Subject: CE101

BASIC SURVEYING

Dr. Samim Mustafa

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT (BHU)

[Link]
 Learning Objectives and Lecture Outlines
Learning Objectives Module Topic No. of
no. hours
1 Demonstrate an understanding of the 1 Elements of surveying and mapping, types of 3
history and context of surveying
surveys and maps, Scales, accuracy and errors
2 How to determine the relative position of 2 Chain Surveying and Compass Surveying 4
any objects or points of the earth
3 Levelling and Contouring 5
3 How to determine the distance and angle
between different objects 4 Theodolite Surveying and Tacheometry 5
5 Plane Table Surveying 2
Demonstrate the ability to use various
4 types of surveying instruments and 6 Electronic Distance Measurement and Total 3
equipment Station
7 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 3
5 To develop methods through the
knowledge of modern science and the 8 Photogrammetry Engineering 4
technology and use them in the field 9 Remote Sensing and GIS 6

6 To solve measurement problems in an 10 Hydrographic Surveying 2

optimal way
11 Setting Out 2
PREREQUISITES: None Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Reference Textbooks and Assessment
Textbooks and References Assessment
1 [Link] , ‘Surveying Vol. I & II’ , Laxmi
Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
Weightage
Framework
(%)
2 S.K. Duggal, ‘Surveying Vol 1’Tata McGraw Hill
Education Pvt Ltd. New Delhi
Quizzes- HA/ Project 30%
3 T.P. Kannetkar and S.V. Kulkarni, ‘Surveying Midsemester Exam
and Levelling’ Pune Vidyarthi Griha Prakashan 25%
(May 24-27)
End semester
4 [Link], ‘Surveying Volume – 1 & 2’ 35%
Standard Book House Since 1960 (July 6-12)

M. Chandra, ‘Plane Surveying’, New Age

Attendance/Sincerity 10%
5
International Publishers

6 [Link], ‘Fundamentals of Surveying’, PHI

Learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Module 1
Elements of surveying and mapping, types of
surveys and maps, Scales, accuracy and errors

Dr. Samim Mustafa

 Definition and Objectives of Surveying
What is Surveying?
qIt is defined as the science of determining the relative positions, in three dimensions,
of natural and man-made features on, above or beneath the surface of the Earth by
measuring distance, direction and elevation

Objectives of Surveying
1. To take measurements for determining the relative positions of existing features
on ground
2. For preparation of plan of estate or buildings roads, railways, pipelines, canals,
etc. Or to measure area of field, state, nation
3. To layout or mark the positions of the proposed structure on the ground
4. To estimate areas, volumes and other related quantities
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Brief History of Surveying
1. Surveying had it’s beginning in Egypt about 1400 BC
• Land along the Nile River was divided for taxation.
Divisions were washed away by annual floods.
• “ROPE-STRETCHERS” Egyptian surveyors were created
to relocate the land divisions (measurements were made
with ropes having knots at unit distances).
• Extensive use of surveying in building of Egyptian
monuments
2. Greeks: expanded Egyptian work and developed
Geometry.
• Developed one of the earliest surveying instruments –
Diopter (a form of level).
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Brief History of Surveying
3. Romans: developed surveying into a science to create the
Roman roads, aqueducts, and land division systems.
• Surveyors held great power, had schools and a professional
organization
• Developed several instruments:
• Groma – cross instrument used to determine lines and right angles
• Libella – “A” frame with a plumb bob used for leveling
• Chorobates – 20’ straight edge with oil in notch for leveling

4. Middle Ages: Land division of Romans continued in Europe.

• Quadrans – square brass frame capable of turning angles up
to 90° and has a graduated scale developed by an Italian
named Von Piso.
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Brief History of Surveying
5. 18th & 19th Century in the New World: the need for
mapping and marking land claims caused extensive
surveying, especially by the English.
• 1785: United Stated began extensive surveys of public
lands into one mile square sections
• 30 states surveyed under the U.S. Public Land System
(also called the Rectangular System)
• 1807: United States Geological Survey founded to
establish an accurate control network and mapping
• Famous American Surveyors: George Washington,
Thomas Jefferson, George Rogers Clark, Abe Lincoln
and many more.

Dr. Samim Mustafa

 Brief History of Surveying
6. 20th Century and Beyond: As technology advanced,
population increased, and land value caused
development of licensure for surveyors in all states.
• Educational requirements for licensure began in the early
1990’s
• Capable of electronic distance measurement, positioning
using global positioning systems, construction machine
control, and lidar (scanning) mapping
• Involvement in rebuilding of the infrastructure and
geographic information systems (GIS)
• Shortage of licensed professionals is projected well into the
21st century

Dr. Samim Mustafa

 Steps Involved In Surveying
The Work of Surveyor
1. Decision Making – selecting method, equipment and final
point locations.
2. Fieldwork & Data Collection – making measurements and
recording data in the field.
3. Computing & Data Processing – preparing calculations
based upon the recorded data to determine locations in a
useable form.
4. Mapping or Data Representation – plotting data to produce a
map, plot, or chart in the proper form.
5. Setting out – locating and establishing monuments or stakes
in the proper locations in the field.
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Primary Divisions of Surveying
qIt is made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth is considered or it is
assumed to be a flat plane
Actual shape § Circular?
of earth? § Spherical?
§ Elliptical?
§ Oblate spheroid?
§ Prolate spheroid?
• Length of polar axis is about 12713.168 km and that of Primary divisions
equatorial axis is about 12756.602 km
• Polar axis is shorter than equatorial axis by 42.95 km 1 Plane Surveying
• Relative to diameter of earth, difference is just 0.34% 2 Geodetic Surveying
• Measured distances on earth’s surface are actually curved
• Curvature of earth can be neglected when distances are
small, as compared to the radius
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 1. Plane Surveying
Definition
It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of earth is neglected and mean
surface of earth is considered as a plane
Great circle
Limitation and assumptions
qIt is used for relatively small areas (less than 250 km2)
𝛾!
qCurved lines on surface are considered as straight lines !
𝛼! 𝛽
qSpherical angles are considered as plane angles
qThe standard of accuracy is lower than that in geodetic
surveying
12 KM
For an area of 195 km2 A B
∠𝛼 + ∠𝛽 + ∠𝛾 − ∠𝛼 $ + ∠𝛽$ + ∠𝛾 $ = 1” LAB,arc − LAB = 1 cm
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 2. Geodetic Surveying
Definition
It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of earth is taken into consideration
and a high level of accuracy is maintained
Basic con

Features Physical surface

Physical surface

qIt is used for larger areas and establishing Geoid Geoid

precise points of references or control points

A Ellipsoid
Ellipsoid
qSurface of earth is considered as curved and
triangles are spherical triangles
qA spheroid of reference is visualized ξ
Normal (to the
ellipsoid)
qA level surface (called geoid) corresponding to Vertical to the geoid
the mean sea-level which is perpendicular to (direction of gravity)

direction of gravity at every point is considered Fig. 1.1 Geoid, ellipsoid and physical surface

qSurface of the geoid is irregular

Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Secondary Classification
A. Based on Nature of Field Survey
1. Land Surveying
i. Topographical Surveys Surveying of natural and artificial features of a country
ii. Cadastral Surveys Fixing of property lines, ownership of a land etc.
iii. City Surveying For construction of streets, water supply systems etc.
2. Marine Survey Water bodies, sea shores, river banks, MSL, depths etc.
3. Astronomical Survey Absolute location, latitudes, longitudes, azimuths etc.

B. Based on Object of Survey

1. Engineering Surveys For designing engineering works, i.e., roads, bridges etc.
2. Military Surveys For determining points of strategic importance
3. Mine Surveys For exploring mineral wealth underground
4. Geological Surveys For determining different strata in earth’s crust
5. Archaeological Surveys For unearthing relics of antiquity
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Secondary Classification
C. Based on Instruments Used
1. Chain Surveying Perform only linear measurements using chain or tape
2. Compass surveying Horizontal angles are measured using magnetic compass
2. Theodolite survey A theodolite is used for precise measurement of angles
3. Traverse survey Various stations form a polygon, both theodolite and tape are used
4. Triangulation survey Lines form a system of triangles
5. Tacheometric survey Angles, distance and elevation are measured by tacheometer

Theodolite C
A
B as
Tripod e l i ne B
Chain Compass Triangulation
Traverse survey
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Principles of Surveying
A
1. Always work from the whole to parts
qFirst establish accurately a large main framework
consisting of widely spaced control points E
G
qEstablish subsidiary small frameworks with a lesser D
accuracy H

J
qErrors in small framework are thus localized

B F C
2. Always choose a method that is most
suitable for the purpose
qCost of surveying increases rapidly with increase in accuracy
qThere is a trade-off between desired accuracy and speed of surveying
qDesired accuracy should be achieved at a minimum cost
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Principles of Surveying
P P P
3. Always use two points of reference
a) Measure distances PR and QR and locate point R by S R
swinging two arcs, common practice in chain surveying R
90° R
𝛼
b) Measure PS and SR which are perpendicular to each other
and locate point R using set square Q Q Q
(a) (b) (c)
c) Measure QR and angle PQR and plot point R either by P
means of a protractor or trigonometrically, used in traversing
𝛽
d) Measure angles RPQ and RQP using angle-measuring R
instrument, point R is plotted knowing PQ. It is commonly
𝛼
used in triangulation

4. Always record field data carefully Q

(d)
qRecords must be in a standard form and clearly written in field book
qAvoid any mistake while making an entry, no overwriting is permitted Dr. Samim Mustafa
Instrument Used For Different Measurements

1. Intruments used for horizontal distances

• Chains, tapes, tacheometers, E.D.M, etc.
2. Instruments used for vertical distances
• Levelling instruments, tacheometers, etc.

3. Instruments used for horizontal angles

• Magnetic compasses, theodolites, etc.

4. Instruments used vertical angles

• Theodolites, clinometers, etc.

Dr. Samim Mustafa

 Units of Measurement
Ø According to the standards of Weights and Measures Act (India), 1956, the unit of
measurement of distance is metres and centimetres
British Units Metric Units
12 inches = 1 foot 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre
3 feet = 1 yard 10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
5.5 yards = 1 rod, pole 10 decimetres = 1 metre
4 poles = 1 chain (66 feet) 1000 metre = 1 kilometre
100 links = 1 chain 1852 metres = 1 nautical mile
6080 feet = 1 nautical mile

Metres Yards Feet Inches

1 1.0936 3.2808 39.3701
0.9144 1 3 36
0.3048 0.3333 1 12
0.0254 0.0278 0.0833 1
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Units of Measurement

►Acre - The (English) acre is a unit of area equal to 43560

square feet, or 10 square chains. A square mile is 640 acres.
The Scottish acre is 1.27 English acres.

►Hectare - Metric unit of area equal to 10,000 square

meters, or 2.471 acres.

►Link - Unit of length equal to 1/100 chain (7.92 inches).

►Rood - Unit of area usually equal to 1/4 acre.
►Engineer's Chain - A 100 foot chain containing 100 links
of one foot a piece.
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Difference Between A Plan and A Map
►Plan – A plan graphically represents the features on or near the
earth’s surface as projected on a horizontal plane, to some scale.
►Map – If the scale of the graphical projection on a horizontal plane is
small, the plan is termed map. In addition, a map generally shows
some additional features.

Scale of a Map

q As the area that is surveyed is rather large, it is essential to

select a suitable scale for representing the area on a map
q Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to
the corresponding distance on ground
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Representation of Scale
1. Engineer’s scale
It is indicated by a statement. For example, 1 cm = 50 m. According to
this scale, specified distance on the map represents the corresponding
distance on the ground

2. Representative scale (R.F.)

It is indicated by a ratio. It is the ratio of the distance on the map to the
corresponding distance on the ground. For example, for a scale of 1 cm
to 50 m, R.F. = 1/5000 or 1 : 5000

3. Graphical scale
A graphical scale is constructed on the map by drawing a line and
marking the ground distances directly on it.
50 m Scale: 40 mm = 50 m = 50 x 1000 mm
0 10 20 30 40 R.F. = 1 : 1250 Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Errors Due to Shrinkage of a Map
►Drawing paper generally shrinks due to variation in atmospheric temperature,
humidity etc.
►All the lines marked on map shrink to some extent
►If the map has shrunk, actual distance would be more than corresponding
distance measured from the map
𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑘 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Shrinkage factor = Correct distance =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Problem 1: The plan of an area has shrunk such that a line originally 10 cm now measures 9.5
cm. If the original scale of the plan was 1 cm = 10 m, determine (i) shrinkage factor, (ii) shrunk
scale, (iii) correct distance corresponding to a measured distance of 98 m, (iv) correct area
corresponding to a measured area of 10000 m2.
1 2
9.5 1 1
Shrinkage factor = = 0.95 Shrunk R.F. = ×0.95 = Shrunk scale is 1 cm = 10.53 m
10 1000 1053
3 98 4 "####
Correct distance = = 103.16 m Correct area = ! = 11080.33 m2
0.95 #.%&
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Errors Due to Wrong Measuring Scale
►Error can also occur due to the use of a wrong measuring scale
R. F. of wrong scale
Correct length = ×measured length
R. F. of correct scale
&
R. F. of wrong scale
Correct area = ×measured area
R. F. of correct scale
Problem 2: A surveyor measured the distance between two points marked on the plan drawn to
a scale of 1 cm = 1 m. (R.F. = 1:100) and found it to be 50 m. It was found that he used a wrong
scale of 1 cm = 50cm (R.F. = 1:50) for the measurement. (a) Determine the correct length, (b)
What would be the correct area if the measured area is 60 m2?

1 1/50
Correct length = ×50 𝑚 = 100 𝑚
1/100
2 &
1/50
Correct area = ×60 = 240 m2
1/100
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Types of Measuring Scales
Requirements
1. Plane scale
1. It should read to the required accuracy
2. Diagonal scale 2. It should be of suitable length, generally not longer than 300 mm
3. The scale should be accurately divided and numbered
3. Chord scale 4. The scale ratio or R.F. should be clearly written on the scale
5. The scale should be convenient to use

Plane Scale
§ A plane scale measures some unit and its submultiples
§ IS : 1491-1959 gives the specifications of plain scales made of varnished
cardboard or plastic
§ Code recommends 6 different types plane scales for the use of engineers,
architects and surveyors
§ Each scale has two measuring edges
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Types of Plane Scales
Designation Edge Scale ratio R.F.
1 Full scale 1:1
A
2 50 cm to a metre 1:2
1 40 cm to a metre 1 : 2.5
B
2 20 cm to a metre 1 : 5.0
1 10 cm to a metre 1 : 10
C
2 5 cm to a metre 1 : 20
1 2 cm to a metre 1 : 50
D
2 1 cm to a metre 1 : 100
1 5 mm to a metre 1 : 200
E
2 2 mm to a metre 1 : 500
1 1 mm to a metre 1 : 1000
F
2 0.5 mm to a metre 1 : 2000
66m
R.F. = 1 : 500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Diagonal Scales
Diagonal Scales
§ A diagonal scale reads some unit, its submultiple and further submultiple.
§ An unit, its one-tenth part and its one-hundred part can be measured
§ Code recommends 4 different types diagonal scales

qA short length is divided into a number of parts. For R

example PQ can be divided into 10 parts 1 1
2 2
Step 1: Draw a line QR perpendicular to PQ 3 3
4 4
Step 2: Divide it into ten equal parts 5 5
6 6
Step 3: Join the diagonal PR and draw lines from each
7 7
of the divisions 1,2,3 etc 8 8
' & ) 9 9
Line 1-1 = '(
PQ ; Line 2-2 = '(
PQ ; Line 9-9 = '(
PQ
P Q
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Diagonal Scales
Graduated
Designation R.F.
length
A 1:1 150 cm
1 : 100000
B 1 : 50000 100 cm
1 : 25000
1 : 100000
C 1 : 50000 50 cm
1 : 25000
1 : 100000
D 1 : 8000 150 cm
1 : 4000
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Chord Scales
Chord Scales
§ Chord scales are used to measure and to set out angles, without using a
protractor
§ Instead of length, it has graduations of degrees from 0 to 90°

How to Measure Angles?

Step 1: With A as centre and AB as radius, draw an
arc
F
Step 2: With B as centre and radius equal to chrod
length of 20° , draw an arc to cut the previous arc in F
20°
Step 3: Join AF and angle produce by ∠FAB is 20°
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Use of Verniers in Scales
What is Vernier?
qIt is a device for measuring accurately the fractional part of the smallest division on a
graduated scale
qIt consists of a small auxiliary scale which slides along the side of main scale
qIt works on principle that the human eyes can perceive with greater precision when
two graduations coincide to form one continuous straight line

1. Direct Vernier

A direct vernier is one which extends or increases in the same direction as that of
the main scale and in which the smallest division on the vernier is shorter than the
smallest division on the main scale

2. Retrograde Vernier
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Direct Vernier
qIt is so constructed that (n-1) divisions of the main scale are equal in length of n
divisions of the vernier
𝑠 = Value of one smallest division on main scale 𝑛𝑣 = 𝑛 − 1 𝑠
𝑛−1
𝑣 = Value of one smallest division on the vernier 𝑣= 𝑠
𝑛 = Total number of divisions on the vernier 𝑛
Least count = 𝑠 − 𝑣 = -⁄.
Example of Direct Vernier
Total number of divisions on the vernier is 10 and the Least count (L.C.)
7.8
value of one smallest division on main scale is 0.1 = 87 = 0.01
Reading
Value of big division on main scale + Value of vernier Reading?
one smallest division×no. of small divisions on
main scale + (L.C.)×no. of division on vernier
which coincide with a division on main scale =
12 + 0.1×5 + 0.01×6 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟔
main scale Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Retrograde Vernier
q It extends or increases in opposite direction as that of the main scale and in which
the smallest division of the vernier is longer than the smallest division on the main
scale
q It is so constructed that (n+1) divisions of the main scale are equal in length of n
divisions of the vernier
𝑛𝑣 = 𝑛 + 1 𝑠
Total number of divisions on the vernier is 10 and the 𝑛+1
𝑣= 𝑠
value of one smallest division on main scale is 0.1 𝑛
Least count = 𝑣 − 𝑠 = -⁄.
Reading 7.8
Value of big division on main scale + Value of Least count (L.C.) = = 0.01
87
one smallest division×no. of small divisions on Reading?
main scale + (L.C.)×no. of division on vernier
which coincide with a division on main scale =
13 + 0.1×3 + 0.01×4 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟒
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Example Problem of Vernier Scale
Problem 1: Design a vernier for a theodolite circle divided into degrees and one-
third degrees to read to 20” .

9 ” <7
Least count (L.C.) = = 20 = minutes
: =7

1°
𝑠 = = 20?
3
20 20
= 𝑛 = 60
60 𝑛
Fifty-nine divisions should be taken for the length of the vernier scale and
divided into 60 parts for a direct vernier
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Accuracy, Precision and Errors
qSurveying deals with measurement of distances and angles whose true values are
never known to us due to the presence of various types of errors
qSurveyor must know various types of errors that occur and how these can be
controlled

Accuracy
§ Accuracy denotes the closeness of a measurement to its true value
§ It is the degree of perfection achieved in measurement
§ It depends on Precise instruments, precise methods and good planning

Precision
§ It denotes the closeness to another measurement of the same quantity
§ It is the degree of perfection used in the instrument, observations and methods
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Types and Sources of Errors
Sources of errors
1. Instrumental
error
2. Personal error
Good precision, Poor precision, Good precision, 3. Natural error
poor accuracy good accuracy good accuracy

Types of errors
It happens due to carelessness, inattention,
1. Mistakes
inexperience or misjudgement
It always follows some definite mathematical or
2. Systematic errors
physical law
They are random in nature and tend to
3. Accidental errors
distribute themselves equally on both sides
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Theory of Probability
qAccidental errors follow the law of probability as these are random in nature
qBefore applying theory of probability, all the mistakes should be eliminated and all
the systematic error should be corrected

Probability Curve
§ A probability distribution is the mathematical function that gives the
probabilities of occurrence of different possible outcomes for an experiment.

Most probable value

Most Probable Value (MPV) 40
30
§ MPV of a quantity is the one that is more likely
20
to be true than any other value]
10
§ Residual = Observation – Most probable value 0
-0.4 -0.2 0 +0.2 +0.4
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Gaussian Distribution
qThe normal or Gaussian distribution is the most important of all types of distribution
1 1 (𝑥 − 𝜇)&
𝑔 𝑥 = exp −
𝜎 2𝜋 2 𝜎&

𝑥: Random variable, 𝑥', 𝑥&,…, 𝑥/

' /
𝜇: Mean or expected value, 𝐸 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥
/ 01' 0 𝜇
' -0.674𝜎 0.674𝜎
𝜎: Standard deviation= 𝐸 𝑥−𝜇 & = ∑/ 𝑥0 − 𝜇 &
/2' 01'

Most Probable Error

§ It is defined as the error for which there are equal chances that the true value
will be less than or more than the probable error
§ Most probable error, 𝐸3(= ±0.6745𝜎
§ 𝐸)( = ±1.645𝜎, 𝐸)3 = ±1.96𝜎, 𝐸)3.3 = ±2.0𝜎
Dr. Samim Mustafa
 Problem on Error Estimation
Problem 1: Measurements of a line were taken ten times with a steel tape and found to be as under:
100.54 m; 100.56m; 100.38m; 100.36 m; 100.39m; 100.46 m; 100.48 m; 100.32 m; 100.47 m;
100.52 m
Assuming that the measurements have been corrected for all systematic errors, determine
1. Standard deviation; 2. Standard error of the mean; 3. 95.5% error; 4. Most Probable value 5. Most
probable error

Dr. Samim Mustafa

 Thank You
For Your Attention
Dr. Samim Mustafa
[Link]@[Link]
[Link]
civ/people/samimciv