Petroleum Geology & Geophysical

Explorations

By
Mr. Moh’d AL-Moalem
 Chapter (5)

Migration from Source to Reservoir

General Considerations
Oil and gas migration are the least understood processes
in the formation of hydrocarbon reservoirs. Much of the
current thinking of how it happens is hypothetical and
difficult to prove with either experiment or theory.
When potential source and reservoir rocks are buried,
they contain water in their pore space. The oil or gas,
therefore, has to replace this water in the migration
process when it reaches the reservoir rock.
We have first a look at the composition of formation
water.
 Formation Waters

Water in hydrocarbon reservoirs is usually connate water originating

from the water that surrounded it during or shortly after the
depositional process. It is, therefore, fossil water. Meteoric water,
on the other hand, is fresh water that originates from the surface; it
may significantly alter its aqueous chemistry during burial.
Water is special because of all hydrides that the life-forming
elements (N, C, H, S, O) form it is the only one that is liquid at
standard temperature and pressure, with the other ones being
gaseous. It has other special properties that are generally caused
by its dipole molecular structure (surface tension, dielectric
constant, latent heat of evaporation). Its tendency to arrange
molecules in tetrahedral and to exclude electrolytes (e.g. in
freezing) causes it to assume special properties in the presence of
minerals such as clays.
 Formation Waters Composition

Most formation waters are saline, with sodium and chlorine

being the dominant ions, constituting over 90% of the total
ionic concentration. Calcium and magnesium are also typical
present with a ratio of 5:1, while sulfates are notably absent.
There is a generally observed increase in the salinity of
formation waters with depth, from a typical concentration of
35,000 ppm (seawater) at shallow depths to highly
concentrated “brines” of up to 350,000 ppm at several
kilometers depths.
This phenomenon is related to reverse osmosis, a process
wherein the water molecules are able to migrate upwards
through shales, while the ions and the oil stay behind in the
aquifer. Shales contain in general water that is less saline.
 Water Salinity vs. Depth

An example of the salinity increase in oil field waters with

depth from the US Gulf Coast.
Pressure and Temperature During Burial

During burial, temperature and pressure increase, leading to

compaction of the sedimentary rocks. The pore space,

therefore, decreases and with it the volume available for the

fluids, principally formation water but also hydrocarbons.

In shales, which are poorly permeable but which can be

richer in hydrocarbon source material, the fluids take a much

longer time to escape than in porous and permeable rocks.

Compaction is the primary motor that leads to the expulsion

of hydrocarbons from shaly source rocks.

 Evidence for Migration

Why do we need to invoke the scenario of migration in the

first place?
The most compelling reason comes from the way oil and
gas accumulate: They are typically found in porous and
permeable rocks that are arched upwards and that are topped
by an impermeable layer (the “seal”). The second reason is
the relationship between source and reservoir rock: The latter
is usually younger and/or structurally higher than the source
rock. Visual evidence of migration is provided by oil and gas
seepages found in many parts of the world.
But not all reservoirs need migration. There are known cases
where the oil is internally sourced. Example: The Athel field in
Oman.
 Migration Evidence: Structure

In the Messaoud Field,

Algeria, the Silurian
source rock drilled by
the well on the left is
laterally and
stratigraphically
separated from the
Cambrian reservoir rock
where oil is found in
the well in the middle.
Migration is an obvious
mechanism to explain
this situation.
Migration Evidence: Oil Seepages

Oil seepages can be seen from satellite images with SAR.

Left: Santa Monica Bay, California.
Above: Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan.
 Migration Evidence: Oil Seepages

The La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles are probably the most spectacular oil
seepage. They are puddles of asphalt that seeped to the surface from young
(Miocene) source rocks through faults. In the Pleistocene and Holocene
many animals perished in them and became fossilized, giving us an
extraordinary glimpse of the fauna at that time. Visit the George C. Page
Museum.
 Primary Migration

Mature hydrocarbons first have to migrate out of the source rock.

This is in general a fine-grained rock that has a low permeability.
During burial, this rock gets compacted and its interstitial fluid
become overpressured with respect to surrounding rocks that
have higher permeabilities and from which fluids can migrate
with greater ease upwards.
Therefore, a fluid pressure gradient develops between the source
rock and the surrounding, more permeable rocks. This causes the
fluids - the water and the hydrocarbons - to migrate along the
pressure gradient, usually upwards, although a downward
migration is possible. This process is called primary migration,
and it generally takes place across the stratification. Why?
Porosity Decrease with Compaction

Average clay-rock density and porosity

values as compiled by Dickey (1975)
 Shale Pore Size with Depth

Concurrent with the decrease of

porosity with depth, the pore
size decreases in an almost linear
relationship. The diameter of
many molecules may be too large
to form globules and migrate
through the shale pores,
particularly since structured
water on the clay surfaces
further restricts the pathways.
This is why a number of
migration mechanisms are
postulated.
 Primary Migration Controversy

If we put the principal requirements for oil generation and

migration together, we end up in a substantial dilemma:

1. Oil is generated at temperatures of 60° to 120 °C, which are

typically found at depths of 2 to 4 km.

2. Source rocks at these depths are so compacted that their

permeability is too low for efficient primary migration.

This dilemma is not solved yet, but many ideas have been

proposed to circumvent it.

At the core of the problem is the question of how hydrocarbons

migrate.
 Primary Migration Mechanisms
1. Migration by diffusion. Because of differing concentrations of the
fluids in the source rock and the surrounding rock there is a tendency
to diffuse. A widely accepted theory.
2. Migration by molecular solution in water. While aromatics are most
soluble in aqueous solutions, they are rare in oil accumulations,
therefore discrediting the general importance of this mechanism,
although it may be locally important.
3. Migration along microfractures in the source rock. During
compaction the fluid pressures in the source rock may become so large
that spontaneous “hydrofracing” occurs. A useful if underestimated
hypothesis.
4. Oil-phase migration. OM in the source rock provides a continuous
oil-wet migration path along which the hydrocarbons diffuse along
pressure and concentration gradient. This is a reasonable but
unproved hypothesis, good for high TOCs.
Further Comments on Primary Migration

Many oil fields have very large time gaps between the

age of the source and reservoir rocks, and the formation

of the trap (before which migration cannot occur).

Most traps are, in fact, relatively young.

This suggests that migration and accumulation may

proceed in two or more different stages:

An early migration in which permeabilities are

relatively high and gas may be available to dissolve

hydrocarbons, but where the hydrocarbon generation is

inefficient, and a later stage at which oil generation is

efficient but permeabilities are low.

 Secondary Migration

The process in which hydrocarbons move along a porous

and permeable layer to its final accumulation is called

secondary migration. It is much less controversial than

primary migration, and it is almost entirely governed by

buoyancy forces.

These forces are proportional to the density difference

between hydrocarbon and water.

The principal conduits for secondary migration are

permeable sandstone beds and unconformities.

 Migration Pathways /1

In the following, migration

pathways - both primary and
secondary - are shown for some
typical geological scenarios.
The example here illustrates how
excess hydrostatic pressure may
control directions of fluid flow in
the Paria formation, Orinoco
delta, Venezuela.
 Migration Pathways /2

Direction of fluid migration on the flank of an anticline

into the highest possible place of the reservoir layer.
 Migration Pathways /3

Direction of fluid migration into stratigraphic

- or better: combined - traps
 Migration Pathways /4

Direction of fluid migration in an interbedded

sand/shale sequence.
 Migration Pathways /5

Direction of fluid migration into a pinnacle reef

Notice: Migration through the shales above the reef is
greatly exaggerated.
 Differential Entrapment

This phenomenon has been

theoretically postulated and

subsequently found realistic in many

cases. It results in the heaviest fluid

(water) being trapped in the highest

anticline, and the lightest (gas) in

the lowest! Quite the opposite of

what is generally encountered.

Notice that for this effect to take

place, free gas must be able to form.

 Differential Entrapment /2

The same scenario as before,

but with different structural
relationships
 Seals
Secondary migration proceeds until an impermeable barrier is
encountered that prevents further flow. The most common seal is
a shale layer. The most effective seals are evaporites, notably
salt and anhydrite, partly because of their inherently low intrinsic
permeability, and partly because their capacity for viscous flow
enables them to heal fractures and faults.

A dual saltanhydrite
seal in the Hassi R’Mel
gas field, Algeria.
 Conclusions on Migration

We distinguish primary and secondary migration.

While primary migration is slow and proceeds over short

distances, secondary migration is faster and can proceed over

very long distances (more than one-hundred kilometers).

There are several theories for primary migration, among which

diffusion, oil-phase migration, micro-fracturing and migration

in solution.

Secondary migration is better understood and leads to the

accumulation of hydrocarbon in traps where a seal prevents

them from further migration.