BEng FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

PRODUCTION OF ETHYLENE OXIDE AT THE RATE OF 200

TONNES PER DAY

STUDENTS NAME:

PROGRAMME AREA NAME:

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS) IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

YEAR 2019
PRODUCTION OF ETHYLENE OXIDE AT THE RATE OF 200 TONNES PER DAY
Abstract

The objective of this report is to produce 200 metric tonnes of Ethylene Oxide (EO) per day. This paper
focuses on the production of EO using high purity oxygen-based direct oxidation process. There are two
reactions involved in the reactor, which are partial oxidation and complete oxidation, where the latter is
undesired. Partial oxidation of ethylene with oxygen produces EO while the undesired reaction forms
carbon dioxide and water. In this report, methane gas is added into the stream to act as a diluent,
avoiding the possible risks of explosion hazards within the reactor.

This report also includes estimation on material balance, energy balance, equipment design, safety analysis,
costing and plant layout. In order to check for the feasibility of the manual calculations on material balance
and energy balance, percentage errors are used for comparison between the calculated and simulated results.

At the end of the report, the results obtained are being discussed and evaluated among the team
members in order to identify the possible sources of error as well as limitation faced when designing for
EO plant.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Aims and Objectives...........................................................................................................................1
1.2 About Ethylene Oxide........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Background History............................................................................................................................2
2. Literature Review.....................................................................................................................................3
2.1 Case-study Market Assessment..........................................................................................................3
2.2 Case Study Literature Survey.......................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Chemistry of Ethylene Oxide......................................................................................................4
2.2.2 Chemical Properties.....................................................................................................................5
2.2.3 Physical Properties.......................................................................................................................5
2.2.4Use and Applications of EO
........................................................................................................................................................ 7
3. Health, Safety and Environment..............................................................................................................8
3.1 Emission Schedule..............................................................................................................................9
4. Process Selection and Description.........................................................................................................11
4.1 Ethylene Oxide Production by Direct Oxidation.............................................................................11
4.2 Process Description..........................................................................................................................12
5. Material and Energy Balances................................................................................................................14
5.1 Material Balance...............................................................................................................................14
5.2 Energy Balance.................................................................................................................................17
6 Design of Major Equipment....................................................................................................................18
6.1 Heat Exchanger.................................................................................................................................18
6.1.1 Equipment Design.....................................................................................................................18
6.1.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet.....................................................................................19
6.1.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Heat Exchanger.......................................................20
6.1.4 Process Control Philosophy.......................................................................................................20
6.1.5 HAZOP Studies.........................................................................................................................21
6.2 Ethylene Oxide Reactor....................................................................................................................22
6.2.1 Equipment Design.....................................................................................................................22
6.2.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet.....................................................................................23
6.2.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Reactor..............................................................24

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 6.2.4 Process Control Philosophy.......................................................................................................24
6.2.5 HAZOP Studies.........................................................................................................................25
6.3 Ethylene Oxide Absorber.................................................................................................................26
6.3.1 Equipment Design.....................................................................................................................26
6.3.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet.....................................................................................27
6.3.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Absorber............................................................28
6.3.4 Process Control Philosophy.......................................................................................................28
6.3.5 HAZOP Studies.........................................................................................................................29
6.4 Ethylene Oxide Desorber.................................................................................................................30
6.4.1 Equipment Design.....................................................................................................................30
6.4.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet.....................................................................................31
6.4.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Desorber............................................................32
6.4.4 Process Control Philosophy.......................................................................................................33
6.4.5 HAZOP Studies.........................................................................................................................34
6.5 Condenser.........................................................................................................................................35
6.5.1 Equipment Design.....................................................................................................................35
6.5.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet.....................................................................................36
6.5.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Condenser................................................................37
6.5.4 Process Control Philosophy.......................................................................................................37
6.5.5 HAZOP Studies.........................................................................................................................38
6.6 Ethylene Oxide Purifier....................................................................................................................39
6.6.1 Equipment Design.....................................................................................................................39
6.6.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet.....................................................................................40
6.6.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Purifier...............................................................41
6.6.4 Process Control Philosophy.......................................................................................................41
6.6.5 HAZOP Studies.........................................................................................................................42
7. Plant Layout and Location......................................................................................................................44
7.1 Battery Limit Description.................................................................................................................44
7.2 Plant Layout......................................................................................................................................45
7.2.1 Hazardous Area Zones..............................................................................................................46
7.3 Proposed Plant Location...................................................................................................................47
7.4 Plant Commissioning........................................................................................................................48

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 7.4.1 Prepare.......................................................................................................................................48
7.4.2 Implement..................................................................................................................................49
7.4.3 Close-Out...................................................................................................................................49
8. Plant Economics and Costing.............................................................................................................51
9. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................55
10. References.......................................................................................................................................56
11. Appendices......................................................................................................................................60
Appendix 1: Equipment Design Calculation for Heat Exchanger.........................................................60
Appendix 2: Equipment Design Calculation for Multi-Tubular Reactor..............................................64
Appendix 3: Equipment Design Calculation for Ethylene Oxide Absorber.........................................70
Appendix 4: Equipment Design Calculation for EO Desorber.............................................................74
Appendix 5: Design Calculation for EO Condenser..............................................................................85
Appendix 6: Design Calculation for Ethylene Oxide Purifier...............................................................89
Appendix 7: Equipment Costing............................................................................................................99
11.7.1 Costing for Heat Exchanger....................................................................................................99
11.7.2 Costing for EO Reactor...........................................................................................................99
11.7.3 Costing for EO Absorber.......................................................................................................100
11.7.4 Costing for EO Desorber.......................................................................................................100
11.7.5 Costing for Condenser...........................................................................................................101
11.7.6 Costing for EO Purifier.........................................................................................................101
11.7.7 Costing for Heaters and Coolers:..........................................................................................102

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List of Figures
Figure 1 Market analysis of Ethylene Oxide [5]..........................................................................................3
Figure 2 Molecular structure of Ethylene Oxide [9]....................................................................................4
Figure 3 The industrial derivation of EO globally, 17 milllion tonnes per annum [11]..............................7
Figure 4 Block Flow Diagram of EO Process............................................................................................11
Figure 5 Process flow diagram for direct oxidation process......................................................................12
Figure 6: Floating head shell and tube heat exchanger [20].......................................................................18
Figure 7 Piping and instrumentation diagram for heat exchanger E- 101 [20]..........................................20
Figure 8 Tubular Reactor packed with Catalyst [21].................................................................................22
Figure 9 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO reactor...................................................................24
Figure 10 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO absorber..............................................................28
Figure 11Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Desorber...............................................................32
Figure 12 TEMA type AFL horizontal condenser [23]....................................................................................35
Figure 13 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO condenser............................................................37
Figure 14 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Purifier................................................................41
Figure 15 Proposed Ethylene Oxide Plant Layouts....................................................................................46
Figure 16 Plant Commissioning Stages......................................................................................................50
Figure 17 Cash Flow Graph........................................................................................................................54
Figure 18: The Dimension of Torispherical Shape....................................................................................69
Figure 19: Torispherical Head Flanges.......................................................................................................69
Figure 20 VLE Diagram for EO/H2O at 1 atm...........................................................................................75
Figure 21 T- x- y diagram for feed of 0.03 mole fraction EO...................................................................75
Figure 22 VLE diagram for EO/ Water......................................................................................................90
Figure 23 T- x- y diagram for feed.............................................................................................................91

List of Tables
Table 1 Risk Assessment Matrix..................................................................................................................8
Table 2 Chemical HAZID............................................................................................................................8
Table 3 The total mass flowrate released in each component and its further action implemented..............9
Table 4 The difference between air and oxygen-based process.................................................................11
Table 5 Heat exchanger E-101 equipment specification sheet..................................................................19
Table 6 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for heat exchanger E- 101..........19
Table 7 HAZOP analysis for heat exchanger E- 101..................................................................................21
Table 8 EO reactor equipment specification sheet.....................................................................................23
Table 9 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for EO reactor............................23
Table 10 HAZOP analysis for EO reactor.................................................................................................25

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Table 11 EO absorber equipment specification sheet................................................................................27
Table 12 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for EO absorber......................27
Table 13 Process control philosophy for EO absorber..............................................................................28
Table 14 HAZOP analysis for EO absorber...............................................................................................29
Table 15 EO desorber specification sheet..................................................................................................31
Table 16 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for EO desorber......................32
Table 17 Process control philosophy for EO desorber..............................................................................33
Table 18 HAZOP analysis for EO desorber...............................................................................................34
Table 19 Condenser specification sheet.....................................................................................................36
Table 20 Process control philosophy for EO condenser............................................................................37
Table 21 HAZOP analysis for condenser..................................................................................................38
Table 22 EO purifier equipment specification sheet..................................................................................40
Table 23 Process control philosophy for EO purifier................................................................................41
Table 24 HAZOP analysis for EO purifier................................................................................................42
Table 25 Total purchase cost of major equipment items (PCE) and plant physical cost (PPC)...............51
Table 26 Fixed capital, working capital and total investment in USD (2004) and BND (2019)..............51
Table 27 Raw Materials Total Cost in USD (2004)..................................................................................52
Table 28 Utilities Total Cost in USD (2004).............................................................................................52
Table 29 Variable Total Cost in USD (2004)............................................................................................52
Table 30 Total Fixed Cost in USD (2004).................................................................................................52
Table 31 Annual production cost in USD (2004) and BND (2019)..........................................................53
Table 32 Cash Flow Analysis.....................................................................................................................53
Table 33 VLE Data for EO/H2O at 1 atm..................................................................................................74
Table 34 BWG Standard Tube Size [41]...................................................................................................86
Table 35 Tube pitch arrangement [40, p. 649]...........................................................................................86

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List of Abbreviations
C2H4 - Ethylene
O2 - Oxygen
CH4 - Methane
H2O - Water
CO2 - Carbon Dioxide
CRCE – Coulson Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering EO, C2H4O - Ethylene Oxide
K2CO3 - Potassium Carbonate
KHCO3 - Potassium
Bicarbonate
IUPAC - International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry VOCs - Volatile organic compounds
NFPA - National Fire Protection
Association UNIQUAC - Universal
Quasichemical
EOR - Enhanced Oil Recovery
NASA - The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration EPA - The Environmental Protection
Agency
hr - hour
ppm - parts per million

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Nomenclature

Symbol Description Units

T Kelvin K

T Degree Celsius ˚C

TF Feed Temperature K

TC Critical Temperature K

TD Distillate Temperature K

TB Bottom Temperature K

Tref Reference Temperature K

𝑛̇ Molar Flowrate mol/hr

𝑛̇𝐹 Feed Molar Flowrate mol/hr

𝑛̇𝐷 Distillate Molar Flowrate mol/hr

𝑛̇𝐵 Bottom Molar Flowrate mol/hr

ṁ Mass Flowrate kg/hr

V Vapour Flowrate kg/hr

𝐿0 Reflux Flowrate kg/hr

D Distillate Flowrate kg/hr

P Atmospheric pressure atm

Pressure in Pascal Pa

Pressure in Kilo Pascal kPa

Pressure in Bar Bar

Pressure in Millimeter of Mercury mmHg

Pressure in millibar mbar

Pi Component i partial pressure kPa

𝑃𝑖° Vapour pressure of Ethylene Oxide mmHg, kPa

𝑃𝑗° Vapour pressure of water mmHg, kPa

𝜌 Density mg/L

mg/m3

µg/m3

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 Q Energy in Kilo Joules kJ

Energy in Joules J

Q̇ Energy in Kilo Joules per hour kJ/hr

Energy in Joules per hour J/hr

Q̇ 𝐷 Distillate Heat Flow J/hr

kJ/hr

Q̇ 𝐵 Bottom Heat Flow J/hr

kJ/hr

Q̇ 𝐹 Feed Heat Flow J/hr

kJ/hr

Q̇ 𝐻 Heat of Reaction kJ/hr

R Crown Radius m

h Minimum height for torispherical head m

a Knukle Radis m

ri Reaction rate kmol/hr kg cat

Ea Activation Energy J/mol

C𝑝 Heat Capacity J/mol.K

𝐶𝑝𝑣 Heat Capacity of gas J/mol.K

𝐶𝑝𝐿 Heat Capacity of liquid J/mol.K

𝐶𝑃𝑚 Mean specific heat of Ethylene Oxide J/(mol. K)

𝐶𝑃𝑚 Mean specific heat of water J/(mol. K)

∆𝐻𝑓 Enthalpy of Formation J/kmol

∆𝐻𝑅𝑋 Enthalpy of Reaction kJ/mol

X Fractional conversion -

Kf Thermal conductivity W/m◦K

Kw Conductivity of metal W/m2K

U Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2◦K

hs Shell-side heat transfer coefficient W/m2K

hi Tube-side heat transfer coefficient W/m2K

HL Height of liquid film transfer unit m

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i
 FLV Column liquid vapour factor -

L*w Liquid mass flow rate/unit area kg/m2.s

aw Effective interfacial area of packing per unit -

kL Overall liquid phase mass transfer coefficient m/s

kG Overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient kmol/m2.s.bar

V*w Vapour mass flow rate/unit area Kg/m2.s

Hg Height of gas film transfer unit m

𝑙𝑣 Latent heat at specific temperature kJ/kmol

𝑙𝑣,𝑏 Latent heat at the normal boiling point kJ/kmol

𝑥𝑖 Mole fraction of EO in liquid phase -

𝑦𝑖 Mole fraction of EO in vapour phase -

𝑥𝐹 Mole fraction of Ethylene Oxide in the feed -

𝑥𝐵 Mole fraction of Ethylene Oxide in the bottom -

𝑥𝐷 Mole fraction of Ethylene Oxide in the -

𝑁𝑟 Number of stages above the feed, including -

𝑁𝑠 Number of stages below the feed, including -

vis A, vis B Constants in the liquid viscosity equation -

A, B, C Constants in the ideal gas or liquid heat -

𝑥𝐹,𝐻𝐾 Concentration of the heavy key in the feed --

𝑥𝐹,𝐿𝐾 Concentration of the light key in the top -

𝑥𝐷,𝐻𝐾 Concentration of the heavy key in the top -

𝑥𝐵,𝐿𝐾 Concentration of the light key in the bottom -

𝐷 Distillate Flowrate kmol/hr

𝐵 Bottom Flowrate kmol/hr

𝑣̂𝑙 Specific volume of liquid m3/kg

𝑣̂𝑣 Specific volume of vapour m3/kg

𝑉𝑤 and 𝑉̂𝑤 Vapour mass flow rates kg/hr and kg/s

MW Molecular weight g/mol

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 1. Introduction

1.1 Aims and Objectives

Aims
Our aim is to utilize and contribute our full course knowledge to complete specific requirement in the
final year project. In this project, the main target is to design an Ethylene Oxide plant that produces 200
metric tonnes per day. This consist of the design for specific equipment; selection of construction materials;
safety consideration and preliminary HAZID study; economics evaluation; market assessment forecast;
plan and properly situate specific location for the plant layout. The UniSim®design suite software will be
utilized in our design report.

Objectives
 Complete a revised mass balance and energy balance for overall plant design
 Complete specification sheets with a P&ID for each major equipment within process area
 Execute HAZID study for each specified unit
 Determine the necessary control variables and control strategies on individual unit
 Perform an economic analysis that comprises with estimates for the capital and pay-back time.

1.2 About Ethylene Oxide

Ethylene oxide, C2H4O, is an organic cyclic ether that is colorless, flammable in gas form or is a liquid with
a sweet etheric smell. It is commonly used as a disinfectant as it is effective against most
microorganisms. Exposure to this chemical will cause immediate irritation to eyes, skin and respiratory tract
[1] EO is highly reactive thus it is known as one of the most versatile option for a chemical intermediate.
It is used in a variety of commercial products, ranging from textiles, sterilizing agents to personal care
products [2]. One of the most significant derivatives of EO is ethylene glycol which is prominently used
in the manufacture of polyester fiber and antifreeze.

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1.3 Background History

In 1859, a French chemist, Charles Adolphe Wurtz discovered EO by reacting ethylene chlorohydrin with
an inorganic compound. The chlorohydrin process (1914) is the first process found to produce EO
industrially, using ethylene chlorohydrin and calcium oxide as raw materials. However, this process
produces a low yield of ethylene oxide as the chloride fed in the system produces mainly calcium
chloride. Ever since 1931, this process is gradually replaced by direct vapour-phase oxidation process,
in which ethylene is partially oxidised with air or oxygen over a silver catalyst at 10 - 30 atm and 200 -
300°C conditions for ethylene oxide production. The partial oxidation of ethylene with air or oxygen gives
higher selectivity value as compared to the chlorohydrin process [3].

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2. Literature Review
2.1 Case-study Market Assessment

In 2004, the largest EO producer was the United States that made up 20 % of the world’s production.
Worldwide production of EO has increased from 18 million metric tons in 2007 to 19 million metric
tons in both 2008 and 2009, making it the 14th most produced organic chemical globally [4].

Latin America
4%

Europe
Asia 16%
41%

Middle East
18%

North America 21%

Figure 1 Market analysis of Ethylene Oxide [5]

In 2015, the total production of EO from Northeast Asia (34 %), Middle East (25 %), and North
America (18%) have covered around 77% of the global production. A significant portion of the producers
from these three regions lean towards monoethylene glycol (MEG) production, which is proportional to the
global EO consumption pattern [6].

In 2016, capacity of EO was 34.5 million metric tons per year and is expected to increase by around 2%
in 2017 to 2021. China became the leading EO supplier with capacity of 7.43 million metric tons per
year which took up 21.5% of the world’s total production in 2016 and became the main driving force for
EO capacity growth globally [7]. The market has already been estimated at USD 29 billion and is
projected to reach USD 43 billion by 2018 [8]. EO global demand is expected to increase approximately
3% each year from 2016 to 2020 due to improvement in living standards which leads to an increasing
usage of products used in daily life such as polyester products, soaps, etc. [6].

3
 Figure 2 World Consumption of Ethylene Oxide (IHS Market of Ethylene Oxide, September 2016) [6]

2.2 Case Study Literature Survey

2.2.1 Chemistry of Ethylene Oxide

The IUPAC name for the chemical compound is oxirane, which is composed of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H) and oxygen (O) with molecular formulaC2H4O. Other common names for this compound are
dimethylene oxide, epoxyethane and many others. In various industries, this compound is known as
Ethylene Oxide [9]. It is a toxic gaseous cyclic ether that readily reacts with various compounds,
breaking the C-O bond which dissociates the EO into a linear chain.

Figure 2 Molecular structure of Ethylene Oxide [9]

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2.2.2 Chemical Properties

Ethylene Oxide is highly reactive and volatile, making it a flammable, explosive chemical. The
minimum value for the lower explosive limit of EO and air mixtures is 2.6% while the upper explosive
limit is said to be 100% because it can easily decompose with a large amount of heat released in the absence
of both air and oxygen. Thus, it is very important to take safety precautions when handling and storing
EO.

EO can self-polymerize at a temperature of 160°C. This polymerization reaction is exothermic and can
occur at a minimum temperature of 100°C but the reaction is very slow. Effects of contaminants on the
reaction depend on the level of impurities present in EO. The polymer produces sticky polyethylene glycols
when it contacted with H2O at temperature greater than 50°C.
EO also reacts with water in a reaction called hydrolysis producing high molecular weight glycols. This
process is important for the design of EO vent scrubbers where water absorbs EO which then will react
with glycols. This reaction is exothermic and needs proper sized equipment to remove the heat [10].

2.2.3 Physical Properties

Table 1: Physical Properties of Ethylene Oxide

Property Value

Molecular Weight/Mass 44.06 g/mol, 44.05 g/mol, 44.1 g/mol

Colour/Appearance Colourless

Odour Sweet

Boiling Point at 1 atm 10.3˚C

Melting Point/ Freezing Point -112.5˚C, -111.3˚C, -112˚C

Flash Point (Open Cup) -18˚C, -20˚C

Solubility Soluble in alcohol, ether, acetone and benzene

Solubility in Water 1 x 106 mg/l at 20˚C, infinitely soluble (g/litre)

Density of liquid at 20˚C 0.8711 g/ml

Density of liquid at 25˚C 0.862 g/ml

Density of Vapour at 20˚C 1.52, 0.00183 kg/l, 1.5 (air = 1)

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Vapour pressure at 20˚C 1094 mmHg, 1.095 mmHg, 1448 mbar, 146 kPa,

Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) 2.6%

Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) 100%

Flammability Limits in Air Lower: 2.6% Volume, Upper: 100 % Volume

Heat Capacity of Gas, Cp at 25˚C 47.0 ± 1.0 J/mol.K

Heat Capacity of Liquid at 25˚C, Cp 89.90 J/mol.K

Heat of Formation of Vapour at 25˚C, –52.67 kJ/mol

Heat of Combustion of Gas 29.4 MJ/kg mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization at Boiling Temperature, 25.70 kJ/mol

Latent Heat of Vaporization at the Boiling Point 579 kJ/kg

Critical Temperature, Tc 196˚C

Critical Pressure, Pc 71.9 bars

Specific Heat of Gas/ Vapour at 20˚C 1.95 kJ/kg˚C

Specific Heat of Gas/ Vapour at 1 atm; 34˚C 1.10 kJ/kg˚C

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 2.2.4Use and Applications of EO
Diethylene and triethylene glycols, 7%
Ethanolamines, 6%
Ethoxylates, 13%

Glycol ethers, 4%

Polyols, 3%

Monoethylene glycols, 65% Polyethylene glycols, 2%

Figure 3 The industrial derivation of EO globally, 17 milllion tonnes per annum [11]

EO is vastly used as a raw material to manufacture other chemical derivatives that are useful for household
items and solvents. As an example, it is used directly in the gaseous form as a sterilizing agent, fumigant
and insecticide, either solely or in non-explosive mixtures with nitrogen, carbon dioxide or
dichlorofluoromethane [12] (Dever et al., 2004). The pie chart in Figure (3) shows that the production of
monoethylene glycol is the most popular in overall global market demand [2], [11]. Other popular
derivatives include ethoxylates (13 %), diethylene and triethylene glycol (7 %), ethanolamines (6 %), glycol
ethers (4 %), and lastly polyols (3 %).

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3. Health, Safety and Environment

Since the main target of this project is to produce Ethylene Oxide, therefore, it is crucial to consider all
health, environment and safety issues as well as the precautions to be taken involved around it. Apart
from that, it is also important to register the presence of other chemicals that might arise during the
process. For this report, HAZID study is used to consider the risks that may occur [13].

Table 1 Risk Assessment Matrix

Risk Severity
Likelihood Catastrophic Critical Major Minor Negligible
5 4 3 2 1
4+ times
Frequent
per Unacceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable Tolerable Tolerable
A
month
2-10
Occasional
times in Unacceptable Unacceptable Tolerable Tolerable Tolerable
B
a year
Once in < Remote
Unacceptable Tolerable Tolerable Tolerable Acceptable
2 years C
Once in
Improbable
2-10 Tolerable Tolerable Tolerable Acceptable Acceptable
D
years
Once in Extremely
10+ year Improbable Tolerable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable
E

Table 2 Chemical HAZID

Chemicals Hazard Identification Risk Level
Ethylene  Inhalation exposure: C3
Oxide  Instant Irritation on mucous membrane
 Nausea and vomiting
 Oral exposure:
 Slight liver damage
 Dermal exposure:
 Blister formation, second-degree burn
 Water exposure:
 Moderate toxicity to aquatic lives [1]
Ethylene  Inhalation exposure: C2
 Headaches, drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, feeling weak
and unconsciousness
 Burns readily at normal atmospheric pressure [12]

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  Environmental exposure:
 Labelled as VOC which might react with the ozone layer
Oxygen  Highly combustible D2
Carbon  Vapor cause stinging sensation E2
dioxide  Inhalation exposure:
 Dizziness, asphyxia and vomiting [22]
Methane  Dermal exposure: Frostbite D2
 Inhalation exposure:
 Headache, loss of coordination, unconsciousness
 Poisonous gas formed upon ignition [17]
 Can cause explosion especially in an enclosed area

3.1 Emission Schedule

In every design and operating process industries, true obligation on the legal standards are required to ensure
no harm is done to the environment. It is surely a must for design engineer to check with the local and
neighboring authorities to ensure that the correct standards are applied. Thus, this design is referred
from “Pollution Control Guidelines for Industrial Development in Brunei Darussalam”.

According to Ministry of Development, the hazardous waste such as processed water shall not
discharged into waste water which will be covered under Part V Water Pollution Control [14]. While the
article suggested that small amount emission of ethylene oxide should be treated or flared unless the
mixture of inert gas does not comprise with greater than 12%. Thus, any hazardous emissions shall be
carefully supervised for the emissions not to be released indiscrete.

Table 3 The total mass flowrate released in each component and its further action implemented
Component Mass Flowrate Action Implement
(kg/hr)
Methane 63876.36 Separate from the gas mixture to be store and reuse as feed diluent.
Carbon 156823.29 Scrub in hot potassium carbonate (K2CO3) and send to a CO2
dioxide utilization plant.
Water 3496.94 Send to wastewater treatment before reusing it as water absorbent.

General Plant safety rules:

1. When handling with the chemicals, full proper PPE attire must be used.
 Put on safety goggle to protect the eyes.
 Use gloves and covered clothing to prevent chemical contact with skin.

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  Use safety masks to prevent possible inhalation of toxic chemicals.
2. Ensure chemicals storage in designated area and be handled by trained personnel.
3. Ensure safe handling of chemicals and keep within safety distance from equipment operating
at high temperature.
4. All equipment should be kept safely and neatly before and after use.
5. Smoking is only allowed at its designated area.
6. Refer to industry experts or trained personnel before attempting to any acts or procedures.
7. In case of accidents, refer to emergency procedures and take note of all safety equipment
around the area.
8. Emergency exit routes and fire doors should always be accessible.
9. Regular maintenance of the plant facilities to prevent the occurrence of unwanted accidents.

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4. Process Selection and Description
4.1 Ethylene Oxide Production by Direct Oxidation

Table 4 The difference between air and oxygen-based process

Air-based process Oxygen-based process

● Lower capital cost for ● Lower capital cost for medium-

small- medium scale plants large capacity units

● Low running cost ● Medium running cost

● Uses more catalysts ● Uses less catalysts and better longevity

● More than one reactor needed ● Only one reactor

● Needs air purification unit ● Needs impurity gas removal section

● Average selectivity of 65-75 % ● Average selectivity of 80-84%

Oxygen based process is chosen in this study due to its higher selectivity towards EO and lower catalyst
requirement. Moreover, since the aim is to produce 200 MTPD, oxygen-based process is considered quite
economical.

Figure 4 Block Flow Diagram of EO Process

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4.2 Process Description

Figure 5 Process flow diagram for direct oxidation process

Feed to Reactor
Pure ethylene and oxygen are fed into the reactor at initial conditions of 25°C and 1000 kPa. Methane
is used as diluent to avoid explosion within the reactor.

Ethylene Oxide Synthesis

Ethylene reacted with pure oxygen over silver catalyst. In the reactor, three reactions occur, which consists
of one desired reaction and two undesired reactions. Since the oxygen in the feed stream is limited, the
formation of the third equation is negligible. Thus, the ethylene in the system is in excess while oxygen acts
as the limiting reactant.

Partial oxidation of ethylene (desired): CH2 = CH2 + 12O2 → CH2CH2O (1)

Complete oxidation of ethylene (undesired): CH2 = CH2 + 3O2 → 2C02 + 2H2O (2)

Complete oxidation of ethylene oxide (undesired): CH2CH2O + 2.5O2 → 2C02 + 2H2O (3)

In this process, 16 % of the oxygen fed into the reactor is converted to EO, while 10% of oxygen forms the
undesired products, carbon dioxide and water [15], [16]. The reactor normally operates at 1500 kPa and
230°C. Due to the explosion hazard, high amounts of diluent (methane) is required to be fed into the reactor,
keeping EO within the range of 1~3% at the outlet of the reactor [17, pp. 477-487], [18].

12
Ethylene Oxide Purification
EO Absorber
The output of the reactor is first sent to packed column absorption tower T-301. Ambient water is fed
from the top of the column, which acts as an absorbent to separate EO from the unreacted feed gases
and carbon dioxide. Water is the most suitable absorbent used, as EO is highly soluble in water
compared to the other gases. In addition, the usage of water is a safer option and also reduces the cost for
alternative and more expensive absorbent [15]. The EO absorption column is operates at high pressure,
1500 kPa and low temperature of 25°C. This condition is set to ensure most of the EO gas is absorbed
into the water. At these conditions, traces of other gases, including methane, oxygen, ethylene and carbon
dioxide, will also be absorbed. The unabsorbed gases will be recycled back to the reactor from the top of
the column while most of the absorbed EO and water are sent to the desorber [17, pp. 477-487], [18].

EO Desorber
The desorber, T-401 is a 23-stages distillation column which removes the gases from water. Its feed is
first preheated to 75°C then in the column stripping takes place at a low pressure of 110 kPa. The bottom
stream consisting mainly water is recycled back into the absorber. This helps to reduce the amount of
fresh water feed required for maximum EO separation. However, a fraction of the recycled water is
purged before entering the absorber, in order to prevent high water accumulation over time. Along with
water and small amount of light gases, EO is also recovered with 88.6% purity at the top stream.

Light End Stripper

Light end gases from the EO desorber upstream are being removed in the upper stream of the stripper
Column T-501. In contrast, the bottom stream will leave with 90.7% EO and small quantities of water.

EO Purifier
Lastly, this distillation column T-601 is constructed with 3 theoretical stages in order to further purify
the EO gas after the light end stripper. Thus, the final product meets 99.3% EO purity and bottom-line
waste product can be retreat as recycling water.

13
5. Material and Energy Balances

5.1 Material Balance

The production rate selected is to produce 200 metric tonnes of Ethylene Oxide per day. For both manual and simulation, oxygen gas is taken as
the limiting reactant. In this study, only partial and complete oxidation of ethylene is taken into account, other reactions are ignored.

Stream
number 1 2 3 4 5
mass mass mass mass mass
Component fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr
C2H4 1 8612.52 0 0 0 0 0.2488 32554.30 0.2488 32554.30
O2 0 0 1 6400 0 0 0.1509 19743.42 0.1509 19743.42
CH4 0 0 0 0 1 6417.16 0.4883 63876.36 0.4883 63876.36
C2H4O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0029 382.40 0.0029 382.40
CO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1083 14175.12 0.1083 14175.12
H2O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0007 93.28 0.0007 93.28
Total 1 8612.52 1 6400 1 6417.16 1 130824.75 1 130824.75

Stream
number 6 7 8 9 10
mass mass mass mass mass
Component fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr
C2H4 0.2488 32554.30 0.2034 26609.87 0.2034 26609.87 0.2034 26609.87 0.2190 26604.68
O2 0.1509 19743.42 0.1135 14846.11 0.1135 14846.11 0.1135 14846.11 0.1220 14819.54
CH4 0.4883 63876.36 0.4883 63876.32 0.4883 63876.32 0.4883 63876.32 0.5256 63845.08
C2H4O 0.0029 382.40 0.0679 8887.18 0.0679 8887.18 0.0679 8887.18 0.0035 425.49
CO2 0.1083 14175.12 0.1210 15833.32 0.1210 15833.32 0.1210 15833.32 0.1290 15665.41
H2O 0.0007 93.28 0.0059 772.0 0.0059 772.0 0.0059 772.0 0.0009 103.49
Total 1 130824.75 1 130824.67 1 130824.67 1 130824.67 1 121463.69

14
 Stream
number 11 12 13 14 15
mass mass mass mass mass
Component fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr
4.60 4.60
C2H4 0.2190 26604.68 0.2190 23944.21 0.2190 23961.24 × 10−5 5.11 × 10−5 5.11
2.38 2.38
O2 0.1220 14819.54 0.1220 13337.59 0.1220 13347.07 × 10−4 26.45 × 10−4 26.45
2.81 2.81
CH4 0.5256 63845.08 0.5256 57460.57 0.5256 57501.44 × 10−4 31.23 × 10−4 31.23
C2H4O 0.0035 425.49 0.0035 382.94 0.0035 383.21 0.076143 8461.67 0.076143 8461.67
1.511 1.511
CO2 0.1290 15665.41 0.1290 14098.87 0.1290 14108.90 × 10−3 167.92 × 10−3 167.92
H2O 0.0009 103.49 0.0009 93.14 0.0009 93.20 0.9218 102436.24 0.9218 102436.24
Total 1 121463.69 1 109317.32 1 109395.07 1 111128.73 1 111128.73

Stream
number 16 17 18 19 20
mass mass mass mass mass
Component fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr
C2H4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CH4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C2H4O 5.0 × 10−5 0.5079 5.0 × 10−5 12.7 × 10−2 5.0 × 10−5 0.4952 0 0 0 0
CO2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H2O 0.9999 101582.36 0.9999 2539.56 0.9999 99042.80 1 98525.03 1 3242.72
Total 1 101582.86 1 2539.57 1 99043.29 1 98525.03 1 3242.72

15
 Stream
number 21 22 23 24 25
mass mass
Component fraction kg/hr fraction kg/hr mass fraction kg/hr mass fraction kg/hr mass fraction kg/hr
C 2H 4 0 0 0 0 5.39 × 10−4 5.145 5.39 × 10−4 5.145 22.12 × 10−3 5.047
O2 0 0 0 0 2.774 × 10−3 26.48 2.774 × 10−3 26.48 0.115932 26.45
CH4 0 0 0 0 3.276 × 10−3 31.27 3.276 × 10−3 31.27 0.135498 30.92
C2H4O 0 0 0 0 0.886376 8461.22 0.886376 8461.22 27.02 × 10−3 6.166
CO2 0 0 0 0 17.59 × 10−3 167.87 17.59 × 10−3 167.87 0.699425 159.59
H2O 1 101767.75 1 10 1767.75 8.945 × 10−3 853.87 8.945 × 10−3 853.87 1.0 × 10−6 22.82 × 10−4
Total 1 101767.75 1 101767.75 1 9545.86 1 9545.86 1 228.18

Stream number 26 27 28 29
Component mass fraction kg/hr mass fraction kg/hr mass fraction kg/hr mass fraction kg/hr
C2H4 3.39 × 10−4 37.29 × 10−8 1.0 × 10−5 93.18 × 10−3 1.10 × 10−5 93.68 × 10−3 0 0
O2 7.0 × 10−6 7.70 × 10−10 3.0 × 10−6 27.95 × 10−3 3.0 × 10−6 25.55 × 10−3 0 0
CH4 6.34 × 10−4 69.74 × 10−8 3.8 × 10−5 35.41 × 10−2 4.2 × 10−5 0.3578 0 0
C2H4O 0.942016 10.36 × 10−5 0.90742 8455.06 0.992823 8455.05 0 0
CO2 56.33 × 10−3 61.97 × 10−6 8.89 × 10−4 8.283 9.73 × 10−4 8.286 0 0
H2O 6.71 × 10−4 7.381 × 10−8 91.64 × 10−2 853.87 61.48 × 10−4 52.36 1 801.52
Total 1 0.00011 1 9317.6872 1 8516.17095 1 801.52

16
5.2 Energy Balance

MANUAL UNISIM Error

Unit Notes for error larger than 5%
(kJ/hr) (kJ/hr) %
Q̇ = ∑Outlet ṅ i Ĥ i − ∑Inlet ṅ i Ĥ i +
FA0X[∆HO + ∆CP(T − TR)],
RX

Where, ∆HRX = ∆HO + ∆CP(T − TR).

RX
Reactor −3.51 × 107 −3.95 × 107 11.2
Since value of ∆CP(T − TR) is small,
∆Hrx is independent of T. Therefore, it
is assumed negligible.

Partial condenser −1.28 × 105 −1.06 × 106 87.9

Qr 1.56 × 107 1.92 × 107 18.9
Desorber
Qc 4.50 × 106 4.72 × 106 4.74 A portion of water vaporizes together
Qr 9.03 × 106 1.43 × 107 36.8 with EO into the condenser in UNISIM.
Purifier
Qc 1.04 × 107 8.88 × 106 17.1
Heat Heating 2.65 × 107 2.69 × 107 1.42
Exchanger
E-101 Cooling −2.68 × 10 7
−2.69 × 107 0.09
Heater E-102 2.78 × 107 2.78 × 107 0.05
Not all the water undergoes phase
Heater-105 1.85 × 107 2.63 × 107 29.7 change in UNISIM but assume it does
for MANUAL.
Cooler E-103 −3.40 × 107 −3.42 × 107 0.59
Recycled water from desorber at 100 ˚C
mixes with the mains water at ambient
Cooler E-104 −3.30 × 10 7
−3.78 × 10 7
12.7
temperature gives a 2-phase fluid
entering the cooler in UNISIM.
Not all water and EO undergo phase
Cooler E-106 −7.64 × 106 −6.18 × 106 23.7 change in UNISIM but assume they
do
for MANUAL.

17
6 Design of Major Equipment
6.1 Heat Exchanger (By Siti Noor ‘Afiqah)

In chemical industries, the transfer of heat from one fluid to another is very important and the
equipment that does such operation is called heat exchanger. Shell and Tube heat exchanger is the
common one used in chemical industries. There are few different types of shell and tube heat exchanger, but
split-ring floating head type is chosen specifically for the equipment design since it is compatible for
large number of tubes
[19] .

Advantages of using floating head heat exchanger:

 The tube bundle can be removed for during inspection and mechanical cleaning
 Single tube can be replaced easily
 The inside of the tubes can be cleaned easily
 The inside of floating head can absorb the heat expansion differential between the shell and tube
bundle.

Figure 6: Floating head shell and tube heat exchanger [20]

6.1.1 Equipment Design

For the design calculation, Kern’s method is used, which is shown in the Appendix section. The error
between assumed and calculated value of overall heat transfer coefficient is within

Material Selection
Stainless steel is used to construct both shell and tube since both fluids contain ethylene oxide, which is
prone to corrosion.

18
6.1.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet
Table 5 Heat exchanger E-101 equipment specification sheet
EO REACTOR
REV PREPARED BY DATE APPROVAL
0 ‘Afiqah
1
INTERNAL DATA SPECIFICATION
Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid Gas Gas
Stream IN OUT IN OUT
Stream number 4 5 7 8
Operating temperature (K) 294.8 403 523 523
Operating pressure (kPa) 1500 1500
Pressure drop allowed (kPa) <48.26 <68.95
Pressure drop calculated (kPa) 38.61 23.44
Total fluid flow (kg/hr) 131000 131000
Density (kg/m )3
11.83 70.86
Dynamic viscosity (cP) 0.0149 0.0188
Specific heat capacity (kJ/kg K) 1.823 1.835
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.0334 0.0453
Heat duty (kJ/hr) 2.69 × 10 7
2.69 × 107
Fouling coefficient (m2 K/W) 5000 5000
Number of passes 1 2
Effective mean temperature difference (K) 385.5
Ft factor 0.887
Calculated overall heat transfer coefficient (W/ m2 K) 148
SHELL SPECIFICATION
Cover Floating Head
Material Stainless steel
Baffle spacing (m) 0.4
No. of baffles 11
Baffle cut% 45
Bundle diameter (m) 1.02
I.D (m) 1.10
TUBE SPECIFICATION
Material of Construction Stainless Steel
Tube count 1472
No. of tubes per pass 736
Length (m) 4.83
Outer Diameter (m) 0.02
I.D (m) 0.0175
Tube pitch : Triangular Pitch (m) 0.036

Table 6 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for heat exchanger E- 101
Shell Tube
Manual (kg/ hr) Simulation Error Manual (kg/ hr) Simulation Error
(kg/ hr) (%) (kg/ hr) (%)
In 132969.298 130824.748 1.639 133056.4582 130824.668 1.706
Out 132969.298 130824.748 1.639 133056.4582 130824.668 1.706

19
6.1.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Heat Exchanger

Figure 7 Piping and instrumentation diagram for heat exchanger E- 101 [20]

6.1.4 Process Control Philosophy

The output of specific process must be controlled in order to obtain the desired range of values. For the case
of heat exchanger design, the hot fluid leaving the system will be the control variable. Figure 7 below shows
the piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) of the heat exchanger design. Pressure indicator (PI) and
temperature indicator (TI) are used for indicating pressure and temperature value of the system. Flow
control valve (FCV) is used to control the fluid flow directed by the signal from the controller. This may
lead to direct control of the flow rate and thus, it may control the process temperature to desired value. Flow
transmitter (FT) sends signal of the flow value to flow indicator control (FIC), then the flow will operate to
desired value. Same goes with temperature transmitter (TT) and temperature indicator control (TIC), of
which the data can be transmitted to FIC and pneumatic lines will adjust FCV so that the desired temperature
can be obtained. Pressure gauge (PG) is used to read the pressure of the tubes. [20]

20
6.1.5 HAZOP Studies
HAZOP study is used to ensure the safety of the equipment and to prevent any accident to occur.
Table 7 HAZOP analysis for heat exchanger E- 101

Risk Actions or
Deviation Guide word Causes Consequences
Assessment recommendations

Outlet
temperature of
Valve of
process fluid
cooling fluid
None is higher than 3D
failed to
required, may
open
damage the
tubes
Install flow
Valve of Outlet
Flow indicator control
cooling fluid temperature of
More 2D (FIC)
failed to the hot fluid will
close be too low
Control valve
is not fully High process
Less open, fluid 2D
Leakage of temperature
pipe
The flow of
cooling water
Outlet
is not
temperature will
High enough, 2D
be higher than
control valve Install temperature
desired
Temperature is not fully indicator control
open (TIC)
More cooling Outlet
water flow, temperature will
Low 2D
control valve be lower than
is fully open desired
Failure of Install high
Pressure More process fluid Tube bursts 3A pressure alarm
valve (PAH)
Regular
Cooling fluid Process fluid
Process maintenance,
Contamination goes into the gets 3D
fluid proper operator
leakage tube contaminated
alert
Hardness of Tube cracks,
Tube Corrosion cooling fluid less cooling 3E Proper maintenance

21
6.2 Ethylene Oxide Reactor (By Wong Wei Mann)
6.2.1 Equipment Design
In the multi-tube reactor, direct oxidation process occurs whereby ethylene is partially oxidized into EO.
Simultaneously, it is also completely combusted producing CO 2 and water. Both processes are highly
exothermic which resulted in the requirement of cooling jacket. Thus, the reactor itself acts similarly to a
heat exchanger but in a vertical manner. The vessel is fitted with thousands of tubes, 42.2 mm on the
outer diameter [16].
In the tube-side, where gases are feed, are heterogeneously catalyzed in gas phase. All the tubes are packed
with sliver alumina catalyst mainly because they are industrially available. Meanwhile, the shell side is
contained with water, which is much safer than oil-cooled reactor.

Figure 8 Tubular Reactor packed with Catalyst [21]

Material selection
The outer shell of the reactor vessel is constructed from low carbon steel as no heat transfer is controlled
nor the presence of corrosive fluid. The material is relatively inexpensive and has high tensile strength.
Thus, allowing the walls to be able to withstand the pressure applied by fluid. Inside the vessel is
cladded with fiberglass over mineral wool as insulating material. For the inner tube, stainless steel type 316 is
chosen as it has better corrosion resistance against pitting by chlorides and its longevity.

22
6.2.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet
Table 8 EO reactor equipment specification sheet

EO REACTOR
REV PREPARED BY DATE APPROVAL
0 Wong Wei Mann
1
VESSEL SPECIFICATION
Orientation Vertical
Material of Construction Carbon steel
Volume of reactor (m ) 3
Packed column
Height of column (m) 7.20
Diameter of column (m) 3.01
Wall thickness (m) 0.0275
Type of insulation Fiberglass
Baffle number 11
TUBE SPECIFICATION
Material of Construction Stainless Steel
Number of tubes 2855
Length (m) 6.10
Volume (m ) 3
0.0085
Outer Diameter (m) 0.0422
Wall thickness (m) 0.0036
Triangular Pitch (m) 0.0523
CATALYST
Catalyst type 10%wt Silver Alumina
Catalyst shape Spherical
Catalyst nominal diameter (m) 0.003
Catalyst volume (m3) 14.61
Catalyst bulk density (kg/m3) 1260
Catalyst void fraction 0.4
INTERNAL DATA SPECIFICATION
Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid H2O O2, EO, ET, CO2, H2O, CH4
Stream IN OUT IN OUT
Stream number - - 6 7
Operating temperature (K) 298 493 530 523
Operating pressure (kPa) 101.33 101.55 1500 1499.8
Total fluid flow (kg/hr) 9714.88 130645.11
Density (kg/m )3
437.97 974.60
Dynamic viscosity 0.00037 0.000021
Specific heat capacity (J/kg K) 1.88 1.36
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.027 0.022
Renoyld number 39902.42 606.91
Heat duty (kW) 3561474 3561474
Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/ m2 K) 22.28 22.28
Fouling coefficient (m2 K/W) 5000 5000
Log mean temperature difference (K) 69.05
Ft factor 1.18

Table 9 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for EO reactor

Stream number Manual (kg/hr) Simulation (kg/hr) Error %

6 130824.75 130823.30 0.0011
7 130824.67 130823.984 0.0005

23
6.2.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Reactor

Figure 9 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO reactor

6.2.4 Process Control Philosophy

Gas mixture feed into tube side is outfitted with a flow controller, FIC that controls the flowrate. The
flow is signaled by a flow transmitter, FT. The vessel temperature and the product outlet flow will be
indicated by TI-202 that sends electrical signal to the temperature control TIC-202. Thus, to manipulate
the temperature, a flow controller, FIC-202 modulates the cooling water flowrate. The temperature is
control by opening valve allowing higher flowrate of cooling water in the shell, thus greater heat
removal.
Similarly, the pressure in the vessel is indicated and controlled by PIC-203, which sends electrical
signal to control the motor in the gas compressor. Relief valve, V-1 will release some gas when the
pressure exceeded the operational conditions. While, each outlet streams have a manual gate valve to
control valve failure. Check valve is installed on inlet streams to ensure no backward flow.

24
6.2.5 HAZOP Studies
Table 10 HAZOP analysis for EO reactor

Parameters Deviation Causes Consequences Existing Protection Risk Actions or recommendations

Assessment
Flow No Control valve Loss or no production Install Flow alarm (FIA), 2D Install by-pass flow, proper
malfunction, Complete Emergency shutdown (ESD- operator training, perform proper
blockage, Operating 201) unclogging procedure,
fault recommended flow control valve
in list of critical instrumentation,
consistently maintain the valve
High Control valves Pressure vessel build- Install high flow alarm (FIA), 3C Regular inspection and
malfunction, Operating up possible tube/vessel Emergency shutdown (ESD- maintenance, proper operator
fault burst 201) training
Low Line partially blockage, Loss of production due Install low flow alarm (FIA), 3D Proper shut down or switch to
control valves to little reaction, flow indicator controller (FIC), back flow stream, perform proper
unresponsive, Scaling release of toxic gas Emergency shutdown (ESD- unclogging procedure
pipe, burst tube pipe, cloud to environment 201)
operating fault and personnel,
probable of explosion
Reverse Loss of flow resulting in Loss of production Install backflow prevention 2E -
backflow, high back (CV)
pressure results
backflow
Pressure High Line and flange sized Over stress tube line Install high pressure alarm (PIA) 4B Consistent inspection and
due to scaling at outlet, likelihood resulting and pressure relief valve, maintenance, periodic descaling,
high inlet flow tube pipeline burst pressure controller (PIC) install new tube/vessel.
Low Low flow inlet Loss of production Install low pressure alarm (FIA), 1C Control flowrate
Temperature High Cooling system failure, Reduce rate of Install high temperature alarm 5C Control flowrate in cooling
high temperature water cooling, likelihood of (TIA) & control cooling water system
supply runaway flow (FIC)
Low Cooling system failure, Inefficient cooling, Install low temperature alarm 4D Control flowrate in cooling
low temperature water likelihood of runaway (TIA) system
supply
25
6.3 Ethylene Oxide Absorber (By Khoo De Wenn)

6.3.1 Equipment Design:

To design for the absorption column, the following steps are taken in account:
 Selection of column
 Determination on the type and size of packing
 Selection of packing material
 Calculating for the diameter of the column
 Calculating for the height of transfer unit, HOG
 Determining the number of transfer unit, NOG
 Calculating for the packing height and column height
 Calculating for percentage flooding
 Determine the wetting rate of the column
 Calculating for the pressure drop at flooding

Selection of column
In this paper, a packed column is chosen for the design of the absorption column due to its lower
pressure drop and smaller liquid holdup compared to tray. Moreover, since EO absorption is a physical
absorption process and EO is highly soluble in water, packed column is more economical.

Types and size of packing

The type of packing selected for EO absorption process is ceramic intalox saddle. It has an open
structure with high bed porosity and hence providing low-pressure drop and high flooding limits.
Moreover, intalox saddle also has larger contact area per unit volume. Since the column diameter is
estimated to be greater than 0.9 m, according from Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering, the
recommended packing size is 2 to 3 inches.

Material selection
The material selected for the column construction is stainless steel as it is more resistant to corrosion
against the physical absorbent, water compared to carbon steel.

26
6.3.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet
Table 11 EO absorber equipment specification sheet

EO ABSORBER COLUMN
REV PREPARED BY DATE APPROVAL
0 Khoo De Wenn
1
COLUMN SPECIFICATION
Orientation Vertical
Material Stainless steel
Type of column Packed column
Operating Pressure/ kPa 1500
Operating Temperature/ K 298.15
Number of transfer units 7.75
Diameter of column/ m 3
Height of transfer unit/ m 0.4047
Height of packing/ m 4
Height of column/ m 7
Column cross sectional area/ m2 7.069
INTERNAL DATA SPECIFICATION
Packing type Intalox saddle
Size of packing/ inches 2
Packing material of construction Ceramic
Liquid distributor/ m 0.5
Liquid redistributor/ m 0.5
Vapour disengagement/ m 1.0
Vapour- liquid disengagement/ m 1.0
Liquid hold up/ kg 4304.77
Wetting rate/ s-1 0.000038347
Percentage flooding/ % 50
Pressure drop at flooding/ kPa 4.9394
OPERATION DATA SPECIFICATION
Gas inlet data
Flow rate/ (tonnes/day) 3173.4961
Density/ (kg/m3) 13.2289
Viscosity/ cP 0.00001201
Pressure/ bar 15
Temperature/ K 298.15
Solvent inlet data
Flow rate/ (tonnes/day) 2529.306
Density/ (kg/m3) 1000
Viscosity/ cP 0.00091
Pressure/ bar 1
Temperature/ K 298.15

Table 12 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for EO absorber

Stream number Manual (kg/hr) Simulation (kg/hr) Error (%)

From EO reactor (9) 133056.4582 130824.67 1.7059
Solvent (22) 105472.7317 101767.75 3.641
Recycle to reactor (10) 123418.9938 121463.69 1.610
To EO desorber (14) 115110.1955 111128.73 3.583

27
6.3.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Absorber

Figure 10 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO absorber

6.3.4 Process Control Philosophy

Table 13 Process control philosophy for EO absorber

Control Loop Type of control Purpose

301, 302, 303, Closed loop Temperature indicator controller helps to regulate the
304 feedback control temperature of the inlet water entering into the absorber
column at around ambient temperature.
Pressure indicator controller helps to ensure that the pressure
in the column remains constant throughout the process.
Flow indicator controller ensures the fluid flow is within
the programmed set point.
Level indicator controller ensures the liquid level in the column
is within the operating level, check whether flooding occur or
blockage in the inlet or outlet streams.
301, 302, 303, Indicator Monitor the flow, temperature, pressure and level of the column.
304
306, 307 Alarm Give signals to the control room in case of any change in
operating conditions (flow, temperature, pressure and level)
of the absorber column.
Emergency relief Act as a relief system in case the column is overpressurised.
system

28
6.3.5 HAZOP Studies
Table 14 HAZOP analysis for EO absorber

Parameters Deviation Consequences Causes Existing protection Risk Actions or recommendations

Assessment
Pressure Less Failure of control Control valve malfunction Pressure indicator 2D Regular checking and maintenance, install
valve, ineffective better pressure controller and alarm
separation system, emergency training and planning
More Over pressurization, bursting Valve blockage, blockage Over pressure alarm, 3B Regular checking and maintenance
in upstream or downstream, pressure relief valve,
control valve malfunction, pressure indicator, Install better pressure relief valve
faulty in pumps flow control valve and venting system,

Flow None Loss of production, solvent Major leakage in Flow indicator alarm 3C Install corrosion resistant pipes, regular
and money, damage of pumps pipes, blockage in inlet and shut down system inspection and maintenance, install by
pipes, pass-
flow pipes
Less Pressure build up, level Blockage in inlet Flow indicator alarm 3C Install level control alarm at the base of
decreased in column, damage pipes, failure of the column,
of pumps control valve
More Packing may damage, flooding Faulty in flow control valve Flow indicator alarm 3C Periodic checking and maintenance,
of column, increase corrosion trained operator to control situation, install
rate in pipes, change in backup valve and proper flow indicator
product
composition
Reverse Inefficient production due to Failure of control valve Flow indicator alarm 3D Install automated process shut down system,
backflow, damage of pumps install check valve
Level Less Change in product Outflow greater than Installation of level 2D Regular inspection and maintenance
quality, incomplete inflow, failure of level control alarm of instrumentations, use and install
separation controller, blockage of inlet better packing
pipes,
improper packing used
More Flooding in column, incomplete Inflow greater than outflow, Installation of level 2C Proper drainage system, periodic checking
separation blockage in outlet pipes control alarm and maintenance
Temperature Low Ineffective separation, pressure Low temperature inlet Temperature indicator 2C Install better temperature indicator and
change and pressure controller, regular maintenance
and inspection of instrumentation
High Phase effect, ineffective High temperature inlet Temperature indicator 3D Install better temperature indicator and
separation, pressure change from reactor and pressure controller, regular maintenance
and inspection of instrumentation

29
6.4 Ethylene Oxide Desorber (By Munir Azizi)

6.4.1 Equipment Design

A 23-tray distillation column with a reboiler was designed to separate the EO and traces of light-end
gases from water, where the large amount of water is being recycled back to the absorber. This column
is favorable to operate at lower pressure and higher temperature to have an efficient separation.

Material selection
Stainless steel is used to construct the column, trays and reboiler since the feed entering the column
contains corrosive EO, which is prone to corrosion.

Trays/Plates
The type of trays used in the design of the EO desorber is the cross flow tray in which the liquid flows
across the trays through the rising vapour. The multiple hardware components, such as down-comer and
weir of a cross flow tray provides every designer more handles to optimize the tray layout, which allows
greater operating range and efficiency.

Reboiler
Kettle reboiler is used for this design. The separation is done inside the reboiler since there is no 2 -phase
flow involved, where the vapour and the liquid product are routed through separate lines leaving the
kettle.

Condenser
For this design, floating head condenser is used, where the vapour is being condensed in the tube side by
the cooling water in the shell side. To reduce the overall condenser cost, carbon steel is used as the
material selection for the shell side of the condenser.

30
6.4.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet
Table 15 EO desorber specification sheet

EO DESORBER COLUMN
REV PREPARED BY DATE APPROVAL
0 Munir Azizi
1
OPERATING CONDITION
Feed temperature/ ˚C 75
Top temperature/ ˚C 67.49
Bottom temperature/ ˚C 102.3
Feed pressure/ kPa 101.3
Top pressure/ kPa 101.3
Bottom pressure/ kPa 101.3
Duty of reboiler/ (kJ/hr) 15.6 × 106
Duty of condenser/ (kJ/hr) 4.50 × 106
DISTILLATION COLUMN DATA
Number of theoretical stages 8
Plate efficiency/ % 26.5%
Number of actual stages 23
Top composition of EO 0.8
Bottom composition of water 0.997
Minimum Reflux ratio 0.22
Actual Reflux ratio 0.43
PROVISIONAL PLATE DESIGN CALCULATION
Physical properties
Pressure drop per tray/ mm liquid 100
Total column pressure drop/ kPa 22.54
Tray design
Column area, Ac/ m2 2.60
Down-comer area, Ad/ m2 0.31
Net area, An/ m2 2.29
Active area, Aa/ m2 1.97
Hole area, Ah/ m2 0.20
Weir length, lw/ m2 1.38
Weeping
Weep point minimum velocity, 𝑢̂ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 / (𝑚⁄𝑠 ) 15.94
Actual minimum vapour velocity/ (𝑚⁄𝑠) 11.79
Residence time
Residence time, tr/ s 3
Entrainment
Design percent flooding/ % 52.24
Perforations
Area of calming zones/ m2 0.14
Total area of perforations/ m2
PLATE SPECIFICATION
Hole diameter/ mm 6
Hole pitch/ mm 16.7
Number of active holes 6984
Height of apron/ mm 40
Plate pressure drop/ mm 146
Plate material Stainless steel
Down-comer material Stainless Steel
Plate spacing/ m 0.5
Plate thickness/ mm 3
Weir height/ mm 50
COLUMN DESIGN
Plate type Sieve tray
Column material Stainless steel
Liquid flow arrangement Double pass
Diameter/ m 1.82
Height/ m 13.2
Height-to-diameter ratio 7.26
Feed stage location 18

31
Table 16 Comparison between manual and simulation material balance for EO desorber

Stream number Manual (kg/hr) Simulation (kg/hr) Error (%)

From EO absorber, F (15) 115110.1955 111128.73 3.5828%
To light ends column, D (23) 9762.9194 9545.86 2.2739%
Downstream, B (16) 105347.276 101582.86 3.7058%

6.4.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Desorber

Figure 11Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Desorber

32
6.4.4 Process Control Philosophy
Table 17 Process control philosophy for EO desorber

Control Loop Type of control Purpose

401, 402, 403, 404, Closed loop Temperature indicator controller ensures that the
405, 409,412 control temperature of the low-pressured steam entering into the
reboiler at operating temperature remains constant.
Pressure indicator controller ensures that the pressure
of the product gas remains constant.
Flow indicator controller ensures the fluid flow is
within the programmed set point.
Level indicator controller ensures the liquid level in the
distillation column is within the operating level.
402, 405, 406, 407, Indicator Flow, temperature, pressure and level in the reboiler,
408, 409, 410, 411, condenser and column are monitored.
412
402, 412 Alarm Transmit signals to the control room in case of any
deviations in the flow, temperature, pressure and level
of
the distillation column.
Safety relief Protect column from being subjected to pressures that
system exceed design limits.

33
6.4.5 HAZOP Studies
Table 18 HAZOP analysis for EO desorber

Parameters Deviation Causes Consequences Existing Safeguard Risk Actions or recommendations

Assessment
Level More Erratic control of LIC. High Flooding, lower High-level alarm. 3E Regular inspection, maintenance
flow of feed into the column. temperature, change in Installed proper excess and tuning of control valve,
Liquid outlet stream blockage. product quality and water drainage system. equipment and controller.
compositions. Reflux drum
low level. Potential failure
of reflux pump.
Less Erratic control of LIC. Higher temperature. Low-level alarm. 2E Regular inspection, maintenance
Low flow of feed into the Change in product quality and tuning of control valve,
column. and compositions. Reflux equipment and controller.
drum high level.
Temperature More Inconsistent control of TIC. Excessive flooding, Programmable feed 3D Throttle upstream or downstream
Instrumentation failure. Low changes in product quality, logic controllers to using control valve. Reduce
feed flow rate into the column. unfavorable increase in maintain level and production until problem is solved.
More steam flow. Heat column pressure. flow. High- Regular inspection, maintenance
exchanger tube failure. High temperature alarm. and tuning of control valve and
steam pressure. controller. Attention to heat input
and output control.
Less Instrumentation failure. Weeping, decrease in Programmable feed 2D Regular inspection, maintenance
Erratic control of TIC. Less column pressure, change in logic controllers to and tuning of control valve and
steam flow or steam leakage. product quality and maintain level and controller. Attention to heat input
Low steam pressure and compositions. flow. Low- and output control.
temperature. High feed flow temperature alarm.
into the column.
Flow More FCV is fully open. Increase Reflux drum low level, High-level alarm. 3D Plant shut down.
pumping capacity. Controller column flooding, process Pump minimum flow. Regular inspection, maintenance
FIC failure. upset, change in product Installed proper excess and tuning of control valve,
quality, temperature water drainage system. equipment and controller. Make
decreases. bypass.
Less Pipe blockage. FCV set closed. Reflux drum high level. Low-flow alarm. 3D Plant shut down.
Pump failure. Controller FIC Process upset, loss of Regular inspection, maintenance
failure. Tube leakage and production and tuning of control valve and
blocking. controller.
No FCV shut. Pipe blockage. Tube Reflux drum high level. Low-flow alarm 3D Plant shut down.
leakage and blocking. Process upset, loss of Regular inspection, maintenance
production and tuning of control valve and
controller.

34
6.5 Condenser (By Muhammad Zulfadli)

In many petrochemical industries, condensers are essential to convert the fluid to vapours and are mounted
on the top of the distillation column. Heat is transferred between two fluids; a coolant and a fluid, which
are separated by a heating medium. Condensers design and construction is similar to any shell and tube heat
exchangers, but with wider baffle spacing [22, p. 709].

Figure 12 TEMA type AFL horizontal condenser [23]

6.5.1 Equipment Design

For this design, coolant chilled water will enter the shell side whereas EO fluid will enter the tube
side. The fluid will be cooled down while chilled water in the shell side will be heated up. Hence, the
light gases will exit at the top reflux absorber column and liquid EO will reflux back into the
column.
All calculations done are based on Chapter 12 of Richardson and Coulson 4 th edition. Steps of designing
the equipment are showed in the Appendix section and mainly derived from the Kern’s Method.

Material Selection
Material selection chosen for the tube is the stainless steel where as for the shell section is the carbon
steel. Reason chosen for the stainless-steel type material at the tube side is because stainless steel is more
resistant.

Tube Pitch Arrangement

Square pitch is chosen because of the fouling due to the heavy fluid properties and in square pitch it is easier
to be mechanically taken off for cleaning and maintenance.

35
Type of Condenser
Condenser Type chosen is the fixed-tube, mainly because of the low pressure that the condenser is operating
at. Moreover, the tubes can be cleaned mechanically after the bonnet are taken off and is also the
cheapest among all types of heat exchangers and condensers.

6.5.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet

Table 19 Condenser specification sheet

EO CONDENSER

REV PREPARED BY DATE APPROVAL

0 Mohamad Zulfadhli
1
CONDENSER SPECIFICATION
Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid H2O O2, EO, ET, CO2, H2O, CH4
Stream IN OUT IN OUT
Stream number - - 22 23
Operating temperature (K) 278 297 284 218
Operating pressure (kPa) 101.3 101.3 101.3 101.3
Pressure Drop Allowed (kPa) <48.26 <68.94
Pressure Drop Calculated (kPa) 44.16217 1.42022 × 10−11
Total fluid flow (kg/hr) 13348.87218 1744
Density (kg/m3) 998 2
Dynamic viscosity 0.0011080879 0.0010215
Specific heat capacity (J/kg K) 4200 43,900
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.57564781034 11.5106
Renoyld number 25640.56027 0.000436245
Heat duty (kW) 295.9 295.9
Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/ m2 K2) 849.8 849.8
Fouling coefficient (m K/W)
2
6000 6000
Log mean temperature difference (K) -30.852
Ft factor -1.163
CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL
TUBES
Material Construction Stainless Steel Bundle Diameter 0.20
Number of Tubes 17 Tube Pitch Square
Length 2 BWG TYPE 14
O. D 0.0254 I.D 0.021186
SHELL
Material Construction Carbon Steel Baffle Spacing 0.081174833
Cover Fixed Tube Number of Baffles 24
Shell I. D 0.202937 Baffle Cut 45 %

36
6.5.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for Condenser

Figure 13 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO condenser

6.5.4 Process Control Philosophy

Table 20 Process control philosophy for EO condenser

Control Loop Type of Control Purpose

501, 502, 503 Closed-loop Flow level control mounted on the control room to control the
Control flow of chilled water in by accurately adjusting the control valve
(FCV- 501). Flow Transmitter (FT501) measures the feedstock
and sends the signal via electronic signal to controller, (FIC-501)
in control room. Similarly, FT 503 measures the flow of organic
vapor using a sensor and sends the electronic signal to FR-503 to
indicate the measured flow.
Temperature level control mounted on the control room to controls
the temperature outlet of the organic vapor by accurately adjusting
the valve TCV-502. TT 502 measured the temperature and send
the signals to TIRC 502. It will then send the signal back to the
temperature control valve, TCV 502 via pneumatic signal.
500, 503 Indicator Temperature and Pressure are indicated on the site instrument (PI
503) TI 503) and are transmitted by temperature and
Pressure Transmitter. (TT 503) (PT 500)
502 Alarm Pressure and Temperature are transmitted to temperature and
pressure alarm level controller if it’s at the high or low level.
501,502 Manual Hand switch is mounted at the control room. The switch turns
on/off the pump. The hand valve opens or closes the valve to
the shell side of the condenser.

37
 6.5.5 HAZOP Studies
Table 21 HAZOP analysis for condenser

Parameters Deviation Causes Consequences Existing Risk Actions or

safeguard Assessment recommendations
Flow No Failure of Temperature of Installation of 3C Frequent
the opening organic vapour temperature inspection and
of control is not lowered transmitter and maintenance.
valve. efficiently. temperature
indicator
controller in
the
control room.
Reverse Failure of Product output Installation of 3C Frequent
the opening is not desired flow transmitter inspection and
of fluid and flow indicator maintenance.
control controller in the
valve. control room
More Failure of Temperature of Installed high 2C Frequent
the organic chilled water temperature alarm inspection and
vapour valve increases maintenance.
tremendously
Less Failure of Temperature of Installed low 3C Frequent
the opening the process temperature inspection and
of the chilled fluid remains alarm. maintenance.
water valve. constant.
Blockage in
pipes.
Contamination Contamination Fluid mixed Downgrade of Periodic 4B Frequent
with the product. maintenance inspection and
chilled water carried out by maintenance.
operator.
Pressure Low Leakage of Possible Installation of low 1C Frequent
pipes. inhalation of pressure alarm. inspection and
organic maintenance.
vapours.
Corrosion Corrosion Corrosive Further cracks Regular 1C Frequent
chilled water and fractures of maintenance inspection and
tubes maintenance.

38
6.6 Ethylene Oxide Purifier (by Muhammad Hamdi)

6.6.1 Equipment Design

This -section includes the selection of materials, types of tray as well as the associated components
required for the operation of the purifier column. The feed containing 0.801 mole of EO and 0.199 mole
of water is fed to the refining column of the distillation unit. The designed distillation column has 11
tray stages. High purity EO, approximately 99% is obtained as the final product.

Material Selection
The materials used to construct to column is stainless steel as the mixture of EO and water in the
feed stream can be corrosive.

Trays
Taking into considerations of the flow inside the column is cross flow, hence, cross flow plates is
used, where liquid will flow down across the plate while vapour travels up. It is the most type of
plate contractor used in industries. In this section, sieve plate is selected. With the additional of
down-comer and weirs, cross-flow trays are optimized and hence, increasing the distillation column
efficiency and capacity as higher vapour rate can be handled.

Reboiler
Reboiler consisted of shell and tube heat exchangers specifically designed to heat up the fluid of
distillation column. U-tube type kettle is selected since it is more sufficient and commonly used in
industries. The bottom liquid from the column flows into the reboiler bottom and partially vapourised.
A two-phased mixture is return back to the column through a riser pipe. The heated fluid, steam,
passes through the shell side.

Condenser
Condenser functioned to cool down the gaseous fluid to liquid state. For this section, horizontal in
design with condensation in the tube is chosen, as vapour is condensed in the tube by cooling water in
the shell side. The condenser is made up of carbon steel to reduce the cost of the entire column.

39
6.6.2 Equipment Design Specification Sheet
Table 22 EO purifier equipment specification sheet
EO PURIFIER COLUMN
REV PREPARED BY DATE APPROVAL
0 Muhammad Hamdi
1
OPERATING CONDITION
Feed temperature/ ˚C 7.6
Top temperature/ ˚C 18.32
Bottom temperature/ ˚C 102.3
Feed pressure/ kPa 101.3
Top pressure/ kPa 101.3
Bottom pressure/ kPa 101.3
Duty of reboiler/ (kJ/hr) 9.03 × 106
Duty of condenser/ (kJ/hr) 1.07 × 107
DISTILLATION COLUMN DATA
Number of theoretical stages 3
Plate efficiency/ % 23%
Number of actual stages 11
Top composition of EO 0.99
Bottom composition of water 0.997
Minimum Reflux ratio 0.0102
Actual Reflux ratio 0.0510
PROVISIONAL PLATE DESIGN CALCULATION
Physical properties
Pressure drop per tray/ mm liquid 100
Total column pressure drop/ kPa 10.6
Tray design
Column area, Ac/ m2 6.72
Down-comer area, Ad/ m2 0.80
Net area, An/ m2 5.9173
Active area, Aa/ m2 5.1104
Hole area, Ah/ m2 0.511
Weir length, lw/ m2 2.224
Weeping
Weep point minimum velocity, 𝑢̂ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 / (𝑚⁄𝑠 ) 16.47
Actual minimum vapour velocity/ (𝑚⁄𝑠) 10.11
Residence time
Residence time, tr/ s 23.245
Entrainment
Design percent flooding/ % 39.75
Perforations
Area of calming zones/ m2 0.2133
Total area of perforations/ m2
PLATE SPECIFICATION
Hole diameter/ mm 6
Hole pitch/ mm 17.2
Number of active holes 1807
Height of apron/ mm 17.206
Plate pressure drop/ mm 88
Plate material Stainless steel
Down-comer material Stainless Steel
Plate spacing/ m 0.6
Plate thickness/ mm 3
Weir height/ mm 50
COLUMN DESIGN
Plate type Sieve tray
Column material Stainless steel
Liquid flow arrangement Single pass
Diameter/ m 2.92
Height/ m 7.59
Height-to-diameter ratio 2.595
Feed stage location 2

40
6.6.3 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Purifier

Figure 14 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for EO Purifier

6.6.4 Process Control Philosophy

Table 23 Process control philosophy for EO purifier

Control loop Type of control Parameter Purpose

601, 602, 603, Closes loop Temperature Ensures that the temperature of the low
604, 605, 606 control pressured steam entering the reboiler at
operating temperature remains constant.
Pressure Helps to ensure that the pressure in the column
remains constant throughout the process
Flow Ensures the fluid flow is within the optimal
point.
Level Ensures the level of the column within
operating level, check flooding occurrence or
blockage in
the inlet or outlet streams.
Indicator Temperature, Monitor the flow, temperature, pressure and
pressure, level of the column.
flow, level
601, 605 Alarm Level, Give signals to the control room in case of
temperature change in operating conditions of the distillation
column
601 Emergency relief Pressure Act as a relief system in case the pressure of
system the column exceeds the limit.

41
6.6.5 HAZOP Studies
Table 24 HAZOP analysis for EO purifier

Parameters Deviation Causes Consequences Existing Safeguards Risk Actions or

Assessment recommendations
Flow No Control valve is Reflux drum high Low-flow alarm. 2D Plant shut down,
closed, pipe blockage, level, operation regular inspection,
tube leakage. upset, loss of maintenance and tuning
products. of control valve and
controller, make bypass
Less Pipe blockage, FCV Reflux drum high Low-flow alarm. 2D Plant shut down,
closed, pump failure, tube level, operation regular inspection,
leakage. upset, loss of maintenance and tuning
products. of control valve,
equipment and
controller, make
bypass.
More FCV is fully open., Reflux drum low High-level alarm. Pump 3C Plant shut down,
increase pumping capacity, level, column minimum flow. regular inspection,
failure of controller or flooding, operation Installed proper excess maintenance and tuning
control valves upset, loss of water drainage system. of control valve,
production, change equipment and
in product quality, controller, make
temperature bypass, install safety
decreases. relief valve.
Level Less Low feed flow into the Higher Low-flow alarm. 3C Regular inspection,
column, outflow is greater temperature, maintenance and tuning
than inflow, control change in product of control valve,
measurement is inaccurate. quality and equipment and
compositions controller
More Blockage of liquid Flooding, lower High-level alarm. Pump 4C Regular inspection,
outlet stream, erratic temperature, minimum flow. maintenance and tuning
control of LIC, high change in product Installed proper excess of control valve,
feed flow into the quality and water drainage system. equipment and
column, more inflow compositions controller
than outflow.

42
Temperature Less Instrumentation failure, Weeping, decrease Programmable feed 3D Regular inspection,
erratic control of TIC, in column logic controllers to maintenance and tuning
less steam flow or steam pressure, change in maintain level and of control valves,
leakage, low steam product quality and flow. Low- temperature equipment and
pressure and temperature, compositions. alarm. controller.
high feed flow into the
column.
More Temperature build up Pressure change Programmable feed 4C Install pressure alarm.
in the column. that leads to high logic controllers to
Reboiler/condenser failure pressure, flooding, maintain level and
change in product flow, high-temperature
quality. alarm.
Pressure Less Control valve not No separation Low-pressure alarm. 3C Install pressure alarm
responding occurs, change in
flow, temperature
and level.
More Control valve not Piping fracture Relief valve installed. 4C Install a pressure gauge
responding, heat build of the delivery pump.
up Provide thermal
expansion relief valve.

43
7. Plant Layout and Location

7.1 Battery Limit Description

The battery limit surrounding the processing area includes the process equipment with their related
utilities and services. All the spaces and measured distances between battery limits of adjoining units
should be kept clear and open.
The site plan layout will include:
 Management and administrative block for headquarters staff
 Major processing area, which includes major equipment such as distillation columns,
scrubbing columns, reactor and heat exchangers.
 Raw material storage area
 Product storage area located near the sea for ease of export
 Disposal area for removal of waste materials
 Maintenance and utilities area which contains instrument air, water and electricity
 Fire station
 Assembly area
 Clinic
 Security post near the main entrance
 Car parking lot
 Emergency exit located around the entrance and exits of the plant
 Canteen
 Laboratory
 Workshop
 Control room to control the flow and parameters of major equipment within the processing area

A cost-efficient operation and construction of a well-developed plant site and equipment will depend on
how the major process units and equipment on flow sheet is mapped. The proposed plant site for our
ethylene oxide production located near Seria, as site is eligible for our design and proper adjusted according
to the arrangement of the plant layout.

The main factors to be considered are:

1. Economic review: Construction and Operating Cost

44
Construction can be minimalized by using a layout that gives the shortest possible run of connecting
pipes between the equipment and the one that requires the least amount of steel work.

2. Process Requirements
Process need take into the consideration of how the equipment is placed, for example the need to raise
the base of columns, which will provide the necessary adjustment for net positive section head to a
pump.

3. Operation
Equipment that needs an attentive focus from the operator shall be situated near or easy to see and
access from the control room. Space should be big enough to provide an easy access to the equipment.

4. Maintenance
Equipment that does not require dismantling such as heat exchanger need to be placed so that the tube
bundles can easily remove for cleaning and replacement of the tubes. Columns and vessels that required
persistent substitution of catalyst shall be situated on the outside of the buildings. On the other hand,
equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance should be placed in secluded area.

5. Safety
Blast walls should be constructed to isolate and contained the explosion that may happened due to the
hazardous process chemicals. Minimum of 2 escape routes must be provided for the plant operators.

6. Plant expansion
Spaces for piping networks are required for future needs and maintenance of pipes-oversized.

7. Modular Construction
There has been several arise cases in recent years to move an assemble sections of plant completed at
the manufacturer’s site. These components include the equipment, structural steel, piping and
instrumentation. These components are usually transported to the plant site by road or sea.

7.2 Plant Layout

The product is situated near to the seaport of the plant site where it will be first stored in the storage
area, then transported for exportation via sea. The waste disposal will be located at the opposite side of
the product storage area. The waste disposal will be transported to a restricted disposal plant. This

45
distribution is for an easy identification between the 2 areas. Major hazardous facilities must be located far
enough from

46
the site border and away from the residential areas. The administrative block is located a distant from
the major processing area. Personnel with the authorized permit and personal protective equipment are the
only one granted to enter the major processing area. The Fire Station is located near to the processing
area to provide a convenient access for emergency services. The assembly area is located near to the main
entrance and is not in parallel to the prevailing wind direction as it can affect the overall health and
visibility of the workers should there is a fire happening.

Figure 15 Proposed Ethylene Oxide Plant Layouts

7.2.1 Hazardous Area Zones

Zone 0 (red) – Area with an atmosphere that is consisting of explosive mixture of hazardous substances and
is present continuously over an extended period of time
Zone 1 (yellow) – Area with an atmosphere that made up of explosive mixture of hazardous substances and
is likely to occur on normal operation
Zone 2 (green) - Area with an atmosphere that is consist of explosive mixture of hazardous substances
and is least likely to occur on normal operation.

47
7.3 Proposed Plant Location
Profits of the project can be heavily dependent on the plant location site. Due to its impact on the overall
business health, meticulous reviews on various factors are required. To conclude, the chosen plant site
has been chosen as Seria based on the 10 principal location factors. The 10 principal factors are given
below:

 Market Availability
The location of the plant will be located in Seria to provide ease of access to transport the product materials.

 Raw Material Supply

Natural Gas can be supplied from the BLNG via gas pipeline while Ethylene can be supplied from the
nearest ASEAN countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia.

 Transport Facilities
The site is provided with 2 major forms of transport: roads, and sea port.

 Labour Availability
Local and foreigner workforce are needed for the construction, maintenance and operation of the whole
plant. However, priorities will be given to the Bruneians since unemployment rate has been a concern.
Highly skilled foreign labour is also brought in if necessary and training will also be provided.

 Utilities Availability
Fuel, water and power are available near to the plant site, hence, providing enough resources it requires
to operate. Gas refinery is situated less than 3 km away, which is ideal for transportation and export.

 Land Availability
Land must be big enough and spacious enough to build the whole plant.

 Environmental Impact and Waste Disposal

An assessment to the environmental impact will be carried out to measure the effects to the environment
from the emitted gas of the plant site. Waste disposal is carried out by adhering to the waste
management and procedures. In this plant, the waste products, mostly CO2 gas, will be treated and then
transported for export.

48
  Local Community Considerations
A new plant site can elevate the community’s economy. However, it need to be situated away from the
residential areas for safety purposes. The number of workers coming in also needs to be considered as it
can disrupt the overall traffic flow, housing accommodation and facilities used. Local policymakers also
have to take note of the future and planned expansion of the plant site.

 Political and Strategic Consideration

Year by year, there is a significant rising demand for EO due to its usage in the textile industry. This
will help to elevate the government’s interest to invest in this project as well as achieving the country’s
national goal of Wawasan 2035. By doing this, there will a greater chance of employment and development
of higher skill sets.

7.4 Plant Commissioning

Commissioning as noted by Martin Kill [24], is the use of a systematic methodology to convert newly
process plant into a fully working operational unit with the safest process and cost efficient. Generally,
commissioning is a series of check-ups and checklist that confirm the stages or phases of the plant whether
it is accordance to the systematic methodology.

For the Ethylene oxide production, the general commissioning is as follow:

Prepare Implement Close- out

7.4.1 Prepare
Before setting up the commissioning, there are activities that need to be taken care of, such as:
 Define the commissioning scope
 Attend Hazard study
 Agreement to Safe System of Work with all interested parties
 Compile training packages
 Systemize the plant utilizing on the project regarding P&ID and other relevant documents [24].

49
7.4.2 Implement
This phase can be viewed as “commissioning’’ which focuses more towards checking, installation
and start-up of new equipment such as:
 Check construction progress and quality
 Commence training of plant and maintenance personnel
 Attend and manage pre-start-up safety checks
 Complete all leak testing
 Start-up plant [24]

7.4.3 Close-Out
This is the final stage of commissioning process and the least taken care of, such as:
 All paperwork systems and trials should be completed
 Ensure all plant equipment follow standard criteria, which will enable the plant to be submitted
to the ongoing operation group [24]

Overview of Commissioning Stages

The main commissioning stages are being divided into 3 main distinct stages namely, prepare,
implement and close- out. These 3 distinct stages are used so that it is easy to signify the steps that are
present in each stage that should be considered for any type of projects of any size to make sure that all
commissioning activities are well completed and included in the management systems and as a result, giving
the best chance of a scheduled and successful plant start-up.

50
Obtain a clear definition of scope and
Select a commisioning manager
actual requirement of
the commisioning team

Select a commisioning team

Plan• Establish team activities
Establish a training program
Document preparation
Develop format for check- out with

Check build construction

Factory allowable testing
Punchlist
Fit internals and packing

Handover and change control systems

Construction to commisioning team
Managing change and job scope

Leak test
Test new equipment
Start- up of safe chemicals
Review on HAZOP and pre- start up safety

Commission on process chemicals Start- up• Train operations and maintenance

Certify plant and products to design and quality specifications ipment

Process equ and product

Cr iteria of the plant has been met

Co mmisioning document handover
Handover of plant• Re issued operation as commisioned
s tatus
Figure 16 Plant Commissioning
Stages

50
 8. Plant Economics and Costing

The cost estimation for this project are done with reference from Coulson Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering, Chemical Engineering Design (CRCE). Exchange rate used for the conversion from USD to
BND is USD 1 to BND 1.35 [25].
Table 25 Total purchase cost of major equipment items (PCE) and plant physical cost (PPC)

Equipment Capital Cost (USD 2004) Capital Cost (BND 2019)

Heat Exchanger $203,110 $366,917.95
Reactor $291,000 $525,691.11
Absorber $107,143.36 $193,554.34
Desorber $203,460 $367,550.22
Purifier $60,700 $109,654.47
Reboiler 1 $37,000 $66840.45
Condenser 1 $84,500 $152649.14
Partial condenser $8,800 $15897.19
Reboiler 2 $78,000.00 $164391.38
Condenser 2 $60,000.00 $112002.92
Heater E-100 $51,700 $93395.98
Cooler E-102 $176,000 $317943.77
Cooler E-103 $308,000 $556401.59
Heater E104 $170,000 $307104.78
Cooler E-106 $110,000 $198714.85
Total Purchase Cost of Equipment (PCE) $1,949,413.36 $3,521,612.66
Total Plant Physical Cost (PPC) $6,628,005.43 $11,973,483.04
The Plant Physical Cost uses all the correction factors for fluids. Hence, PPC = PCE × 3.4.

Fixed capital, working capital and total investment costs can be estimated as shown below:
Table 26 Fixed capital, working capital and total investment in USD (2004) and BND (2019)
Capital Cost Capital Cost
(USD 2004) (BND 2019)
Fixed Capital $9,610,607.86 $17,361,550.57
Working Capital $480,530.39 $867,077.53
Total investment = Fixed capital + Working capital $10,091,138.26 $18,339,628.10
For the fixed capital calculation, the cost includes design engineering, contactor’s fee and contingency
factors. Hence, fixed capital = PPC × 1.45. Meanwhile, the working capital is taken to be 5 % of the
fixed capital.

Operating Time
Considering the number of public holidays and possible plant shut down for maintenance, the number of
operating days is assumed to be 335 days in a year or 8040 hours per year. Therefore, the plant
attainment is approximately 91.8%.

51
Table 27 Raw Materials Total Cost in USD (2004)

Chemical Amount (kg/hr) USD $/kg in USD Cost USD (2004)

respective years
C2H4 8,613 419,000 in 2018 $29,207,980.94 $21,827,181.38
[26]
O2 6,400 0.05 in 2013 [27] $2,972,584.04 $2,221,417.88
CH4 6417 2.660 in 2019 [28] $6,760,420.14 $5,052,075.21
Catalyst 18,410.84 78.05 in 2019 [29] $1,436,966.06 $1,073,847.55
Total $30,174,522.02 $30,174,522.02

Table 28 Utilities Total Cost in USD (2004)

Utility Amount (kg/hr) USD Cost USD (2004)

Mains water 3,285.43748 50 cents/ton $13,207.46
Cooling water 517,184.987 1 cent/ton $41,581.67
Chilled water 13,348 8 cents/ton $8,585.43
Steam 23,347.99714 $12/ton $2,252,614.76
Total $2,315,989.33

Table 29 Variable Total Cost in USD (2004)

Typical values Cost USD 2004/year

Raw materials From table 27 $30,174,522.02
Miscellaneous materials $45,396.26 $45,952.86
Utilities From table 28 $2,315,989.33
Shipping and Packaging Negligible -
Total $32,538,934.14

Table 30 Total Fixed Cost in USD (2004)

Typical values Cost USD (2004)
Maintenance 5% of fixed capital $480,530.39
Operating Labour Labour salary × Number of labours $2,992,086.00
× Operating time
USD 8.27
= × 45 man × 8040 hr
man. hr
Laboratory 30% of operating labour $897,625.80
Supervision 20% of operating labour $598,417.20
Plant overheads 50% of operating labour $1,496,043.00
Capital charges 6% of fixed capital $581,073.47
Insurance 1% of fixed capital $96,845.58
Local taxes Negligible -
Royalties and license fees Negligible -
Total fixed cost $7,142,621.44
The labour cost for a chemical operator is assumed to be USD 8.27 per hour [30] and assuming the number
of workers in the plant to be 45 man.
The annual production cost can be calculated from the variable cost and fixed cost.

52
Table 31 Annual production cost in USD (2004) and BND (2019)

Cost USD (2004) Cost BND (2019)

Variable costs $32538934.14 $58,781,541.46
Fixed costs $7,142,3621.44 $12,903,136.31
Production cost = Variable cost + Fixed cost $39,681,555.58 $71,687,677.77

Annual Revenue
The price of EO in Asia Pacific region as of April 2019 is USD 1,222.79 [31]. Since the proposed plant
EO production rate is assumed to be 200 MTPD. Hence, the annual revenue is determined to be:
Annual revenue (2019) = 200 MTPD × USD 1,222.79 × 335 days = USD 81, 926, 930.00
Annual revenue BND (2019) = $110,601,355.50

Cash Flow
The following are the assumptions made for the cash flow and discounted cash flow analysis:
1. The operating cost and revenue are constant.
2. The discounted rate is the same as interest rate, which is 5.5 % in Brunei [32].
3. The plant is assumed to be under construction for 3 years.
4. The plant is expected to operate for at least 10 years.

Table 32 Cash Flow Analysis

Cash Interest Overall Profit
Cost Revenue flow Rate Discounted profit without
(MM (MM (MM (MM cash flow discounted discount
Year BND BND) BND) BND) (MM BND) (MM BND) (MM BND)
)
0 18.26 0 -18.26 0.055 -18.26 -18.26 -18.26
1 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 3.53 -14.73 -14.54
2 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 3.34 -11.39 -10.82
3 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 3.17 -8.22 -7.10
4 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 3.00 -5.22 -3.38
5 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 2.85 -2.38 0.34
6 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 2.70 0.32 4.06
7 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 2.56 2.88 7.78
8 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 2.42 5.30 11.49
9 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 2.30 7.60 15.21
10 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 2.18 9.77 18.93
11 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 2.06 11.84 22.65
12 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 1.96 13.79 26.37
13 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 1.85 15.65 30.09
14 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 1.76 17.41 33.81
15 106.88 110.60 3.72 0.055 1.67 19.07 37.53

53
 50.00

40.00

30.00 Discounted Cash Flow

Cash Flow in MM

Undiscounted Cash Flow

20.00

0.00
0123456789 10 11 12 13 14 15
10.00
-10.00

-20.00

Plant life in years

-30.00

Figure 17 Cash Flow Graph

The payback time is found to be 4.9093 years, which is approximately 4 years 11 months. Based on the
payback time, the return on investment (ROI) and net present value (NPV) are determined to be 13 %
and BND $19,072,186.79 respectively.

Net Present Value

The net present value (NPV) of a project is the sum of the present values of the future cash flows:
n=t
CFn
NPV = ∑ = BND 19,072,186.79
n=1(1 + i )n

Discounted cash flow rate Return On Investment

n=t
CFn
∑ =0
(1 + i)n
n=1

By trial and error,

i=13%

54
 9. Conclusion

Most of modern industrial EO productions have adopted direct-oxidation process, which gives better
alternatives compared to dichlorohydrin process. In this report, pure oxygen is used as feed instead of
air for direct oxidation process. Several ideal conditions and assumptions have been made such that a
purge is used to remove carbon dioxide from the top of absorption column while the other gases are
recycled back as feed.

The designs of the major equipment are based on our targeted production rate of 200 MTPD along with
HAZID study to show that safety must be prioritized. The design specifications followed by the cost
estimation, result in a payback time of approximately 4 years and 11 months with NPV of BND
$19,072,186.79

Limitations
 The study of the actual plant of the whole process is vastly different from the hypothesis
study. Thus, there are complexity faced when designing for this project.
 Some literature reviews are incomplete and have limited resources for equipment design.
 HAZOP and P&ID are normally done by groups of industrial experts with combination
of different personal background such as chemical, mechanical and electrical.

Recommendations
 Cost estimation can be improved by collecting the data from specific company.
 Consider performing laboratory-scale production to achieve higher accuracy in results.
 Extensive research on market cost to obtain greater accuracy in cost estimation of the
plant.
 Perform field verification for proper feasibility of the plants.

55
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59
 11. Appendices
Appendix 1: Equipment Design Calculation for Heat Exchanger
Given that:
1. Tube length, L = 4.98 m, O.D = 0.020 m and I.D = 0.0175 m

Resistance coefficient Assumed U

Ti (◦C) Tf (◦C)
(W/m2◦C) (W/m2◦C)
Hot Fluid (Gases) 250 155.9 5000
Cold Fluid (Gases) 21.8 130 5000 148.6

2. The tubes made of stainless steel, thus thermal conductivity Kw is 16 W/m.◦C

3. Q = 7.47 × 106 W
4. Log Mean temperature

(Thi − Tco) − (Tho − Tci) (250 − 130) − (155.9 − 21.8)

LMTD = = 126.9℃
(Thi − Tco) = (250 − 130)
ln (Tho − Tci) ln (155.9 − 21.8)

5. Temperature correction factor for 1 shell – 2 tube pass exchangers,

(250−155.9) (130−21.8)
𝑅 = (130−21.8) = 0.8697 𝑆 = (250−21.8)= 0.4741
The correction Factor, Ft retrieved from Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Vol.6, Figure
12.19, page 957

6. Mean Temperature difference

DTm = Ft × LMTD = 0.8866 ×126.9 = 112.5 ℃

7. Determine the area (m2)

q
A= 7.47 × 106 W
U× = 447 m2
DTm =148.6 W2 × 112.5 °C
m °C

8. Number of tubes
A 447 m2
Nt = = = 1473
π×d ×L π × 0.02m × 4.83m
o

9. Use triangular pitch, selected no. of passes retrieved from Coulson and Richardson’s
Chemical Engineering Vol.6, Table 12.4 page 649
pt = 1.8 × do = 1.8 × 0.02m = 0.036m
60
 10. Bundle diameter
1 1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 × 𝑛𝑁𝑡 = 0.02𝑚 × ( 1473 )
2.207
= 1.02𝑚
(1𝐾 )
1 0.249

11. In order to calculate shell diameter, split ring floating head of the exchanger is chosen to
obtain Bundle Diameter Clearance (BDC) retrieved from Coulson and Richardson’s
Chemical Engineering Vol.6, Figure 12.10, page 646
BDC = 0.0733 m; Ds = Db + BDC = 1.02 m + 0.0733 m = 1.10 m

12. Determine baffle spacing and number of baffles

Given that the optimum spacing will usually be between 0.3 to 0.5 times the shell diameter.
l = 0.4 × D = 0.4 × 1.10m = 0.439m L 4.83m
B = = = 11
b s lb 0.439
n

13. Calculate the area for cross-flow for the hypothetical row of tubes at the shell equator
(pt − do) × Ds × lb (0.036 m − 0.02 m) × 1.10 m × 0.439 m
As = = 0.036 m = 0.214 m2
pt
14. Shell-side mass velocity,
Gs
36.3333kg ⁄ s kg
Shell − side mass flowarate
Gs = = = 169.9
As 0.214 m2 sm2

15. Shell equivalent diameter, de using a triangular pitch arrangement

1.10 1.10
d = (pt2 − (0.917 × d 2)) = (0.0362 − (0.917 × 0.022)) = 0.0511 m
e
d
o
0.02
o
16. Shell-side Reynolds number
Gsde 169.9 kg ⁄ (sm2 ) × 0.0511 m
Re =
= 5.839 × 10−5
μ 1.487 × 10−5 kg/ms

17. Obtain shell velocity Us

Us = G s =
ρ 169.9 kg ⁄ (sm2 )
= 14.4 m/s
11.8 kg ⁄ m3
18. Prandtle number, Pr
Cp 1.823 kJ/(kg. K)
Pr = μ × = 1.489 × 10−5 kg/ms ×
= 0.812
k 3.34 × 10−5 kW/mK

61
 19. Heat transfer factor, jh can be retrieved from Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering Vol.6, Figure 12.29, page 673, jh = 6.70 × 10−4 (45%).
To obtain Nusselt number to calculate shell-side heat transfer coefficient

62
 1 1
Nu = jh × Re × Pr3 = 6.70 × 10−4 × 5.839 × 10−5 × 0.8123 = 365

Find shell-side heat transfer coefficient, hs without viscosity term,

k𝐹 3.34×10−2 W
h= × Nu = × 365 = 238
s de 0.0511 m3 K

20. Heat transfer factor, jf can be retrieved from Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical
Engineering Vol.6, Figure 12.30, page 674,Jf = 1.7 × 10−2. To calculate pressure drop in
the shell:
Ds
Ps = 8jf × L ρUs2 1.10m 4.83m 11.8kg/𝑚3 × (14.4m/s)2
× × = 8 × 1.7 × 10−2 × × ×
De lb 2 0.0511m 0.439m 2
∆Ps = 39190Pa = 5.68psia

21. Calculate number of tubes per pass

Nt
Ntpp = = 1473
number of passes = 736
2

22. Calculate the side mass velocity

tube side flowrate 36.3kg/s kg
Gm = = = 205
πdi2 π × 0.0175m2
Ntpp × 4 736 ×
m2s 4

23. Calculate tube-side velocity

Gm 205 kg/(m2s)
v= = 2.89 m/s
= ρ 70.9 kg/m
3

24. Calculate Prandtle and Reynolds numbers for fluids inside tubes
kJ
Cp kg
Pr = μ × 1. kg. K
= 1.88 × 10−5 × = 0.761
k mskW
4.53 × 10−5
m
v × ρ × di 2.89 m/s × 70.9kg/m3 × 0.0175m
Re = = = 191000
μ 1.88 × 10−5kg/ms

25. Calculate the ℎ𝑖 on the tube side

k
hi = 4.53 × 10−5 kW/mK
i × jh × Re × Pr = × 1.23 × 10−3 × 191000 × 0.7610.33 = 556
0.33
d 0.0175m

26. Calculate tube side pressure drop

63
 𝑘𝑔
𝑚2
𝐿 𝜌𝑣2 4.83𝑚 70.9 3 × 2.89
𝑚 𝑠
∆𝑃 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 × ( ) + 2.5] ( ) = 736 [(8 × 0.017) × ( ) + 2.5] ( )
𝑑 � 2 0.0175𝑚 2
∆𝑃 = 23800 𝑃𝑎 = 3.45 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎

27. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient

Conductivity of metals, 𝑘𝑤 can be retrieved from Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Vol.6,
Figure 12.6, page 662
d
d ln ( o)
1 1 1 o do 1 do 1
= + di + × + ×
Uo ho di hid di hi
+ 2kw
hod

20
1 1 1 0 .020 m × ln ( 0.020 m 1 1
W W W W = 0.00676
o= 238 2 +5000 2 ) 0.0175 ×5000 ×556
U mK mK w mK
2 m2K
+ 2 × 16 17.5
mk

Uo = 147.9W/(m2 K)

The assume value is 148.6. The calculated value is very close to the assumed value.

64
Appendix 2: Equipment Design Calculation for Multi-Tubular Reactor
Reactor volume and dimension
The production of ethylene oxide is carried in the vapour phase operating at high temperature
and pressure. The catalytic heterogenous reactions will produce the main product, ethylene oxide
followed by the side-products in the second reaction. The reactor operates isothermally Thus, designing the
ethylene oxide reactor, the rate expressions in form of Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetics are shown
below [17]:
0.75
K1 × PET × PO
−r1 = 79920 176765 0.5
1 + 3.8414 × 10 × exp(
−10
) × PCO2 × 9.5916 × 10−16 × exp( )× × PH2 O
RT RT
PO2
K2 × PET × PO2
−r2 = 1 + 3.8414 × 10−10 79920 −16 176765 0.5
× exp( ) × PCO2 × 9.5916 × 10 × exp )× × PH2 O
RT ( RT
P O2
69490
K = 3.1574 × 104 × exp (− ) and K 81770
RT = 3.2587 × 105 × exp (− )
1 2 RT

Given that the data needed to calculate r1 and r2.

The partial pressure of one component is the mole fraction of its component times with the total
pressure, which is 1500 kPa.
Pci = yci × Ptotal

Component, i Molar flowrate at reactor inlet, (kmol/hr) Partial Pressure, Pci (Kpa)
O2 591.875 145.747
C2H4O 8.68 -
C2H4 1183.75 291.4939
CO2 322 79.29127
H2O 5.16 1.27063
CH4 3980 980.0598
Total 6091.47

The r1 and r2 are calculated by substituting the respecting component partial pressure, Pci that is shown in
the table above. Given that the operating temperature is 250 ˚C and rate constant is 8.134 J/K mol. As a
result, −𝑟1 = 0.00665 kmol/h kg cat and −𝑟2 = 0.0141 kmol/h kg cat.
X
dx x
0.16
W = FAO ∫ = FAO = 591.88 = 14232.14 kg cat
0 −r −r 0.00665
Through the design equation of the plug flow reactor, the weight of catalyst, W is calculated. F A0 is the
inlet molar flowrate of limiting reactant, which is O2, 591.875 kmol/hr. The reaction conversion for
both rate equations is 16% and 10% respectively. Thus, this results W 1 = 14232.14 kg.cat and W2 =
4178.74 kg.cat.

65
 W
Next, to obtain the volume catalyst, using the equation: Volume catalyst =
ρcat.

66
 𝜌𝑐𝑎𝑡. represents the density of bulk catalyst, which is 1260 kg/m3. Then computed the volume of catalyst,
Vcat. 1 = 11.30 m3 and Vcat. 2 = 3.32 m3, in which Vcat,total = 14.61 m3. According from literatures, the typical
silver catalyst diameter is 3mm diameter with void fraction of 0.4. Volume of the reactor will be
calculated through the expression of:
Volume of catalyst 14.61 m3
Volume of reactor = = = 24.35 m3
(1 − void fraction) (1 − 0.4)
With the guidance from Perry’s Chemical Engineering Design handbook, the typical acceptable length of
the tube is 6.098 m. Using the standard ANSI/ASME B36.10M steel tubes [33], rt, 42.2 mm O.D. is
chosen. To compute the number of tubes in the reactor, volume of one tube must be obtained first. Commented [MW1]: Why highlighted? And same goes to oth
Volume of one tube = π r h = π × 0.0422 × 6.098 = 0.00853 m
t
2 2 3

Volume of one tube 0.00853 m3

Number of tube = =
Volume of reactor = 2855 tubes
24.35 m3

Heat exchange system

Given that:
1. Tube length, L = 6.098m
Fluid Coefficient (W/m2 ˚C) Factor (resistance) (m2 ˚C /W)
hdo Cooling water 5000 0.0002
hdi Organic vapours 5000 0.0002

2. Fouling factor on inside and outside tube.

3. The tubes made of stainless steel, thus thermal conductivity Kw is 16 W/m ˚C.
4. Since four temperatures is given, by using heat duty equation:
q = mcCpc(Tcout − Tcin) = mhCph(Th out − Th in)
Component, i Composition/ % Cp (kJ/kg.K) Average Cp
C2H4 0.144963831 1.709 0.247743
O2 0.254191844 0.928 0.23589
CH4 0.000711526 2.365 0.001683
CO2 0.108468641 0.895 0.097079
H2O 0.002926861 1.88 0.005502
C2H4O 0.488737297 1.586 0.775137
1 1.363035

From the mass balance the total mass flowrate of reactor inlet is 130645 kg/hr. From the hot streams, q
and mc is obtained by:
q = 130645 kg/hr × 1.36305 kJ/(kg. K) × (250 − 230°C) = 3.56 × 106 kJ/hr
3.56 × 106kJ/hr = mc × 1.88 kJ/(kg. K) × (220 − 25°C)

67
 mc = 9714.88 kJ/(hr)
5. Log Mean temperature
(Thi − Tco) − (Tho − (230 − 220) − (250 −
LMTD = Tci) 25) = 69.05 °C
=
(Thi − Tco) (230 − 220)
ln (Tho − Tci) l (250 − 25)

6. Temperature correction factor for 1 shell – 2 tube pass exchangers,

(T − T2)
√R2 + 1 × In 1
(t2 − t1)
F = (2 − S[R + 1 − √R2 + 1)
t
(R − 1)ln (2 − S[R + 1 + √R2 + 1)

(T1−T2) (25−220) (t2−t1) (250−230)

R= (t2−t1) = (250−230) = −9.75, and S = (T1−t1)= (25−230) = −0.09756

By substituting value of R and S into the equation of Ft, this results Ft = 1.181.
7. Mean temperature difference, DTm = Ft × LMTD = 1.181 × 69.05 = 81.57 °C
8. An initial guess of overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 22 W/m2 ˚C.
kJ
3.56×106 hr
q
9. Provision area, A = = 1819.28 m2
U×DTm W
24m °C
= 2

10. Tube pitch, pt and Bundle diameter, Db

Where; number of pass is 2; do outer diameter tube = 0.0422 m; Nt number of tubes = 2855
K1 = 0.249 and n1 = 2.207.

pt = 1.25 × do = 1.25 × 0.0422 = 0.05275 m

1⁄
2.20 1
2855 ⁄2.207
Db = 0.0422 × 7 = 0.0422 × = 2.94 m
Nt 0.249
K1
11. Fixed tube is chosen as the floating head construction due to its inexpensive to construct
and easier to be cleaned. It is also typically built in tubular reactors. Thus, the bundle
diameter clearance, BDC is obtained from the chart, which is 0.03744 m. [34]

12. Shell diameter, Ds = Db + BDC = 2.9437 + 0.03744 = 2.98 m

13. Baffle spacing, Bs, is commonly ranging from 0.2 ~ 1 times of the inside shell diameter hence
in the design is preferably 0.2 times Ds. The closer the baffles will lead to higher transfer of
heat coefficient.
Bs = 0.2Ds = 0.5962 m
14. Number of baffles
6.098
Number of baffles = Length of tube/Bs =
68
0.5962 =
10.27
≈ 11

69
 15. Area of cross-flow, As
(pt − d0) × Ds × Bs (0.03744 − 0.0422) × 2.9811 × 0.5962
As = pt = 0.05275 = 0.3555 m2
16. Shell-side velocity, Gs
The shell side mass flowrate must first convert to kilogram per second:
9714.88
shell − side mass flowarate 3600 kg
Gs =
0.355 = 7.59 s m2
=
As 5

17. Shell equivalent diameter, de

1.10 1.10
d = (p 2 − 0.917 × d 2) =
(0.052752 − 0.917 × 0.04222) = 0.029964 m
e
do t o
0.0422
18. Shell-side Reynolds number
Gsde
Re = 7.5914 ×
μ 0.029964 = 606.91
=
0.0003748
Since the Re < 2100, this shows the flow is in laminar condition.
19. Prandtle number, Pr
Cp
Pr = μ × 1.88
k = 0.0003748 × = 26.4
0.0267
20. Shell-side heat transfer coefficient, Nu
1
Nu = jh × Re × Pr3 × (μ/μw)−0.14

Where, jh is obtained through the graph [35, p. 673], jh= 0.022 on 25% baffle cut.
−0.14
1 2.15 × 10−5
Nu = 0.022 × 606.91 × 26.43 = 39.8
× 0.0003748

21. Pressure drop in the shell, ΔPs. The friction factor jf = 0.08. [35, p. 674]
∆Ps = 8 × jf × (Ds/de) × (L/lB) × ρus2/2
μ −0.14
Let considered as 1.
μw
2.98109 6.098 974.6 × 0.0077892
∆Ps = 8 × 0.08 × × 22. Number of tubes per pass, Ntpp
0.029964 0.59621
×

For the tube side,

70
= 0.01925 kPa 2
Nt 2855
Ntpp = = = 1427.5
number of passes 2

71
 23. Tube-side velocity, Gm. The flowrate of the fluid in the tube is 130645 kg/hr divided by 3600
s, in order to get the flowrate per second = 36.2903 kg/s. And di represents the inner diameter
of tubes.
tube − side flowrate 36.2903 kg
Gm = = = 22.11
Nttp × πd 2/4 1427.5 × π0.038642/4 s m2
i
24. Tube-side velocity,
v
Gm 21.68kg/(s 𝑚2 )
v= = = 0.0505m/s
ρ i 437.9707 kg/𝑚3
25. Tube side Prandtle and Reynolds numbers. [16]
kg kJ
2.12 × 10−5 × 1.363
Cp ms kg K
Pr = μ k = kW = 1.34
2.15 × 10 m K
−5

The density, diameter, velocity and viscosity of fluid are taken account as in side-tube.
ρdv 437.9707kg/m3 × 0.03864 m × 0.0495 m/s
Re = = = 39902.42
μ 2.12 × 10−5kg/(m s)
This shows that the fluid in the tube has high turbulence.

26. Since the flow is turbulent, finding heat transfer coefficient, hi using the expression below:
kf 0.5
0.33 di⁄ 0.7
hi = 0.023 Re Pr (1 + L)
di
The value of thermal conductivity in the tube, kf is computed as each mass composition of component
in the fluid times with its thermal conductivity. Then, all component k are taken as average value, kf =
kW
2.15 × 10−5 mK
.
kW
2.15 × 10−5 0.03864 0.7
mK W
hi = 0.023 × × 39510.010.8 × 1.340.33 × (1 + ) = 68.69
0.03864 m 6.098 m2K

27. Overall heat transfer factor

1
Ui = d
1 h In ( o)
1 d d
i di i i
+
hi hdi + + +
dohdo doho
2kw

The value of ho=hs can calculated at step 20 where, value of shell-side Nu times with kf and divided by
de. Thus, ho = 35.39 W/ m2 K.

1
Ui = 0.0422
1 1 0.03864 m × ln( ) 0.03864 m 0.03864 m
0.03864 +
W + W + W W + W
67.48 5000 2 × 16 0.0422 m × 5000 0.0422 m × 35.39
m2K m2 K mK m2K m2K

This results Ui = 22.28 W/m2 K.

28. The tube-side pressure drop may be calculated using the expression below:

72
 μ −m
∆P = (1.5 + Nf[2.5 + (8jfL/di) + ( ) ] × ρiv2/2)
μw
Substitute the remaining values and ΔP results as 0.233 kPa.

Mechanical Design
Up to this point, the height of the tubes is calculated and the top of the reactor will be needed to design. It
is shaped as an ellipse. Most of ellipse shaped top is used because it is easier to be fabricated.

Figure 18: The Dimension of Torispherical Shape Figure 19: Torispherical Head Flanges

c can be calculated from shell diameter divided by 2 then minus a, that will be equal to 1.33 m.
Through Pythagoras’ theory with known value of (R-a) and c, (R-h) is calculated to be 2.047 m. From
this, h can be found to be 0.553 m.

Next will be the height of the flanges, where r can be calculated by the expression of:
c ×a
r= = 0.0819 m
(R −
a)
Then, using r and R, the crown radius angle can be calculated by:
𝖺= sin−1 r
( ) = 0.0315 rad
R
The flanged height, x will be calculated by using the expression of:
x = R cos(𝖺) − (R − h) = 0.55 m

Thus, the new height of reactor is sum of pipe length, height of topspherical head and flanges is 7.20
m. The minimum wall thickness can be calculated with the maximum allowable for carbon stress of
12.9 N mm2 taken from ASME design guideline. The reactor shell pressure, P T is built 1.3 times of
the total operating steam pressure equal to 2.18 bar. Then converting bar to Nmm2 that will be divided
by 10.
PT D 0.2188 Nmm2 × 2.98 m
t= = = 0.0255 m
(2S − P ) (2 × 12.9 Nmm2 − 0.2188 Nmm2)
T
Assuming some corrosion in the shell wall, t will be adding another 2 mm, which will be equal to
0.0275m.

73
Appendix 3: Equipment Design Calculation for Ethylene Oxide Absorber

Calculating diameter of column:

Vapour inlet flowrate, VW = 132229.0051 kg ⁄ h = 36.7303 kg ⁄ s
Liquid inlet flowrate, LW = 105387.75 kg ⁄ h = 29.2744 kg ⁄ s
Average molecular weight of gas, MWg = 21.8609 kg/kmol

Density of gas, ρ PMWg 1500 kPa × 21.86kg ⁄ kmol

g = RT = 8.314 × 298.15 K = 13.2286 kg/𝑚3

where, the universal gas constant, R = 8.314(kPa. 𝑚3) ⁄ (kmol. K)

Density of liquid solvent, ρL = 1000 kg/𝑚3

Vapour inlet temperature, Tin,g = 25℃ = 298.15 K
Liquid solvent inlet temperature, Tin,L = 25℃ = 298.15 K
Gas viscosity at 25℃, μg = 1.201 × 10−5 Ns ⁄ m2

Liquid solvent viscosity at 25℃, μL = 9.1 × 10−4 Ns ⁄ m2

Pressure of gas, Pg = 1500 kPa = 15 bar

Select 51 mm (2 inches) INTALOX ceramic saddles packing, from Table 17.2 [36, p. 890],
packing factor, Fp = 130 m−1

LV
VW ρ L 36.7303 1000

Choosing and design for a 21 mm water/ m packing absorber, from Figure 17.54 [36, p. 902], K4= 0.788
0.5 0.5
K4ρg(ρL − ρg) 0.788 × 13.2285 × (1000 − 13.2285)
∗ =[ ] = 4.9276kg ⁄ (m2. s)
W
V =[ μ 0.1
9.1 × 10−4 0.1
( L ⁄ )
13.1FP ⁄ρL) 13.1 × 130 × 1000
(
VW 37.2497
Column area required = = = 7.5594 m2
∗
4.9276
VW
4 × Area 4 × 7.5594
D=√ =√ = 3.1024 m ≈ 3 m
π π
πD2 π(3 m)2
Therefore, the actual column area = = = 7.069 m2
4 4

74
Checking for packing size to column diameter ratio,
Column diameter 3m
= = 60
Packing size 50 × 10−3m
7.559 m2
Percentage flooding = 47.151% × = 50.425%
7.0685 m2

Calculating the height of transfer unit, HOG using Onda’s method:

Liquid diffusivity at 25℃, DL = 2.2952 × 10−9𝑚2 ⁄ s
Gas diffusivity, Dg = 1.04 × 10−5 𝑚2 ⁄ s

Surface tension of liquid at 25℃, DL = 72.6 × 10−3 N/m

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 ms−2

For 50 mm INTALOX ceramic saddles, from Table 17.2 [36, p. 890], the surface, a = 108 m2⁄m3
LW 29.2744 kg⁄s
Lw∗ = = = 4.1415kg ⁄ (m2. s)
Column cross sectional area 7.069 m2
a∗ σ 0.75
0.2
L 0.1 −0.05 L ∗
c Lw∗2a 2w
w
= 1 − exp [−1.45 ( ) ( w ( ) ( ) ]
)
a σL aμL ρg
2
ρLσ La
L
−0.05
a 61 × 10−3 0.7 4.1415 0.1 (4.1415)2 × 108
5
w
= 1 − exp [−1.45 × (
108 ) ×( ) ×( )
72.6 × 10−3 108 × 9.1 × 10−4 10002 ×× 9.81
(4.1415)2 0.2
×( ) ]
1000 × 72.6 × 10−3 × 108

aw = 61.1084

2⁄
ρL 1⁄
3 L∗ 3 μ −0.5
w 0.4
k ( ) = 0.0051 ( ) L (adp)
L
μLg awμL (ρLDL)
1⁄ 2⁄ −0.5
kL ( 1000 = 0.0051 × ( 4.1415 ) 3×( 9.1 × 10−4 ) × (108 × 50 × 10−3)0.4
3
)
9.1 × 10−4 × 9.81 61.1084 × 9.1 × 10−4 1000 × 2.2952 × 10−9

kL = 2.094 × 10 m⁄s −4

Molar e of uid solvent, Lm

flowrat liq
75
 ∗ 4.14
=
w
15L = 0.2299
MWL kg⁄ kmol⁄ 2
m2. s m .s
=

18.015
kg⁄km
ol

76
 Density of liquid solvent 1000 kg⁄m3
kmol
Total concentration, Ct = = = 55.5093 ⁄m3
Liquid molecular weight 18.015 kg⁄kmol
Lm 0.2299
HL = = = 0.3237 m
L
k w C t 1.815 × 61.1084 × 55.5093

Since packing is greater than 15 mm, therefore,K5 = 5.23,

VW 36.7303 kg⁄s kg
Vw∗ = Column cross sectional = 7.069 m2 = 5.1963 ⁄ m . s
2

area

k G ∗
0.7 μg 1 ⁄
RT a) = K5 ( V w) ( 3 (adp)
−2
( aμg ρgDg )
DV
1⁄
kG 0.083142 × 298.15 5.1963 0.7
1.201 × 10−3
( ) = 5.23 ( ) ( 3 (108 × 50 × 10−3)−2
)
108 1.04 × 10−5 108 × 1.201 × 10−3 13.2285 × 1.04 × 10−5

kG = 1.7863 × 10−3 kmol⁄m2. s. bar

∗
w 5.1963
Vm = V = = 0.2377 kmol⁄m2. s
MWg 21.8609
Vm
HG = 0.2377 kmol⁄m2. s
= k = 0.0.1452 m
1.7863 × 10 −3 kmol⁄ 2
G wP m . s. bar × 61.1084 × 15 bar
Lm
HOG = +m HL = 0.1452 m + (0.8 × 0.3237 m) = 0.4041 m
HG Vm

Calculating the number of transfer unit, NOG:

y1 = mole fractio of EO entering in the gas stream =
0.033631 y2 = mole fractio of EO leaving in the gas stream =
0.001676
x2 = mole fraction of EO leaving in the liquid stream = 0.032638
y1 0.033631
y2 = 0.001676 = 20.066
Lm
Using graph from Figure 17.49 [36, p. 896], the recommended m used is 0.8. Therefore, N
Vm = 7.75
O

Calculating the packing height and height of the column:

77
 Total packing height, Z = HOG × NOG = 0.1458 m × 7.75 ≈ 3.1364 m
Taking the height of the packing to be 4 m. Allowance for liquid distribution and vapour disengagement=
1.5 m and allowance for liquid redistribution and vapour- liquid disengagement= 1.5 m

78
 ∴ Total height of column = 4m + 1.5m + 1.5m = 7m

Calculating for percentage flooding:

0.788
At flooding, K4=3.545, hence, percentage flooding = √ × 100 % = 47.15 %
3.545

Calculating the wetting rate:

Volumetric liquid rate per unit cross sectional area of column
Wetting rate =
packing surface area per unit volumn of column

4.1415 kg⁄m2. s × 1⁄1000 kg⁄m3

Wetting rate = = 3.8347 × 10−5s−1
108 m2⁄m3

Calculating pressure drop at flooding, ∆Pflooding:

For INTALOX ceramic saddles, packing factor, Fp = 130 m−1

∆Pflooding = 0.115F0.7 × height of packing

P
130 inches H2O
1 m )0.7 × 4 m = × 4 m = 4.9394 kPa
∆Pflooding = 0.115 × ( ×
m 3.280 1.511 ft

Calculating for liquid hold up:

Taking 25% of the packing weight as the liquid hold up for the ceramic packing,
Bulk density of 2 inches INTALOX ceramic saddles, ρsaddle = 609 kg⁄m3
πD2
Volume of packing, Vpacking = packing
4
× height of packing = 28.2743 m3

∴ Liquid hold up = Vpacking × ρsaddle × 0.25

Liquid hold up = 28.274 m3 × 609 kg⁄m3 × 0.25 = 4304.77 kg

79
 Appendix 4: Equipment Design Calculation for EO Desorber:
Assumption: Traces of light-end gases are neglected for the design
calculation. Theoretical Plates and Reflux Ratio
Using Raoult’s Law to calculate xi:
Partial pressure of EO, Pi = xiP° PT = xiP° + (1 − xi)P°
i i j
Partial pressure of water, Pj = xjP = (1 − xi)P
° °
PT − Pj°
j j xi = °
P − P°
i j
Using Dalton’s Law to calculate yi:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑗 𝑅𝑇 𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑇𝑅𝑇 𝑥 𝑖𝑃°𝑖
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 =
= 𝑦𝑖𝑃𝑇
𝑉 𝑛𝑇 𝑉 𝑃𝑇
Using Antoine’s equation and the constants from [22, p. 941 & 938] to determine vapour pressures of
components at different temperatures:
B B
ln Pi ° = A − ln Pj° = A −
T +BC T +BC
P° = exp (A − ) P° = exp (A − )
i
T+C j
T+C
y
αX [1+ ( )
In terms of relative volatility, α: y (α−1)X]
. Rearranging equation: α = x

= ( 1 )
1−x

Table 33 VLE Data for EO/H2O at 1 atm

Temperature Temperature Pi° Pi° Pj° Pj° xi yi Relative

°C K mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg volatility, α
100 373.15 10711.2929 1428.0296 759.9430 101.3156 0.000 0.000 14.0949
95 368.15 9595.5607 1279.2802 633.9930 84.5240 0.014 0.178 15.1351
90 363.15 8567.7964 1142.2586 525.9029 70.1134 0.029 0.328 16.2916
85 358.15 7623.8277 1016.4087 433.6356 57.8123 0.045 0.455 17.5812
80 353.15 6759.4754 901.1733 355.3166 47.3708 0.063 0.562 19.0238
75 348.15 5970.5643 795.9956 289.2289 38.5600 0.083 0.651 20.6430
70 343.15 5252.9353 700.3213 233.8077 31.1712 0.105 0.725 22.4669
65 338.15 4602.4572 613.5996 187.6344 25.0154 0.130 0.785 24.5289
60 333.15 4015.0390 535.2850 149.4297 19.9220 0.158 0.834 26.8691
55 328.15 3486.6425 464.8392 118.0472 15.7381 0.191 0.874 29.5360
50 323.15 3013.2949 401.7325 92.4653 12.3275 0.229 0.906 32.5884
45 318.15 2591.1009 345.4456 71.7797 9.5697 0.273 0.931 36.0979
40 313.15 2216.2554 295.4712 55.1959 7.3587 0.326 0.951 40.1526
35 308.15 1885.0552 251.3156 42.0201 5.6021 0.390 0.966 44.8608
30 303.15 1593.9112 212.5002 31.6518 4.2198 0.466 0.978 50.3577
25 298.15 1339.3591 178.5634 23.5753 3.1431 0.560 0.986 56.8120
20 293.15 1118.0702 149.0611 17.3515 2.3133 0.675 0.993 64.4366
15 288.15 926.8610 123.5691 12.6100 1.6812 0.817 0.997 73.5021
10.3 283.45 771.8422 102.9020 9.2275 1.2302 0.984 1.000 83.6456
Average relative volatility, αavg 36.2434

80
Plot the vapour-liquid equilibrium curve using VLE data above at the column operating pressure:

1.0
0.9
Diagonal Line (y=x)
vapour phase)

0.8
xB
0.7
x (mole fraction EO in

0.6
0.5 q-line2
0.4 OL ROL SOL
0.3 Equilibrium Curve xd
0.2 xf
0.1
0.0

0.00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.91.0
y (mole fraction EO in liquid phase)

Figure 20 VLE Diagram for EO/H2O at 1 atm

105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
Temperature

60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.000 1.100
x

Figure 21 T- x- y diagram for feed of 0.03 mole fraction EO

Moles of EO in the feed, distillate and bottom respectively: F = 6097.5341 kmol/hr, D = 252.6403
kmol/hr, B = 5844.8938 kmol/hr
Mole fractions of EO in the feed, distillate and bottom respectively: xF = 0.03, xD = 0.80, xB = 0.0003

Feed Condition (q-line)

Bubble point of feed, T (interpolated) = 89˚C
Latent heat of vaporisation of EO at Tb = 25,623 J/mol [22, p. 940]

Latent heat of vaporization of H2O at Tb = 40,683 J/mol [22, p.

81
938]

82
Critical temperatures, Tc, and boiling points, Tb of EO and water can be found in Appendix C [22, p. 937]

Using Watson Equation [22, p. 329], Tc−T 0.38

lv =l v [Tc−Tb ]

469.15−362.15 0.38
Latent heat of EO, l vE = 25,623 × [ ] = 20,775.3875 J/mol
469.15−283.45
O

647.3−362.15 0.38
Latent heat of H2O, l vH2O = 40,683 × [ ] = 41,295.7462 J/mol
647.3−373.15

Mean Specific Heat, CPm = A + BT + CT2 + DT3, where constants A, B, C and D can be found in
appendix C [22, p. 937]
CPm = −7.519 + [(22.224 × 10−2) × 362.15] + [(−1.256 × 10−4) × 362.152]
E
+ [(25.916 × 10−9) × 362.153] = 57.7234 J/(mol. K)
C = 92.053 + [(−3.9953 × 10−2) × 362.15] + [(−2.1103 × 10−4) × 362.152]
H O
P 2
+ [(5.3469 × 10−7) × 362.153] = 75.9501 J/(mol. K)

Latent heat of feed, lvF = (lvEO × xFEO) + (lvH2O × xFH2O)

= (20,775.3875 × 0.03) + (41,295.7462 × 0.97) = 40,680.1355 J/mol

Specific heat of feed, CPF = (CPmEO × xFEO ) + (CPmH2O × xFH2O)

= (57.7234 × 0.03) + (75.9501 × 0.97) = 𝐽

75.4033 𝑚𝑜𝑙.
𝐾
Heat to vaporise 1 mole of feed = CP𝐹 × (𝑇 − 𝑇𝐹) + lvF
= 75.4033 × (362.15 − 348.15) + 40,680.1355 = 41,735.7817 J
heat to vaporise 1 mole of feed 41,735.7817
Calculate the value of the ratio q given by, q = = ≈ 1.0. Hence, the
molar latent heat of feed 40,680.1355
feed condition is saturated liquid. Then, find the point of intersection between equilibrium line and q-
line to determine the direction of q-line and plot operating line. Therefore, x = 0.04522, y = 0.6319
Calculate minimum reflux ratio
y2 − y 1 0.8 − 0.6319
Gradient of operating line, m = = = 0.2227
x2 − x1 0.8 − 0.04522
RDmin
From operating line equation, the gradient is given by m =
RDmin+1

Minimum reflux ratio, RDmin = 0.2865

Actual reflux ratio, R = 1.5 × RDmin = 1.5 × 0.2865 = 0.4298

R 0.4298
Gradient of rectifying operating line, m = = = 0.3006
R+1 0.4298 + 1
xD 0.8
y − intercept of rectifying operating line = = 0.5595
= R + 1 0.3006 + 1

83
Then, find the point of intersection between rectifying operating line and q-line to plot stripping
operating line. Therefore, x = 0.04373, y = 0.5727.

84
 y2 − y1 0.5727 − 0.0003
Gradient of rectifying operating line, L′⁄ = = = 0.3006
V′ x2 − x1 0.04373 − 0.0003
Minimum number of plates
Using Fenske Equation [22, p.
524]
x
log (1 − 1−x
xDD xB )
N = = 2.6118 ≈ 3 plates
m log(αavg)

Theoretical Number of Plates

Gilliland [37, p. 614] has given an empirical relation between the reflux ratio, R and the number of plates:
(1+54.4X )(X−1)
Y = 1 − exp [ ] [38, p. 13]
(11+117.2X)√X
R−RDmin
Where, X = = 0.1 andY = 0.5535. Hence, N
R+1
theo = 7.0887 ≈ 8
Physical Properties
Based on O’Connell’s Correlation (1946) [22, p. 550], the overall column efficiency, Eo:

Eo = 51 − 32.5[log(μavgαavg)]

Molar average viscosity of the feed, μavg estimated at the average column temperature, Tavg:
1 1
log μavg = vis A [ − ]
Tavg vis B
TD+TB 67.49+102.3
Where T = = = 84.9 °C = 358.05 K
avg 2 2
visA[ 1 − 1 ] 2
μavg = 10 358 vis B = 0.1565 m.
Ns/m Eo = 26.5%
No. of theoretical stages (including reboiler) Ntheo
No. of real stages, Nac = = = 22.9751 ≈ 23
Efficiency Eo
Feed Stage Location
Kirkbride’s Equation
𝑁 𝐵 𝑥 2
𝑟 𝐹,𝐻𝐾 𝑥𝐵,𝐿𝐾
log [ ] = 0.206 log )( )( ) ]
[(
𝑁𝑠 𝐷 𝑥𝐷,𝐻𝐾
𝑥𝐹,𝐿𝐾
x x 2
0.206 log[(B )( F,HK )( B,LK ) ]
xD,HK
Nr = Ns × 10 D xF,LK

𝑁 22.9751
𝑁𝑠 = 𝑁 − 𝑁𝑟 = 𝐵 𝑥𝐹,𝐻𝐾 𝑥𝐵,𝐿𝐾 2
= 2
5844.8938 0.97 0.9997
0.206 log[( )( )( ) ]
0.206 log[( )( )( )]
𝐷 𝑥𝐹,𝐿𝐾 𝑥𝐷,𝐻𝐾 1+ 10 252.6404 0.0 0.2
1 + 10 3

85
= 17.92 ≈ 18

86
Column Sizing
y2 − y1 0.5727 − 0.0003
Gradient of stripping operating line, L′⁄ = = = 13.1913
V′ x2 − x1 0.04373 − 0.5727
Below Feed Above Feed
Vapour rate V′ = L′ − B V=L+D
V ′ L′ B V = D(1 + R)
= − = 252.6404 × (1 + 0.4298
V′ V′ V′
5,844.8938
V′ = = 479.4332 kmol/hr = 361.2160 kmol/hr
13.1913 − 1
Liquid rate L′ = V′ + B L = RD = 0.4298 × 252.6404
L′ = 479.4332 + 5,844.8938 = 6,324.327 kmol/hr = 108.5754 kmol/hr

Assume 100 mm water, pressure drop per plate

∆Pt = 9.81 × 10−3htρL
Column Pressure Drop = 100 × 10−3 × 1,000 × 9.81 × Nac = 22538.5615 Pa
Top pressure: 1 atm or 101.325 kPa
Estimated bottom pressure = 101.325 + 22538.5615 = 123.8636 kPa
From steam tables [39]:
P (kPa) T (˚C) v̂ l (m3 /kg) v̂ v (m3/ ρl(kg/m3) ρv(kg/m3)
kg)
100 99.62 0.001043 1.694 958.7728 0.5903
125 105.99 0.001048 1.3749 954.1985 0.7273
By interpolation:
(P3 − P1)
T= × (T − T ) + (123.8636 − 100)
= × (105.99 − 99.62) + 99.62 = 105.7004 °C
T
2 1 1
(P2 − P1) (125 − 100)
(P3 − P1)
ρ = × (ρ − ρ ) + ρ (123.8636 − 100)
= × (954.1985 − 958.7728) + 958.7728
l2 l1 l1
l
(P2 − (125 − 100)
P1)
= 954.4064 kg⁄m3
(P3 − P1)
ρ = × (ρ (123.8636 − 100)
−ρ )+ρ = × (0.7273 − 0.5903) + 0.5903
v
(P2 − P1) v2 v1 v1 (125 − 100)
= 0.7211 kg⁄m3
From table 8.7, Sugden’s Parachor for organic compounds [22, p. 335]:
Water EO
Group Contribution Number Group Contribution Number
H 17.1 2 34.2 C 4.8 2 9.6
O 20 1 20 H 17.1 4 68.4
Total 54.2 O 20 1 20

87
3-membered ring 16.7 1 16.7
Total 114.7

88
 Base temperature of water 105.7004355°C Top temperature of EO 10.3°C
Density of liquid water, ρl 954.4064kg⁄m3 Density of liquid EO, ρl 882 kg⁄m3
Density of water vapour, ρv 0.7211 kg⁄m3 Density of EO vapour, ρv 1.6052 kg⁄m3
Surface Tension, σ 0.0678 N/m Surface Tension, σ 0.02762 N/m

Column Diameter
Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor:

Lw ρ V 0.7211 1.6052
FLV = √ F bottom = 13.1913 × √ F top = 13.1913 × √ = 0.01
Vw ρ L LV
954.4064 LV
882
= 0.36

Plate spacing, lt:

For columns above 1 m diameter, initial estimate of 0.5 m can be taken. [22, p. 557] From figure 11.27 [22,
p. 568], base K1 = 0.06 and top K2 = 0.1

Correction for Surface Tensions:

Restrictions apply to the use of Figure 11.27: Liquid surface tension 0.02 N/m, for other surface tensions
σ 0.2
σ multiply the value of1K by [ ] .
0.02

0.0678 0.2 0.02762 0.2

base K1 = ( ) × 0.06 = 0.0766 top K2 = ( ) × 0.1 = 0.1067
0.02 0.02

Flooding velocity:

882 − 1.6052
uf = K1√ ρL − ρv 954.4064 − 0.7211 Top u = 0.1067 × √
ρv Base uf = 0.0766 × √ 0.7211 f
1.6052
= 2.7853 m⁄s = 2.4981 m⁄s

Design for 85% flooding at maximum flow rate:

A high vapour velocity is needed for high plate efficiencies. For design, a value of 80 to 85% of the flooding
velocity should be used. [22, p. 568]
85 85
Base û v = 2.7853 × = 2.3675 m⁄s Top û v = 2.4981 × = 2.1234 m⁄s
100 100

Maximum volumetric flowrate:

89
 V′ × MW 479.4332 × 18.015 V × MW 361.2158 × 44.05
Base = = Top = =
ρv 0.7211 × 3600 ρv 1.6052 × 3600
= 3.3271 m3⁄s = 2.7536 m3⁄s

Net area required:

3.3271 2.7536
Bottom area = = 1.4053 m2 Top area = = 1.2968 m2
2.3675 2.1234

Column cross-sectional area, Ac:

The net area, An is estimated by taking the downcomer area, Ad as 12 percent of the total and assuming
the hole active area is 10 percent [22, p. 569]:
1.4053 1.2968
Base area = = 1.5970 m2 Top area = = 1.4736 m2
0.88 0.88

Column Diameter, Dc:

4V̂w 4A n 1.5970 × 4 1.4736 × 4

Dc = √ =√ Base = √ = 1.4259 m Top = √ = 1.3698 m
πρ vûv π π π

Liquid Flow Pattern/Arrangement

The choice of plate type (reverse, single pass or multiple pass) is dependent on the liquid flow rate and
column diameter. [22, p. 569]

Maximum volumetric liquid rate

L′ × MW 6324.3270 × 18.015 L × MW 108.5754 × 44.05
Base = = Top = =
ρL 954.4064 × 3600 ρL 882 × 3600
= 0.0332 m3⁄s = 0.0015 m3⁄s

For the bottom design calculation, the plate diameter is not within range of Figure 11.28 [22, p. 569] but
a double pass plate can be clearly used.

Provisional Plate Design

Estimate the maximum allowable superficial vapour velocity
The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapour velocity, 𝑢̂ 𝑣 . Using Souders &
Brown equation. [22, p. 557]

90
 2
(ρL − ρv) 1
2
2 1
( ) (
) (882 − 1.6052) 2
û −0.171lt + 0.27lt − 0.047 [ ] = −0.171 × 0.5 + 0.27 × 0.5 − 0.047 ]
=v [ 1.6052
ρ
v
= 1.0597 m/s

̂
Column Diameter, D = √ 4Vw = √ 4 × 361.2158 × 44.05 = 1.8189 ≈ 1.82 m
c
πρvû v π × 1.6052 × 1.0597 × 3600

πDc2 π × 1.8189
2

Column cross − sectional area, Ac = = = 2.5983 m2

4 4
Downcomer cross − sectional area, Ad = 0.12 × 2.5983 = 0.3118 m2
2.5983
Net area, An = − Ad = = 2.2865 m2 and active area, A = − 2Ad = 1.9747 m2
0.3118 a
Ac Ac
Taking 10% as first trial, total hole area, Ah = 1.9747 × 0.1 = 0.1975 m2

From Figure 11.31 [22, p. 573], Weir length/Column Diameter, 𝑙𝑤⁄𝐷𝑐 = 0.76
Weir length, lw = 1.3823 m and weir height, hw = 50 mm (For columns operating above atmospheric
pressure, the weir heights are recommended to be within 40 to 50 mm). [22, p. 572]
Hole diameter, dh = 6 mm (The minimum hole size that can be punched is about twice the plate thickness
for stainless steel). [22, p. 573]
Plate thickness = 3 mm (For stainless steel, plate thickness used is typically 3 mm). [22, p. 573]
Check weeping
Below feed Above feed
Maximum liquid rate, Lw 6324.3270 × 18.015 108.5754 × 44.05
= =
3600 3600
= 31.6480 kg⁄s = 1.3285 kg⁄s
Minimum liquid rate at 70% = 0.7 × 31.6480 = 22.1536 kg⁄s = 0.7 × 1.3285 = 0.9300 kg⁄s
turndown
Height of liquid crest over the weir,
how: Maximum how Maximum how
2 2
Francis Weir formula [22, p. 572] 31.6480 3 1.3285 3
2 = 750 [ ] = 750 [ ]
Lw 3 954.4064 × 1.3823 882 × 1.3823
how = 750 [] = 62.3820 mm liquid
ρLlw = 7.9418 mm liquid
Minimum how Minimum how
2 2
22.1536 3 0.9300 3
= 750 [ ] = 750 [ ]
954.4064 × 1.3823 882 × 1.3823
= 49.1803 mm liquid = 6.2611 mm liquid
At minimum rate, hw + how = 50 + 49.1803 = 99.1803 mm = 50 + 6.2611 = 56.2611 mm
From Figure 11.30 [22, p. 571] K2 = 31 K2 = 30.3

91
Minimum vapour velocity through [31 − 0.90(25.4 − 6)] [30.3 − 0.90(25.4 − 6)]
holes, ǔ h : = 1 = 1
[K2 − 0.90(25.4 − dh)] (0.7211)2 (1.6052)2
ǔ h = 1
= 15.9449 m⁄s = 10.1346 m⁄s
(ρv)2

92
 Actual minimum vapour velocity (0.7 × 3.3271) (0.7 × 2.7536)
minimum vapour rate = = 11.7939 m⁄s = = 9.7608 m⁄s
= 0.1975 0.1975
Ah ∴Minimum operating rate is below ∴Minimum operating rate is below
the weep point. the weep point.

Plate pressure drop

Maximum vapour 3.3271 2.7536
= = 16.8484 m⁄s = = 13.9439 m⁄s
velocity through holes 0.1975 0.1975
From Figure 11.34 [22, p. 576], for plate diameter/hole diameter = 0.5, and Ah⁄Ap ≈ Ah⁄Aa = 0.1,
Orifice coefficient, C0 = 0.73
Pressure drop through 16.8484 2 0.7211 13.9439 2 1.6052
the dry plate, hd = 51 × ( ) × = 51 × ( ) ×
0.73 954.4064 0.73 882
= 20.5258 mm liquid = 33.8644 mm liquid
Residual head, hr 12.5 × 10−3 12.5 × 10−3
= =
954.4064 882
= 13.0971 mm liquid = 14.1723 mm liquid
Total pressure drop, ht = 20.5258 + (50 + 62.3820) = 14.1723 + (50 + 7.9418)
ht = hd + (hw + + 13.0971 = 146.0050 mm liquid + 14.1723 = 105.9786 mm liquid
how) + hr Note: Assuming 100 mm to calculate Note: Assuming 100 mm to calculate
the base pressure. 146 mm per plate the top pressure. 105.9786 mm per
is plate is considered acceptable.
considered acceptable.

Downcomer Liquid Back-up, hb

Height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate, hap is normally set 5 to 10 mm below the outlet weir
height. hap = hw – 10 = 40 mm or 0.04 m
Below Feed Above Feed
Area under apron, = 0.04 × 1.3823 = 0.05529 m2 = 0.04 × 1.3823 = 0.05529 m2
Aap = hap × lw
Since both Aap are less Head loss in downcomer, hdc Head loss in downcomer, hdc
than Ad, use Aap in 31.6480 2
1.3285 2
hdc = 166 × ( ) hdc = 166 × () 882 ×
equation 11.92 [22, p. 954.4064 × 0.0553 0.0553
578] = 1.8864 ≈ 2 mm = 0.0927 ≈ 0.1 mm
Back- up in (50 + 62.3820) + 146.0050 + 2 = (50 + 7.9418) + 105.9786 + 0.1
downcomer, hb = = 260.3870 mm = 164.0204 mm
(hw + how ) + ht + hdc = 0.2604 m = 0.1640 m
1 = 0.5 + (50 × 10−3) = 0.275 m = 0.5 + (50 × 10−3) = 0.275 m
(plate spacing 1 1
2 0.2604 < (plate spacing 0.1640 < (plate spacing
+ weir height) 2 2
+ weir height) + weir height)
∴Plate spacing is acceptable ∴Plate spacing is acceptable.

93
Check residence time, tr
Below feed Above feed
Ad × hb × ρl 0.3118 × 0.2604 × 954.4064 0.3118 × 0.1640 × 882
tr = = =3s = = 34 s
Lw 31.6480 1.3285
Residence time of 3 s is acceptable. Residence time of 3 s is acceptable.

Check fractional entrainment, 𝚿

uv 3.3271 2.7536
= = 1.4551 m⁄s = = 1.2042 m⁄s
2.2865 2.2865
% flooding 1.4551 1.2042
= = 52.2 % = = 48.2 %
2.7853 2.4981
FLV = 0.36, from Figure Ψ = 1.7 × 10−3 Ψ = 0.06
11.29 [22, p. 570] The orifice entrainment is well The orifice entrainment is well
below 0.1. below 0.1.

Trial layout

Use cartridge-type construction, allow 50 mm imperforated

strip round plate edge; 50 mm wide calming zones.

Perforated area, Ap
From Figure 11.32 [22, p. 570], at lw⁄Dc = 1.38⁄1.82 = 0.76 [40]
θC = 95°
Angle subtended by the edge of the plate = 180 − 95 = 85°

Mean length, unperforated edge strips = (1.82 − 50 × 10−3)π × 85⁄180 = 2.6242 m

Area of unperforated edge strips = 50 × 10−3 × 2.6242 = 0.1312 m2
Approximation of mean length of calming zone = lw + width of unperforated strip
= 1.38 + 50 × 10−3 = 1.4323 m

Area of calming zones = 2 × (1.4323 × 50 × 10−3) = 0.1432 m2

Total area for perforations, Ap = Aa − Area of unperforated edge strips − Area of calming zones
= 1.9747 − 0.1312 − 0.1432 = 1.70 m2
Ah⁄Ap = 0.1975⁄1.70 = 0.1161

94
Hole pitch
The hole pitch, lp, normal range should be within 2.5 to 4.0 diameters. Equilateral triangular is
preferably used. The total hole area as a fraction of the perforated area Ap is given by the following
expression, for an equilateral triangular pitch:
2
Ah dh
= 0.9 [ ]
Ap lp
dh 6
lp = = = 16.7024 mm
Ah √0.1161
0.9
√0.9. Ap

From Figure 11.33 [22, p. 575], lp⁄dh = 2.7; satisfactory, within 2.5 to 4.0. [22, p. 575]

Number of holes
π d2
Area of one hole = π × (6 ×
= 4h 10−3)2 = 2.8274 × 10−5 m2
4 0.1975
Ah
Number of holes = =
Area of one hole 2.8274 × 10−5
Tray column
height
Height = Nac × Plate spacing = 23 × 0.5 = 11.4875 m
Column height with extra room for head space, bottom liquid hold up and feed entry tray spacing of 15%:
11.4875 × 1.15 = 13.2 m
Height/Diameter Ratio = 7.2631

95
Appendix 5: Design Calculation for EO Condenser

Physical Properties at Condenser

Properties Chilled Water References EO Fluid References

Viscosity (Pa s-1) 1.10 × 10−3 [36] 1.02 × 10−3 [36]
Temperature (k) IN OUT - IN OUT -
278 297 284 217.77
Density (kg/m3) 998 [36] 2 -
Mass Flow (kg/s) 3.70802 - 0.484444444 -
Thermal Conductivity 0.57564781034 [36] 11.51016 [36]
hdi=hdo (W/m2 ⁰C) 6000 [22] 6000 [22]
Kw (Stainless Steel) 16 [22] 16 [22]
Specific Heat Capacities 4200 [36] 43,900 [36]
(J/kg K)

The calculation design procedure is mainly based on the Kern’s Method [22]
1. Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
(Thi−Tco)−(Tho−Tci) (284−297)−(217.77−278)
LMTD = (Thi−Tco) = ln (284−297) = −30.85220791
ln
(Thi −Tco) (217.77−278)
2. Temperature Correction Factor (Ft)
(t1 − t2) (278 − (T1 − (284 −
S= 297) = 1.461538462; R = T ) 217.77) = 3.49
(T1 − t2) = 2 =
(284 − (t2 − t1) (297 − 278)
297)
1−S
√(R2 + 1) ln [( )]
Ft = 1 − RS
2 − S (R + 1 − √(R2 + 1))
(R − 1) ln ⌊
⌋ 2 − S (R
+ 1 + √(R2 + 1))

1 − 1.461538462
( 2 )
Ft = 1√− 3.49
3.49 ×+1.461538462
1 ln [( )] = −1.16348902
2 − 1.461538462 (3.49 + 1 − √(1.4615384622 + 1))
(3.49 − 1) ln ⌊ ⌋
2 − 1.461538462 (3.49 + 1 + √(1.4615384622 + 1))

3. Mean Temperature Difference DTm

DTm = Ft × LMTD = −1.16348902 × −30.85220791 = 35.896205

4. Heat Transfer Area

Choosing Uassumed as 810.
Q 295900 J/s
A= = = 10.678 m2
Uassumed × DTm 810 ×
35.896205

5. Tube Dimensions
96
 BWG Standard Inner Diameter, di (m) Outer Diameter, do (m) Length (m)
14 0.021186 0.0254 2
Table 34 BWG Standard Tube Size [41]

6. Tube Arrangement
Table 35 Tube pitch arrangement [40, p. 649]

Tube pitch k1 n1
Square pitch = 1.25do, Number of tube passes = 0.156 2.291
2

A
N = 10.678 m2
T π×do×L = π×0.0254×2 = 16.23820191 tubes
pt = 1.25do = 1.25 × 0.0254 = 0.03715
1⁄
1⁄ 16.23820191 2.291
D = d (NT) n1 = 0.0254 × ( ) = 0.192937082 m
b o
k1 0.156
7. Shell Diameter
For Fixed Tube Head, BDC clearance can be found at the Figure 12.10 Shell Bundle Clearance [40, p.
646].
Ds = Db + BDC = 0.192937082 m + 0.01 = 0.202937082 m
8. Baffle Spacing
Baffle is used to control the direction of the fluid across the tube and also to increase fluid velocity.
Equation for Baffle Spacing:
Bs = 0.4 × Ds = 0.4 × 0.202937082 = 0.081174833 m
9. Area for Cross Flow
Calculating the Area for Cross Flow, As:
(pt − do) × Ds × Bs (0.0025 − 0.0254) × 0.202937082 × 0.081174833
AS = = = 0.003294677
pt 0.03715
10. Shell-side Mass Velocity
Calculate the Shell side Mass Velocity, Gs:
Shellside flowrate 3.70802005
Gs = = = 1125.457923
As 0.003294677
11.Shell-side Velocity
Gs 1125.457923
Us = = 998 = 1.127713349 m/s
ρ water
12. Shell equivalent Diameter

97
 1.27 1.27
d = (p 2 − 0.785d2 ) =
(0.037152 − 0.785 × 0.02542) = 0.025080595 m
e
do t o
0.0254

13. Dimensionless Numbers

The dimensionless Numbers, Reynold’s and Prandtl numbers are calculated to find out the heat transfer
coefficient, Nu within the shell side.

s e Gd 1125.457923×0.025080595
Re = μwater = 0.001100879 =25640.56027
μwater × Cp 0.001100879 × 4200
Pr = = = 8.03
kwater 0.57564781
μ 1/3
Nu = jh × Re × Pr 1/3 × ( )
μw
Take Ratio of viscosity = 1, jh factor from the graph Figure 12.29 Shell-side Heat-Transfer factors:
Segmental Baffles [40, p. 673].
Nu = 0.003 × 25640.56027
k × 8.031/3 = 143.7792506
Shell side, h Nu × ( water) = 143.7792506 × ( 0.57564781 ) = 3300
o= de 0.025080595

14. Pressure Drop in Shell Side

Now we can calculate the Pressure Drop in the Shell-side of the condenser.
Ds L
∆P = 8jf ( ) ( ) 0.14
d ρ × us
μ ( )
e lb 2 μw
Take Ratio of viscosity =1, jf factor can be found at Figure 12.30 Shell-side friction factors, Segmental
baffles [40, p. 674]
0.202937082
998 × 1.1277133492
2 )( ) = 30.362 kPa
∆P = 8 × 0.03 × ( )(
0.025080595 0.081174833 2

Tube Side
15. Number of Tubes per passes, Nttp
Nttp = Nt 16.23820191
= = 8.119100957
number of passes 2
16. Tube Side Mass Velocity, Gm
kg
tube side flow rate ( s ) 0.48444 = 2.10341 × 10−5
Gm = 2 = 0.0211862
di
Nttp × π ×
4 Tube Side Velocity, v

98
8.119100957 × ( 4

99
 Gm
v= 2.10341 × 10−5
= 1.0517 × 10−5m/s
= ρi 2

17. Dimensionless Numbers

 ρi×di×v 2×0.021186×1.0517E−05
Re μo = 0.299833287 = 0.000436245
μi×cp 0.00102150889523824×43,900

Pr = k𝐹 = 11.51016246 = 3.896056

Take ratio of viscosity = 1. Then finding hi, by using the following equation:
kf
hi = 1.86 × 0.33 μ 0.14
i × (RePr)0.33 × di)
d ×( )
L μw
( 16 0.02118 0.03
hi = 1.86 × × (0.000436245 × 3.896056)0.33 × ( ) = 27.46750008
0.021186 2
18. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, Uo
We can now calculate the heat transfer coefficient Uo, by mainly choosing value of h as ho.
1 = 1
U do
o
1 do ln ( ⁄d ) do
1 d
i + d ho +
ho + hdo + 2kw i o dihdi
1 1
Uo = 0.0254⁄
1 1 0.0254 ln( 0.021186 0.0254 0.0254
)
+ + + +
3300 6000 2 × 16 0.021186 × 3300 0.021186 × 6000
= 0.00117681
1
Uo = = 849.8
0.00117681

% Error = Uo − Uassumed 849.8 − 810

× 100% = × 100% = 4.9%
Uo 849.8
19. Pressure Drop across Tube side
∆P = (1.5 + Nt [2.5 + 8jfL ρv 2

+ ( μ ) ])
−m

di μw μi
Take ratio of viscosity =1 and jf factor can be taken from Figure 12.24 [22, p. 668]: Tube Side Friction
factors.
8×0.8×2 −5)2
∆P = (1.5 + 16.23820191 [2.5 + +]) 2×(1.0517×10
0.021186
1.02×10 −3
=0.000046192

100
Appendix 6: Design Calculation for Ethylene Oxide Purifier

General material balance: F = D + B

D=F−B
Component mass balance, taking EO as the component:
F xf = D xD + BxB
239.6 × 0.801 = (239.6 − B)(0.99) + B(0.01)
239.6 × 0.801 = 239.6 × 0.99 − 0.99B + 0.01B
B = 46. 2086 kmol⁄hr and D = 193.3914 kmol⁄hr
Thus, the mass flow fates of feed, distillate and bottom products can be obtained:

FEED: ṁf = (FxfMW)EO + (FxfMW)H2O

ṁf = (239.6 × 0.801 × 44) + ( 239.6 × 0.199 × 18) = 9302.7096 kg⁄hr

DISTILLATE: ṁD = (DxDMW)EO + (DxDMW)H2O

ṁ𝐷 = (193.3914 × 0.99 × 44) + ( 193.3914 × 0.01 × 18) = 8458.939836 𝑘𝑔⁄ℎ𝑟

BOTTOM: ṁB = (BxBMW)EO + (BxBMW)H2O

ṁB = (46.2086 × 0.01 × 44) + ( 46.2086 × 0.99 × 18) = 843.769036 kg/hr

The above distillate mass flow rate will give our production specification of 200 MTD. The above mass
flow rate will also be used for design and energy balance calculation.

Theoretical Plate and Reflux Ratio

Using McCabe Thiele method and Raoult’s Law to find vapor-liquid equilibrium curve,
Pi = xi × Pio Ptotal = (xi × Pio) + (Pjo × (1 − xi))
Pj = xj × Pjo = Pjo × (1 − xi) xi = (Ptotal − Pjo)/(Pio − Pjo)
Ptotal = Pi + Pj xi + xj = 1

Antoine equation is used to determine the vapour pressure of the components at different temperature.

log10 (P) = A − B
T−C

Using the above equations, the calculated VLE data are tabulated below:

101
Temperature Temperature 𝑃𝑖° 𝑃𝑗° Pi Pj xi yi Relative Viscosity
°C K mm Hg mm Hg kPa kPa volatility
10.30 283.45 771.84 9.23 759.86 9.23 0.98 1.00 83.65 0.28
15.00 288.15 926.86 12.61 757.70 12.57 0.82 1.00 73.50 0.27
20.00 293.15 1118.07 17.35 754.36 17.22 0.67 0.99 64.44 0.25
25.00 298.15 1339.36 23.58 749.62 23.25 0.56 0.99 56.81 0.24
30.00 303.15 1593.91 31.65 743.10 30.95 0.47 0.98 50.36 0.23
35.00 308.15 1885.06 42.02 734.35 40.60 0.39 0.97 44.86 0.22
40.00 313.15 2216.26 55.20 722.81 52.49 0.33 0.95 40.15 0.21
45.00 318.15 2591.10 71.78 707.83 66.85 0.27 0.93 36.10 0.21
50.00 323.15 3013.29 92.47 688.67 83.79 0.23 0.91 32.59 0.20
55.00 328.15 3486.64 118.05 664.45 103.21 0.19 0.87 29.54 0.19
60.00 333.15 4015.04 149.43 634.17 124.69 0.16 0.83 26.87 0.18
65.00 338.15 4602.46 187.63 596.69 147.32 0.13 0.79 24.53 0.18
70.00 343.15 5252.94 233.81 550.70 169.42 0.10 0.72 22.47 0.17
75.00 348.15 5970.56 289.23 494.74 188.28 0.08 0.65 20.64 0.17
80.00 353.15 6759.48 355.32 427.14 199.70 0.06 0.56 19.02 0.16
85.00 358.15 7623.83 433.64 346.05 197.45 0.05 0.46 17.58 0.16
90.00 363.15 8567.80 525.90 249.41 172.58 0.03 0.33 16.29 0.15
95.00 368.15 9595.56 633.99 134.92 112.55 0.01 0.18 15.14 0.15
100.00 373.15 10711.29 759.94 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.00 14.09 0.14
Average relative volatility 36.24
Average viscosity 0.20

Figure 22 VLE diagram for EO/ Water

102
 Figure 23 T- x- y diagram for feed

Determination of Rmin,
Using McCabe Thiele Method to calculate q-line
(enthalphy of vapor − enthalphy of feed) 3777.0724 − (−222.5926)
q= = 1.1886
= 3777.0724 − 411.9912
enthlphy of vapor − enthalphy of liquid

From the VLE graph, when 𝑥𝑓 = 0.801, 𝑦2 = 0.96 while 𝑥𝐷 = 0.99 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐵 = 0.01,
1
Equation to find Rmin: 𝑦 = ( )𝑥 +( )𝑥
1+𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 � 1+𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 �

Rmin = 0.0102
Determination of minimum number of theoretical trays, using the Fenkse’s Equation:

𝑥𝐷 1 − 𝑥 𝐵
( 1 − 𝑥𝐷 𝑥𝐵 )
𝑁𝑃𝑇 = 𝑙 = 2.5598
𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝛼𝑎𝑣𝑔)

Number of theoretical trays 3

Number of theoretical trays 3.45 = 4 +15% (maximum design rating)
Number of actual trays 10.667 ≈ 11 Taking 23% plate efficiency, actual trays = (number
of theoretical trays)/(efficiency)

Feed stage location

Using the empirical equation from Kirkbride equation to estimate the feed point location:
2
N B x x
r f,HK b,LK
log [ ] = 0.206 log )( )( ) ]
[(
Ns xf,LK xd,HK

D
103
 3
N =
46.2086
0.801 0.01 2 = 1.353 ≈ 2. Thus, the feed is going into the 2nd stage.
s
0.206×LOG(( )×( )×( 0.99) )
(1+10 193.3914 0.199
)

Flow rate:
Below feed Above feed
Vapour rate, Vapour rate,
L′ V = D(1 + R) = 193.3914 (1 + 5)
= 1.15 V = 1160.348571 kmol/hr
V′′ Liquid rate,
V = L′ − B = 966.957 kmol/hr
Liquid rate, L = RD = 966.957 kmol⁄hr
L′ = V′ + B = 1013.1656 kmol/hr

Physical Properties
To estimate the base pressure, assume the column efficiency of 23 %, taking reboiler as equivalent to
one stage.
4−
Number of real stages 1 = 10.667 ≈ 11
=
0.23
Assume that per plate, there is 100mm water of pressure drop.

Column pressure drop,

Column Pressure Drop = 100 × 10−3 × 1000 × 9.81 × No. of Real Stages = 10.60641 kPa
Top pressure = 1 atm = 101.325 kPa
Estimating bottom pressure, 101.325 + 10.6064 = 111.9314 kPa
From Steam Tables [39]:
P (kPa) T (˚C) v̂ l (m3 /kg) v̂ v (m3/ ρl(kg/m3) ρv(kg/m3)
kg)
100 99.62 0.001043 1.694 958.7727709 0.590318772
125 105.99 0.001048 1.3749 954.1984733 0.727325624

By interpolation:
(P3 − P1)
T= × (T − T ) + T
= 102.66℃
1
(P2 − P1) 2 1
(P3 − P1) ) + ρ = 956.589 kg/m3
ρ = × (ρ − ρ
l
(P2 − l 2 l 1 l1

P1)

(P3 − P1)
ρ = × (ρ
−ρ )+ρ = 0.6557 kg/m3
v
(P2 − P1) v2 v1 v1

104
 Water EO
Base temperature/ ℃ 102.6601244
Top temperature/ ℃ 10.3

105
 Density of liquid/ (kg/m3) 956.589 882
Density of vapour/ (kg/m3) 0.6557 1.77116
Surface tension/ (N/m) 0.06864 0.027722

Column Diameter
Lw ρV
F = Hence, F bottom = 0.030233209 and top = 0.051747307
F
LV Vw √ρ LV LV
L

Taking plate spacing as 0.6 m, hence, base K1 = 0.11 and top K1 = 0.12
Correction for surface tension:
For other surface tensions σ multiply the value of K by σ 0.2
and using figure 11.27
1 (
0.02

Therefore, the new base K1 = 0.1407701 and new top K1 = 0.128097399

Flooding ρVelocity:
−ρ
u = K √ L v. Therefore, base 𝑢 = 3.1382 𝑚/𝑠 and top u = 2.8557 m/s
f 1 ρv � f

Design for 80% flooding at maximum flow rate

80 80
Base û v = 3.13818553 × = 2.5105 m⁄s Top û v = 2.8556732 × = 2.2845 m⁄s
100 100

Maximum volumetric flowrate:

V′ × MW 966.967 × 18.02 V × MW 1160.348571 × 44
Base = = Top = =
ρv (0.655706193 × 3600) ρv (1.771165726 × 3600)
= 7.3815 m3⁄s = 8.0072 m3⁄s

Net area required:

7.38154125 8.007177355
Bottom area = = 2.9402 m2 Top area = = 3.5049 m2
2.51054843 2.28453857

Column cross-sectional area

The net area, An is estimated by taking the downcomer area, Ad as 12 percent of the total and
assuming the hole active area is 10 percent [22, p. 569]:

2.94023172 3.50494294
Base area = = 3.3412 m2 Top area = = 3.9829 m2
0.88 0.88

106
Column diameter

3.34118 × 4 3.98289 × 4
Base diameter = √ = 2.06255 m Top diameter = √ = 2.2519
π mπ

Liquid flow pattern/Arrangement

Maximum volumetric liquid rate
L′ × MW 6324.3270 × 18.015 L × MW 108.5754 × 44.05
Base = = Top = =
ρl 954.4064 × 3600 ρl 882 × 3600
= 0.005301601 m ⁄s 3
= 0.013399505 m3⁄s
From the Figure11.28 [22, p. 569] , both the bottom and top design calculation is using the single
pass arrangement.

Provisional plate design

Estimate the maximum allowable superficial vapour velocity by using Souders & Brown Equation
[22, p. 557]
Below feed Above feed
1
(ρL − ρv) 2 1.191337 m/s 2.040449026 m/s
û v = (−0.171l2 + 0.27l − 0.047) [ ]
t t
ρv
4 V̂ w 2.926012261 m 3.354400323 m
Column Diameter, Dc = √
πρv û v
πDc 2
Column (Cross-sectional Area) A = 6.72422388 m2 8.837301332 m2
c 4
downcomer (cross-sectional area), 12% of Ac 0.806906866 m2 1.06947616 m2
Net area, An = Ac − Ad 5.917317014m2 7.776825172 m2
Active Area, Aa = Ac − 2Ad 5.110410148 m2 6.716349012 m2
Hole Area, Ah, 10% of Aa 0.511041015 m2 0.671634901 m2
Lw/Dc 0.76 0.76
Weir length, Lw 2.223769318 m 2.549344245 m

Taking weir height, Hw = 50 mm, hole diameter, Dh = 6 mm [22, p. 573] and plate thickness = 3 mm
[22, p. 573]
Weeping
Below feed Above feed
Maximum liquid rate, lw 1013.1656 × 18.025 966.957 × 44
= = = 11.8184 kg/s
3600 3600
= 5.0715 kg/s
Minimum liquid rate at 70 70
= 5.071456698 × = 3.55 kg/s = 11.8183633 × = 8.2729 kg/s
70% turndown 100 100

107
 Height of liquid crest over Maximum how Maximum how
2 2
the weir: 5.071456698 3 11.81836333 3
Francis Weir formula = 750 [ ] = 750 [ ]
2 956.5896573 × 2.22376318 882 × 2.549344245
Lw 3
how = 750 []
ρLl w = 13.38462274 mm = 22.67260608 mm liquid

liquid Minimum how Minimum how

2 2
3.550019688 3 8.27285433 3
= 750 [ ] = 750 [ ]
956.5896573 × 2.22376318 882 × 2.549344245
= 10.5520809 liquid = 17.87448218 mm liquid
At minimum rate, hw + = 50 + 10.5520809 = 50 + 17.874482128
how = 60.55208209 mm liquid = 67.87448218 mm liquid

From Figure 11.30 [22, p. 571] K2 = 30.8 K2 = 30.9

[K2 − 0.90(25.4 − dh)] [30.8 − 0.90(25.4 − 6)] [30.8 − 0.90(25.4 − 6)]
ǔ h = 1 = 1 = 1
(ρv)2 (0.6557)2 (1.77116)2
= 16.4741 m/s = 10.0988 m/s
Actual minimum vapour velocity (0.7 × 3.3271) (0.7 × 2.7536)
minimum vapour rate = = 10.111 m⁄s = = 8.3453 m⁄s
= 0.1975 0.1975
Ah

Plate pressure drop

Maximum vapour 7.3815415 8.007177355
= = 14.44423m/s = = 11.9219m/s
velocity through holes 0.511041015 0.671634901
From Figure 11.34 [22, p. 576], C0 = 0.77
hd 14.44423033 2 0.6557 11.92191969 2 1.77116
= 51 × ( ) × = 51 × ( ) ×
0.77 956.5897 0.77 882
= 12.30158695 mm liquid = 24.55114348 mm liquid
Residual head, hr 12 × 10−3 12 × 10 −3

= = 13.0672 mm liquid = = 14.1723 mm liquid

956.5896573 882
Total pressure drop, = 12.30158695 + (50 + 10.5520809) = 24.55114348
ht = hd + (hw + + 13.067 = 88.75346366 mm liquid + (50 + 17.874482128) + 14.1723
how) + hr Note: 100 mm was assumed to calculate = 111.3960852 mm liquid
the base pressure.. 88.75 mm per plate Note: 100 mm was assumed to calculate
is considered acceptable. the base pressure.. 111.39 mm per plate is
considered acceptable.

108
Downcomer Liquid Back-up
Taking height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate, hap = hw – 10 = 40 mm or 0.04 m.
Below Feed Above Feed
Area under apron, Aap = = 0.04 × 2.223769318 = 0.04 × 2.549344245
hap × lw = 0.088950773 𝑚2 = 0.10197377 𝑚2
Back- up in downcomer, = (50 + 10.5520809) = (50 + 17.874482128)
hb = (hw + how) + ht + + 88.75346366 + 111.3960852
hdc +1 +3
= 150.3 𝑚𝑚 = 182.27 𝑚𝑚
1 = 0.6 + (50 × 10−3) = = 0.6 + (50 × 10−3) =
(plate spacing
2 0.325 𝑚 ∴Plate spacing is 0.325 𝑚 ∴Plate spacing is
+ weir height) acceptable acceptable.

Check residence time, tr

Below feed Above feed
Ad × hb × ρl 0.806906866 × 0.1503 × 956.586573 1.06947616 × 0.187 × 882
tr = = =
Lw 5.071456698 11.81836333
= 28.9305 s, >3 s, satisfactory = 20.98166787 s, >3 s,
satisfactory

Check entrainment, uv
7.381594125 8.007177355
uv = = 1.2474 m/s uv = = 1.02962 m/s
5.917317014
1.2474 7.776825172
1.029620337
% flooding = = 39.75 % % flooding = = 36.055 %
3.138185533 2.855673218

FLV = 0.03, from Figure 11.29,Ψ = 0.017 well FLV = 0.051, from Figure 11.29,Ψ = 0.012, well
below 0.1 below 0.1
As the % flooding is well below the design figure As the % flooding is well below the design figure of
of 85%, the column diameter could be reduced, but 85%, the column diameter could be reduced, but
this would increase the pressure drop. this
would increase the pressure drop.

109
Trial Layout

Using the cartridge-type construction, allow 50

mm unperforated strip round plate edge, 50
mm wide calming zones.
Based on design calculation below feed, the
design column diameter Dc, is 2.926 m and
weir length is 2.223 m

Perforated area, Ap

From Figure 11.32 [22, p. 570], at lw⁄Dc = 2.223⁄2.926 = 0.76 [40]

Angle subtended by the edge of the plate = 180 − 95 = 85°

Mean length, unperforated edge strip = (2.926 − 50 × 10−3)π × 85⁄180 = 4.76808912 m

Area of unperforated edge strips = 50 × 10−3 × 4.76808912 = 0.213332504 m2
Approximation of mean length of calming zone = lw + width of unperforated strip
= 2.22 + 50 × 10−3 = 2.273769 m

Area of calming zones = 2 × (2.27 × 50 × 10−3) = 0.227376932 m2

Total area for perforations, Ap = Aa − Area of unperforated edge strips − Area of calming zones
= 5.110410148 − 0.213332504 − 0.227376932 = 4.669700713 m2
Ah⁄Ap = 0.511041015 ⁄4.669700713 = 0.109437638

Hole Pitch
The hole pitch, lp, normal range should be within 2.5 to 4.0 diameters. Equilateral triangular is
preferably used. The total hole area as a fraction of the perforated area Ap is given by the following
expression, for an equilateral triangular pitch:

2
𝐴 𝑑ℎ
ℎ
= 0.9 [ ]
𝐴𝑝 𝑙𝑝

110
This equation is plotted in Figure 11.33.
dh 6
lp = = = 17.206 mm
Ah √0.109437638
0.9
√0.9. Ap

lp⁄dh = 2.83, satisfactory, within 2.5 to 4.0

From Figure 11.33 [22, p. 575], lp⁄dh = 2.83; satisfactory, within 2.5 to 4.0. [22, p. 575]

Number of holes

π d2
Area of one hole = π × (6 ×
h
10−3)2 = 2.8274 × 10−5 m2
=4
4
Ah 0.511041015
Number of holes = = = 1807 holes
Area of one hole 2.8274 × 10−5

Column height
Height = Nac × Plate spacing = 11 × 0.6 = 6.6 m

Column height with extra room for head space, bottom liquid hold up and feed entry tray spacing of 15%:
6.6 × 1.15 = 7.59 𝑚
Height/Diameter Ratio = 2.5940

111
Appendix 7: Equipment Costing

All calculation for the costing of each equipment are based on USD cost index, in which 188.9 for 2004
and 252.776 for 2019 [42]. The conversion rate from USD 1 taken to be BND 1.35 [25].

11.7.1 Costing for Heat Exchanger

For types of material, pressure factor and type factor can be found the information from Equipment
Sizing and Capital Cost Estimation by Warren D. Seider, University of Pennsylvania
a) Type of heat exchanger is floating head.

CB = exp{11.667 − 0.8709[ln(A)] + 0.09005[ln(A)]2} = 46900

b) Material Factor, FM for stainless

steel a= 2.7, b= 0.07, A= 4811ft2
𝐴 )𝑏 4811) 0.07
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( = 2.7 + ( = 4.01
10 100
0
c) Pressure Factor
P=217.6 psia
𝑃 2
𝑃
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018 ( ) + 0.0017 = 1.03
( ) 100
100

d) Correction Factor, FL

Tube length = 16 ft, therefore FL =1.05

Total purchase cost of heat exchanger in 2004 = CB × FM × FP × FL = USD 203, 110

252.776
Therefore, the cost of heat exchanger in 2019: =USD 203,110 × ≈ USD 271,790, which is
188.9
approximatelyBND 366, 918.

11.7.2 Costing for EO Reactor

The cost of purchased reactor is calculated based on CRCE book. The shell and tube heat exchangers
with time based mid-2004, the purchased cost = (bare cost from figure (b) [35, p. 254]) x type factor x
pressure factor. With the value area transfer, the exchanger cost is USD 260,000.

Purchase cost of heat exchanger in 2004 = USD 211, 500 × 0.8 × 1.1 = USD 186, 120

While, to estimate the vessel purchase cost, the vessel has the height of 7.2 m, which cost USD 26,000,
extrapolated from figure (b) [35, p. 256].

Purchase cost of vessel = USD 26, 000 × 1 × 1.2 = USD 31, 200
Thus, the total cost is USD 217, 320 at time base mid- 2004. Then converting to 2019-time base, the
total cost of the reactor is USD 290, 806.14, which is approximately BND 392, 588.

112
11.7.3 Costing for EO Absorber
The determination of EO absorber cost calculated based on CRCE book.
Column
By taking the height of the column to be 7 m with a diameter of 3 m while operating at 15 bars and the
material of construction chosen is stainless steel. Hence, the material factor is 2.0 and pressure factor is
1.2. Since the absorber is vertical, from Figure 6.5 (b) [22, p. 256]
Purchase cost of vessel in 2004 = USD 33, 340 × 2.0 × 1.2 = USD 80, 000
Packing
The packing type chosen is saddles with packing size of 50 mm. From Table 6.3 [22, p. 259]), the
bare cost as of mid-2004 is USD 960/ m3.
Packing cost in 2004 = USD 960⁄m3 × 9π m3 = USD 27, 143.36053
The total cost of the vessel in mid- 2004 is USD 107, 143.3605. By converting the cost into 2019 basis,
the total cost of the absorber is BND 193, 419. 57.

11.7.4 Costing for EO Desorber

All calculations done for the determination of EO desorber costing are referred from CRCE.

Column
Stainless steel column is chosen as the material for the 24 m column with diameter of approximately 2 m,
operating at 1 atmospheric pressure: Material factor = 2.0 and Pressure factor = 1.0
Using Figure 6.5 (b) [22, p. 256], the column bare cost is estimated to be USD 90,000
Purchased cost in 2004 = USD 90,000 × 2.0 × 1.0 = USD 180,000

Trays
Stainless steel sieve trays are selected as the plates: Material factor = 1.7
Cost per plate in 2004 = US$600
Cost for 23 plates in 2004 = US$23,460
Total column cost in 2004 = 180,000 + 23,460 = USD 203,460

Condenser
Use Q = UA∆Tlm to find the area of condenser.

Ti/℃ Tf/℃ LMTD/ Qc/ (kJ/hr) Qc/ W Assumed U Heat transfer

℃ (W/m2◦C) area/ m2
Hot Fluid 80 67.5 35.8879 4.50 × 106 1.25 × 106 1000 34.79
Cold Fluid 25 50
For the condenser, floating head exchanger is chosen, hence the type factor = 1.0. Since the column
operating pressure is 1 atm, hence, the pressure factor = 1.0. Using Figure 6.3 (b) [22, p. 254], the
condenser bare cost is estimated to be USD 37,000
Purchased cost of condenser in 2004 = USD 37,000 × 1.0 × 1.0 = USD 37,000

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Reboiler
Ti/℃ Tf/℃ Pressure of ∆T/ ◦C Qr/ (kJ/hr) Qr/ W Assumed U Heat transfer
steam/ bar (W/m2◦C) area/ m2
151.8 102.3 5 49.5 1.56 × 107 4.33 × 106 1500 58.32
Type of reboiler chosen is kettle with type factor = 1.3 and the pressure factor = 1.0. Using Figure 6.3
(b) [22, p. 254] the reboiler bare cost is estimated to be USD 84, 500
Purchased cost of reboiler in 2004 = USD 65,000 × 1.3 × 1.0 = USD 84, 500
Therefore, the total cost of distillation column in 2004 is USD 324,960. By converting into 2019 time
base, the total cost is USD 434,844, which is approximately BND 587,039.

11.7.5 Costing for Condenser

The cost of condenser is calculated based on Coulson Richardson’s Chemical Engineering 4 th Edition book.
Heat transfer area is needed to find the cost. Material chosen for the shell would be carbon steel and stainless
steel for the tube.

From Figure 6.3 (b) [22, p. 254], the purchased cost is USD 11, 000 in 2004. Taking the pressure factor of
0.8 and type factor to be 1.

Purchased cost of condenser in 2004 = $11, 000 × 0.8 × 1 = USD 8, 800

Therefore, the cost of the condenser in 2019 is USD 11, 775.69, which is approximately BND 15, 897.20.

11.7.6 Costing for EO Purifier

All calculations done for the determination of EO desorber costing are referred from CRCE.

Column
The height of the column is taken to be 7.59 m with a diameter of approximately 3m. Stainless steel is
chosen as the material of construction; hence, the material factor is 2.0. since the column is operating at
1 atm, therefore, pressure factor is taken as 1.0. Using Figure 6.5 (b) [22, p. 256], the column bare cost
is estimated to be USD 21,000
𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑛 2004 = 𝑈𝑆𝐷 21,000 × 2.0 × 1.0 = 𝑈𝑆$ 42,000

Trays
Type of plate selected is sieve trays with material factor of 1.7 since stainless steel is used.
Cost per plate in 2004 = USD 1,700
Cost for 11 plates in 2004 = USD 18,700
Total column cost in 2004 = 42,000 + 18, 700 = USD 60, 700

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Condenser
Use Q = UA∆Tlm to find the area of condenser.

Ti/℃ Tf/℃ LMTD/ Qc/ (kJ/hr) Qc/ W Assumed Heat transfer

℃ U area/ m2
(W/m2◦C)
Hot Fluid 60 48 40.83 1.07 × 107 2.888 1000 70.7
Cold 8 18.32 × 106
Fluid

The material chosen for the shell is carbon steel and tubes are stainless steel. While, type of condenser is
floating head exchanger: Hence, type factor = 1.0. The operating pressure is at 1 atm: Pressure factor =
1.0. Using Figure 6.3 (b) [22, p. 254], the condenser bare cost is estimated to be USD 70,000
Purchased cost of condenser in 2004 = 70,000 × 1.0 × 1.0 = USD 70,000
Reboiler
Ti/℃ Tf/℃ Pressure of ∆T/ ◦C Qr/ (kJ/hr) Qr/ W Assumed U Heat transfer
steam/ bar (W/m2◦C) area/ m2
158.91 102.66 5 49.14 9.03 × 106 2.51 × 106 1000 51.09

The material chosen for the shell is carbon steel and tubes are stainless steel. While, type of condenser is
a kettle: Hence, type factor = 1.3. The operating pressure is at 1 atm: Pressure factor = 1.0. Using Figure
6.3
(b) [22, p. 254], the condenser bare cost is estimated to be USD60, 000
Purchased cost of reboiler in 2004 = USD 60,000 × 1.3 × 1.0 = USD 78,000
Therefore, the total cost of purifier column in 2004 is USD 208, 700. By converting into 2019 time base,
the total cost is USD 279, 271, which is approximately BND 377, 016.

11.7.7 Costing for Heaters and Coolers:

The type of heaters and coolers are floating head exchangers, where the materials selected are stainless
steel for the tube side and carbon steel for the shell of each heat exchanger. Use Q = UA∆Tlm
to find the area of condenser.

Stream 𝑇𝑖/℃ 𝑇𝑓/℃ LMTD Qc/ (kJ/hr) Qc/W Assumed Heat transfer
℃ U (W/m2˚C) area (m2)
Heater E- Hot Fluid 100 25 117.05 2.78 × 107 7.72 × 106 1,500 43.97
100 Cold Fluid 130 230
Cooler E- Hot Fluid 155.9 25 45.22 −3.40 × 107 −9.45 × 106 1,000 208.89
102 Cold Fluid 5 70
Cooler E- Hot Fluid 100 25 39.91 −3.30 × 107 -9.17× 106 1,000 229.85
103 Cold Fluid 5 30
Heater E- Hot Fluid 70 25 7.30 1.85× 107 5.14× 106 1,500 468.91
104 Cold Fluid 35.52 75
Cooler E- Hot Fluid 67.49 11 17.19 −7.64 × 106 −2.12 × 106 1,000 123.48
106 Cold Fluid 5 30

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 Heat Type Factor Operating Pressure From Figure 6.3 Purchased Purchased
exchangers Pressure Factor b [22, p. 254] cost in cost in
(kPa) Bare cost USD BND
2004 2019
Heater E-100 1.0 1,500 1.1 $47,000 $51,700 $69,182.21
Cooler E-102 1.0 1,500 1.1 $160,000 $176,000 $235,513.90
Cooler E-103 1.0 101.3 1.0 $170,000 $170,000 $227,485.02
Heater E-104 1.0 1,500 1.1 $280,000 $308,000 $412,149.33
Cooler E-106 1.0 110 1.0 $110,000 $110,000 $147,196.19

Utilities
Using Q = mCp∆T to calculate the mass flowrates of cooling water for the cooler and Q = mλ to
calculate the mass flowrates of steam for the heater. Specific heat of cooling water, Cp at 5˚C is 4.23
kJ/kg.K and the heat of vaporization, λ at different temperatures can be taken from steam table [39].

Heat exchangers Values Amount of utilities

Heater E-100 λat 100˚C = 2,257 kJ/kg 12,314.09 kg/hr of steam
Cooler E-102 Cpof water at 5˚C = 4.23 kJ/kg.K 118,216.49 kg/hr of cooling water
Cooler E-103 Cpof water at 5˚C = 4.23 kJ/kg.K 312,644.51 kg/hr of cooling water
Heater E-104 λ at 70˚C = 2,333.8 kJ/kg 7,922.16 kg/hr of steam
Cooler E-106 Cpof water at 5˚C = 4.23 kJ/kg.K 72,322.29 kg/hr of cooling water

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