isolated system temperature of water is
(d) a closed system (a) 44°C (b) 72°C
3. If all the variables of a flow system are indepen- (c) 49°C (d) 39°C
dent of time, the system is said to be 7. A nozzle
(a) closed flow (b) steady flow (a) accelerates the fluid flow
(c) constant flow (d) unsteady flow (b) decelerates the fluid low
4. Internal energy of a perfect gas depends on (c) does not affect the velocity of fluid
(a) temperature, specific heat and enthalpy (d) none of the above
(b) temperature, specific heat and entropy 8. During a throttling process
(c) temperature, specific heat and pressure (a) internal energy remains constant
(d) temperature only (b) enthalpy of fluid remains constant
5. Steady flow occurs when (c) pressure remains constant
(a) properties do not change with time (d) temperature remains constant

8. (b) 7. (a) 6. (a) 5. (a) 4. (d) 3. (b) 2. (a) 1. (c)

Answers
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 185

6
Second Law of
Thermodynamics

Introduction
Energy has a quantity as well as quality. The first law of thermodynamics deals with energy as a property
and states that the quantity of energy must be conserved during a process. The second law of thermody-
namics deals with the quality of energy and asserts that the processes occur in a certain direction only.
The second law also recognizes that the mutual conversion of heat into work during a process is impossible,
while its opposite is possible. A process cannot take place unless it satisfies both the first and second laws
of thermodynamics.
Thermal reservoir, operation of heat engine, refrigerator, and heat pump are discussed first in this chapter
to explain the two statements of the second law. Reversible and irreversible processes are explained to give
insight to the performance of the devices. Then the Carnot cycle and absolute temperature are introduced.

Further, it is our experience that if a glass of hot

6.1 LIMITATIONS OF THE FIRST
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS milk is left in the room, it eventually cools off after
a certain period. The amount of heat rejected by the
The first law of thermodynamics states that during milk is gained by the room air and the quantity of
any cyclic process, the net work transfer is always heat is balanced. Now let us consider the reverse
directly proportional to heat transfer and therefore, of the process, i.e., getting cold milk hotter as a
work and heat are mutually convertible one into result of heat transfer from the room air. But such a
another. A certain energy balance must be held process is impossible in nature.
when a system undergoes a process. Another common example is that an electrical
But the first law of thermodynamics does not work can be converted into heat energy through an
impose any restriction on the direction in which the electric heating element, but its reverse process—
process is feasible. As far as the first law is con- supplying an amount of heat to this heating
cerned, all heat transferred to a heat engine could element—will not generate any amount of electric
be converted to useful work. But we all know it is work.
not possible to convert net heat into work. Other common example is when a cycle rider
186 Thermal Engineering

One way

Hot Heat Actual process

milk
Surroundings

Fig. 6.3 Process occurs in a certain direction and not

(a) Hot milk losing heat to surroundings in reverse direction
Heat
It is clear from the above discussion that the
I=0 processes proceed in a certain direction only and
not in the reverse direction. The first law of ther-
modynamics does not place any restriction on the
(b) Transferring heat to heating element will not direction of process. Satisfying the first law does
generate electricity not ensure that the process will actually occur, be-
Fig. 6.1 cause it only keeps the account of energy in quan-
tity during any process. The second law of thermo-
stops his cycle by applying friction brakes. The dynamics is introduced to overcome the remedies
kinetic energy of the moving wheel is absorbed by of the first law of thermodynamics. The second law
brake blocks, whose temperature rises, and hence of thermodynamics takes into account the direction
the kinetic energy lost by the moving wheel is of process as well as quality of energy, and it states
converted into heat energy. The first law should be that in any process, high-grade energy can only be
equally satisfied, if the brake blocks are to cool off converted to low-grade energy. The energy cannot
and they give their energy back to the cycle wheel, be upgraded by its own. According to the second
causing it to rotate. However, it is never seen in law of thermodynamics, heat and work can be clas-
practice. sified as low and high-grade energy, respectively.
Other common experiences are the following: Therefore, net quantity of work can be converted in
(i) Heat always flow in the direction of decreas- any form of energy, but net quantity of heat cannot.
ing temperature.
(ii) Water always flows downwards.
(iii) A paddle wheel is operated by falling weight.
As it rotates, it stirs a fluid within an insu- It is a hypothetical body with an infinite heat capac-
lated container. The decrease in potential ity. A thermal reservoir can supply or absorb any
energy of weight is equal to increase of in- amount of heat without affecting its temperature.
ternal energy of the fluid mass. However, the For example, large bodies of water such as oceans,
reverse of the process—raising the weight rivers as well as the atmosphere can be considered
by decreasing internal energy of the fluid— as thermal reservoirs.
does not occur in nature. A two-phase system of fluids can also be treated
as a thermal reservoir as long as it does not return
to single phase, since the two-phase system can
absorb or release any amount of heat while main-
taining a constant temperature. Similarly, large
industrial furnaces can also be treated as thermal
reservoirs. They are maintained almost at constant
temperatures and are capable of transferring a large
Fig. 6.2 Supplying heat to a paddle wheel will not
quantity of heat energy in an isothermal manner.
cause it to rotate
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 187

A reservoir that supplies heat energy is called

Energy source at TH
heat source and one that absorbs heat energy is
called heat sink.
Feed water
Boiler
HEAT ENGINE Superheated
steam

We know that the net amount of heat cannot be con- Pump Wout
Win Turbine
verted into work directly but conversion of heat into
work requires some special devices. Such devices
are called heat engines.
Condenser
In a broader sense, work-producing devices may Condensate Moist steam

be included in heat engines such as internal com-

bustion engines, steam and gas turbines. But these Energy Sink at TL

devices are operated in mechanical cycles, not in (a) Schematic diagram of a steam power plant
thermodynamic cycles, since the working fluid
does not undergo a complete cycle. High temperature
resevoir at TH
A heat engine is a device which operates in a
cycle. It receives the heat energy from a high-
temperature reservoir, converts some of the heat QH

energy into work and rejects the remaining heat to

a low-temperature reservoir. A steam power plant
best fits into the definition of a heat engine. The HE
schematic diagram of a basic steam power plant and Wnet
a heat engine are shown in Fig. 6.4. The working of
the heat engine can be illustrated as follows: QL

1. It receives heat QH from the high-temperature

reservoir (source) at TH.
Low temperature
2. It converts the part of heat supplied into resevoir TL
useful work as Wnet.
(b) Schematic diagram of a heat engine
3. It rejects the remaining heat QL to a low-
temperature reservoir (sink) at TL. Fig. 6.4

The net work output of a heat engine is the desired output is the net work Wnet, and the energy
difference between the total work done by the input is the heat supplied QH. Thermal efficiency is
turbine and work input to feed pump, etc. denoted by the symbol ‘hth’.
Wnet = Wout Win Thermal efficiency,
For any cyclic heat engine, the net work can Net work output W
hth = = net
also be obtained from the difference between heat Energy input as heat QH
supplied and heat rejection. Q - QL Q
or hth = H =1- L ...(6.2)
Wnet = QH QL ...(6.1) QH QH
Thermal efficiency is the per- Since QH and QL both are positive quantities,
formance-measuring parameter of a heat engine. thermal efficiency of the work producing devices is
In general, it is defined as the ratio of the desired always less than unity. The ordinary spark ignition
output to the energy input. For a heat engine, the internal combustion engine is about 30% efficient,
188 Thermal Engineering

while a diesel engine is about 32% efficient. Large Cold refrigerated space at TL
gas and steam power plants have a thermal efficien-
QL
cy of about 45%.
Low Evaporator Low pressure
pressure vapors
REFRIGERATOR low temp.
Win
refrigerant
Expansion
A refrigerator is a device, operating in a cycle, that Valve
High High
maintains a body at lower temperature than its pressure pressure
surroundings. A refrigerator extracts heat continu- liquid Condenser superheated
vapors
ously from a controlled space, and thus it is main- QH
tained at a lower temperature than its surroundings.
Surroundings at TH
The working fluid in the refrigerator is called the
refrigerant.
(a) Basic components of a refrigerator
The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the
vapour compression cycle. The vapour compression
cycle is used in household refrigerators. Its basic Surroundings at TH
components are: a compressor, a condenser, an
expansion device and an evaporator as shown in
Fig. 6.5(a). QH

The refrigerant enters the compressor as low

pressure vapour and is compressed to high pressure
and temperature. In the condenser, the refrigerant Win
vapour passes through the long condenser coils,
where it rejects its latent heat to the surroundings.
The liquid refrigerant then enters a capillary tube
(an expansion device for small refrigerators), QL

where its pressure reduces drastically due to

Cold refrigerated
throttling effect and its temperature also reduces. space at TL
This low-temperature and low pressure refrigerant
then passes through the evaporator coils ( freezer), (b) Schematic diagram of a refrigerator
where it evaporates by absorbing heat from the Fig. 6.5
refrigerated space to keep it at low temperature.
The cycle completes as the refrigerant re-enters the Refrigerating Effect QL
(COP)R = = ...(6.3)
compressor. Work input Win
( ) From the heat energy balance for a cyclic device,
The performance of a refrigerator is measured in the work input Win can be expressed as
terms of the coefficient of performance (COP)R. It Win = QH QL
is defined as the ratio of the desired output (refrig- QL
Hence, (COP)R = ...(6.4)
erating effect) to the energy (work) input. QH - QL
Consider an amount of heat QL is removed from The value of (COP)R of a refrigerator may be
the refrigerated space at temperature TL. The work greater than unity. That is, the amount of heat
input to the compressor is Win and the heat rejected removed from the refrigerated space may be greater
at the condenser is QH. than the work input.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 189

QH
(COP)HP = ...(6.5)
Win
A heat pump is a device, operating in a cycle, that But QH = QL + Win
maintains a space at a higher temperature than the
Q + Win
surroundings. The heat pump supplies heat contin- (COP) HP = L
uously to the controlled space, and thus maintained Win
at a higher temperature than its surroundings. The QL
= 1+ = 1 + (COP)R ...(6.6)
refrigerator and heat pump are operated on the same Win
thermodynamic cycle, but they differ in their objec- For given values of QH and QL, the coefficient of
tives. The discharge of heat at higher temperature performance of a heat pump is always greater than
to a space is the objective for a heat pump. The heat the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator by
pump absorbs the heat from low-temperature sur- unity.
roundings and supplies it to a higher temperature
space at the cost of work input to the compressor. 6.6 STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND
If an ordinary refrigerator is placed in a window LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
of a house with its evaporator open to the outside,
and its condenser located in the room. Then the
refrigerator acts as a heat pump and it supplies heat It relates the working of heat engines and is stated
to the room. as
Let an amount of heat QL be absorbed from the “It is impossible to construct an engine which
low temperature region and Win be the work input. while operating in a cycle, produces no other effect
Then the heat supply, QH to the room is the desired except to extract the heat from a single temperature
effect for a heat pump. reservoir and do equivalent amount of work”.
The coefficient of performance of heat pump is According to the Kelvin–Planck statement, a
expressed as heat engine cannot be 100 per cent efficient. In
Heat supplied practice, no heat engine can convert all heat sup-
(COP)HP =
Work input plied to useful work. The engine receives heat from
a high-temperature reservoir and it must reject some
amount of heat to a low-temperature reservoir. The
work done by a cyclic heat engine is the difference
between heat supplied and heat rejection.

It relates the working of the refrigerators and heat

pumps and it can be stated as,
“It is impossible for any device that operates in a
cycle and produce no effect other than the transfer
of heat energy from a lower temperature body to
higher temperature body”.
It is well-known tendency of heat energy to
flow from a hot body to a cold body, and it can-
not flow by itself from a low-temperature body to
a high-temperature body without addition of work.
Fig. 6.6
190 Thermal Engineering

Refrigerators and heat pumps transfer energy from a high temperature TH and a low temperature TL.
a low-temperature region to higher temperature re- The heat engine is receiving heat QH from the high-
gion at the cost of work input to their compressors. temperature reservoir at TH and it converts all heat
into net work Wnet. It does not reject any amount
of heat to the low-temperature reservoir, thus
At first sight, the two statements appear to be unre- violating Kelvin–Planck statement of the second
lated but it can easily be proved that these are two law.
parallel statements of the second law. Any device Let us assume the work produced by the engine
that violates one statement also leads to violation is supplied to a cyclic refrigerator, that removes
of the other statement. heat QL from a low-temperature reservoir at TL
Consider a heat engine (PMM2) and an actual and discharges heat in amount QH + QL to a high-
refrigerator as shown in Fig. 6.7, operating between temperature reservoir at TH. Now, if the refrigerator
and heat engine are grouped together, they
High-temperature reservoir
at TH
constitute a device, whose sole effect is to transfer
heat energy QL from the low temperature reservoir
to the high-temperature reservoir without any work
QH QH + QL
input from outside.
This device clearly violates the Clausius state-
W = QH
ment. Therefore, the violation of Kelvin–Planck
Rev.
heat
Actual statement leads to violation of Clausius statement.
refrigerator
engine
It can also be proved that violation of Clausius
statement leads to the violation of the Kelvin–
QL Planck statement.

Low-temperature
reservoir at TL
OF THE SECOND KIND
(a) Refrigerator powered by 100% efficient engine
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the
High-temperature reservoir heat and work are mutually convertible one into
at TH
another. If the total heat supplied is converted into
net work by any machine then its efficiency would
QL be 100 percent and it is called a perpetual motion
machine of the second kind (PMM2). A heat engine
W=0
(of Fig. 6.7a) is PMM2 which absorbs heat from a
Heat engine
+ single temperature reservoir and converts it com-
Refrigerator
pletely into work, leading to the violation of the
second law.
Consider a steam power plant without a
QL condenser as shown in Fig. 6.8. It is thought that
the condenser rejects more than one half of heat
Low temperature
reservoir at TL supplied as waste. Let such a steam power plant be
where all the heat transferred into the boiler will be
(b) The device (heat engine + refrigerator) which violates converted to work by turbine, and thus the power
Clausius’s statement plant will theoretically have 100 per cent efficiency.
Fig. 6.7 It is a perpetual motion machine of the second kind
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 191

as engines and turbines develop maximum work

and work consuming devices, such as compressors,
blowers and pumps, etc., consume least work when
they are operated reversibly.
Let the initial state of the system be represented
by A and let the system be taken to the final state B
by the path APB as shown in Fig. 6.9. If the system
and surroundings both are restored to their initial
Fig. 6.8 states without any change in the universe, i.e., the
system returns by the same path then the process
which works in a cycle satisfying the first law, but APB is called a reversible process.
violates the second law. Therefore, it will not work,
p
because heat is a low-grade energy and cannot be A
completely converted into work.

A reversible process is defined as a process that B

once having taken place in a direction, can be re- v
versed without leaving any trace on either system Reversible process
or surroundings.
A reversible process is one which is proceeded
in such a way that at the conclusion of the process,
both system and surroundings may be restored to
their initial states without producing any change All processes occuring in nature are irreversible.
in the universe. This is possible only if the net When these processes are reversed, they cannot
transfer of heat and work between the system and return to their initial state of the system without
surroundings for original and reverse process is changing the surroundings. And when such pro-
zero. cesses are reversed, they always leave some mark
Once a cup of hot tea cools off due to heat on the surroundings or system. The irreversibility
transfer to its surroundings, it cannot heat up again of the processes may be caused due to
by recovering the lost heat from the surroundings (i) Mechanical or thermal irreversibility
without any external effect. If it could be possible (ii) Internal and external irreversibility
then the system and surroundings can be restored
Mechanical irreversibility is associated with fric-
to their original states and it would be a reversible
tion. When two bodies have relative movement, a
process.
frictional force opposes the motion at the interface
Actually reversible processes do not occur in
of these two bodies and some work is lost to over-
nature. They are idealization of actual processes.
come this frictional force. When the direction of
Reversible processes can be approximated by
motion is reversed, some work is further required
actual devices, but they can never be achieved.
to overcome the friction. Friction is also involved
Reversible processes are easy to analyse, since
between fluid and solid surfaces and between the
the system passes through a series of equilibrium
layers of fluid moving at different velocities during
states. Engineers are always interested in reversible
any process.
processes, because work-producing devices such
192 Thermal Engineering

Thermal irreversibility is associated with heat trans- Internal irreversibility is also caused due to mixing
fer due to finite temperature difference between a of different layers of fluid at different temperatures.
system and its surroundings. An amount of heat lost It is also due to free or unrestrained expansion of
from a system during a compression process cannot fluid as shown in Fig. 6.10(c).
be regained during an expansion process, thus caus- External irreversibility is associated with friction at
ing irreversibility. bearings and friction between atmospheric air and
All actual processes are internally irreversible. rotating members. The system absorbs some work
During an internally irreversible process, a system to overcome these frictional forces.
does not proceed through a series of equilibrium
A reversible
states. Consider an amount of gas in the piston–cyl-
process should possess the following properties:
inder device. If the piston is pushed rapidly, the gas
molecules near the piston face will not have suffi- 1. The process should not involve friction of
cient time to escape and they will pile up in front of any kind.
the piston face as shown in Fig. 6.10(a). This will 2. Heat transfer should not take place due to
raise the pressure near the piston face, while the gas finite temperature difference between the
in the other part will have lower pressure. Because system and surroundings.
of this higher value of pressure near the piston face, 3. There should not be a mixing of fluid layers
the compression process will require a large work at different temperatures.
input than required for a quasi-static process. The 4. There should not be free and unrestrained
non-uniformity of pressure will cause the process expansion.
irreversible. 5. The process must proceed through a series
of equilibria.

6.10 CARNOT CYCLE, OR CARNOT

(a) Fast compression (b) Fast expansion ENGINE

A french engineer, Sadi Carnot, in 1824 proposed

50 kPa 50 kPa
an engine which works on a reversible cycle. It is
theoretically a heat engine that converts the maxi-
mum amount of energy into mechanical work.
(c) Unstrained expansion Carnot showed that the efficiency of any engine
Fig. 6.10 - depends on the difference between the highest and
cesses lowest temperatures reached during one cycle. The
greater the temperature difference, higher the effi-
When the process is reversed and gas expands ciency.
rapidly, the gas molecules in the cylinder will not The Carnot cycle, also called reversible cycle,
be able to follow the piston as fast, thus creating a comprises of four reversible processes as given:
low-pressure region before the piston face as shown
1. Reversible isothermal expansion,
in Fig. 6.10(b). Because of this low-pressure value
at the piston face, the process delivers less work 2. Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion,
than a corresponding reversible one. Thus, the work 3. Reversible isothermal compression, and
done by the gas during expansion is less than the 4. Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compres-
work done by the surroundings on the gas during sion.
compression. Thus, surroundings have a net deficit The working of the engine is idealized with the
of work. following assumptions:
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 193

p
1. The working substance for the Carnot engine
1
is a perfect gas. Q
H
2. The piston movement in the cylinder is 2
frictionless.
3. The walls of the cylinder and piston are
considered perfectly insulated. 4
3
4. The cylinder head is so arranged that it is Q
L
partially a very good conductor of heat and V

partially a perfect insulator. T

5. The heat supply and heat rejection are at 1 2