Publish

hed by The South Afriican Nation
nal Roads A
Agency SOC
C Ltd, © 20113 

48 Tambbotie Avenuue, Val de GGrace, Pretooria, 0184, S
South Africa
a  
P.O. Box
x 415, Preto
oria, 0001, South Africaa 
[Link] 
 
 
First edition in Afrrikaans calleed “Handleeiding vir Pa addreinerin ng” Pretoriaa, 1981 
Second edition tran nslated into
o English caalled “Manu ual on Road Drainage”   Pretoria a, 1983 
Third partly reviseed edition  Pretoriaa, 1986 
Fourth p partly revissed edition  Pretoriaa, 1993 
Fifth Ed
dition –   Fu ully revised
d and called  the “Drain nage Manual” Pretoriaa, 2006 
  2  print (inclluding correections up tto 15 Octobe
n d er 2007) Pretoriaa, 2007 
Sixth Eddition –   Fuully revised
d and extend ded Pretoriaa, 2013 
 
ISBN 9778‐0‐620‐55428‐2 (Drainage Manu ual) 
ISBN 9778‐0‐620‐55429‐9 (Drainage Manu ual Applicattion Guide – – only availlable electro
onically) 
 
Copyrig ght: 
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urpose  of  reesearch  or  private  stu
review,  as  permittted  under  the 
t Copyrig ght  Act,  thiis  publicatio
on  may  not
ot  be  reprod
duced  in 
whole, o or in part, ffor commerrcial purposses. Additio onal copies for private  use may, h however, 
be printted off the PPDF version n, obtained  from the w website, www [Link] .za 
 
The  coppyright  doees  not  exten
nd  to  the  m
methods  or  intellectual property  rrights  of  anny  of  the 
authorss. 
 
In addittion, photoccopies of th he whole, orr parts of th he publicatiion may be  made by a academic 
institutiions for studdents. 
 
Editor        Edwin Kru ger 

Sub‐ediitor      Nuno Gom
mes 

Cover d
design      Nitrogen A
Advertising & Design, JJohannesbu
urg 

Disclaimmer: 
Althoug gh  every  effort  has  been  mad de  as  to  the 
t accuraccy  and  appplicability
y  of  the 
informaation contained in thiss publicatio on (includinng supporting flash d drive and sooftware), 
the  pub
blisher,  The  South  Affrican  Natiional  Roads  Agency  SOC 
S SANRAL),  and  the 
Ltd  (S
authorss, cannot acccept any le
egal responnsibility or  liability fo
or any errorrs, omissionns or for 
any othher reason w
whatsoever.. 
 F
FOREWOR
RD

Water iss often thougght of as the source of ccivilization; hence

h the hy
ypothesis thaat the develoopment of
hydraulics is relatedd to the evollution of anccient societiees such as th
hose of Messopotamia an nd Egypt.
Owing tto the structuure of the eaarly states, w
which entaileed a closed system
s of abbsolute monaarchy and
monopolly with onlyy a small num mber of literrate scholars, the pace off technologiccal advancem ment was
cumberssome. The basket
b remained the onnly water-liffting device in Egypt uuntil the sheeduf was
introduced during thhe time of th he New Kinngdom – alm most 3 500 years
y after thhe commenccement of
agricultuure in Egyptt and 1 500 0 years afterr the rise off the nation--state. The developmen nt of the
waterwhheel and the Archimedes
A wed 1 000 years later in A
clean water sscrew follow Alexandria.

Foundedd by the Egyyptian ruler, during the PPtolemies dyynasty (323 BC to AD 330), the Mou useion in
Alexanddria hosted scholars such
h as Euclid aand Archimedes (287 to o 212 BC) w who made siignificant
advancess in mathemmatics of connes and cyliinders as weell as differeential equatioons leading to major
advancess in hydraullic engineeriing. These AAlexandrian scholars laiid the founddations of th heoretical
hydrologgy in conneection with practical
p appplications. Around
A the same time tthe Persians too had
already made an inngenious con ntribution too hydraulic engineering
e by developiing a water delivery
system kknown as qaanats – a suubterranean ssystem of tu unnels conneecting wells.. However, it is the
Romans who were innstrumental in expandingg the sciencee of hydraulic engineerinng to variouss parts of
their emppire.

Throughh the ages, civil engineers have alw ways had to o cope with h unforeseenn natural forrces. The
external forces creatted by climatic change, aand further exacerbated
e by human innduced variaables, can
unexpectedly and siggnificantly influence thee hydrologicaal cycle with h serious soccio-economic effects.
Althoughh mathematiical analysiss and modellling cannot cater for eveery eventuallity, we can certainly
attempt to scientificaally predict the behaviouur of these natural
n forcees and minimmise their im
mpacts on
our envirronment.

South AAfrica, for insstance, is knoown for its loow average annual rainfaalls and largee seasonal variations.
Despite the latter, abnormal
a raiinfalls have historically had disastro
ous consequuences. Altho ough our
problem
ms are not witthout precedeent, societiess are always inter-linked and local cattastrophes co ould have
serious rregional and national repeercussions.

The channnelling of water

w by sociieties for usaage and deveelopment hass remained aan on-going challenge
c
since the days of thhe early maathematicianns through to o modern-daay engineerss. We trust that this
Application Guide, published ass a guide to bboth studentss and practitiioners will aassist in meetting these
challengges. It must, however,
h be emphasisedd that it is meerely an aid and should uultimately no ot replace
sound enngineering annalysis and ju
udgement.

Nazir Allli
Chief Exxecutive Offiicer
The Souuth African National
N Road
ds Agency L
Limited

i Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
uide
 ACK
KNOWLED
DGEMENT
TS AND ST
TRUCTUR
RE OF THE
E DRAINA
AGE MANU
UAL

The Souuth African National

N Roaads Agency S SOC Ltd (SAANRAL) wishes to thank nk all parties involved
ge Manual (ffirst publisheed in 1981) and now
in extensively revisiing and updaating the Rooad Drainag
known aas the Drainaage Manual. The previouus editors and manual, J Bo
d authors of the original m osman, A
Roosebooom, MS Baasson, CH Loots, JH Wiiggett, assistted by ZP Kovács
K and AAM van Vuu uren (neè
Mouton)), is hereby also
a acknowlledged.

In realising the goalls of produciing a manuaal of high staandard the co-operation

c between autthors and
reviewerrs to this andd previous ed
ditions of thee manual has been criticall. All contribbutions, too numerous
n
to mentiion individuually, both big
b and smaall is gratefu ully acknowledged. We have in thee manual
endeavoured to takee differing viiews into acccount which h at times haas proven too be a challeenge. The
manual, we believe, is a summary y of both hisstorical and modern
m thougght pertaininng to drainagge.

Feedback, comments and suggeestions from users of thee previous editions of thhe manual have h been
incorporrated where possible.
p Thiis edition of tthe manual still
s covers alll the previouus backgroun nd theory
but has been extendded to includ de additionaal flood calcu ulation methhods, the annalyses and design
d of
stormwaater systems,, the hydraullic assessmeent of existin a the modeelling of free surface
ng culverts and
flows annd flood line calculations. With the fuurther expanssion of the manual
m it wass deemed neccessary to
separate the manual into two disttinct documeents; the firstt being the Drainage
D Maanual and th
he second
being thee Drainage Manual
M Appplication Gu uide.

The fronnt covers of the

t two documents are ass shown below.

Thank yyou to my feellow editors, Professor F Fanie van Vu uuren, Marco van Dijk aand Nuno Gomes
G for
their commmitment annd enthusiassm in updatiing the manu ual. The com
mpilation and
nd editing waas not an
easy taskk but has beeen completed
d with passioon and dedicaation.

Edwin KKruger
Editor
The Souuth African National
N Ro
oads Agencyy SOC Limitted

Feedbacck:

Any possitive feedbacck for possib

ble incorporaation into futu
ure editions will be appreeciated. Pleaase email
such com
mments/feedbback to the Editor
E at briddges@[Link]

ii Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
uide
 DRAINA
AGE MAN UAL APPL
LICATION
N GUIDE
Tablle of Contents
Foreworrd i
Acknow wledgementss ii
Table off Contents iii
List of ssymbols v

1 CHHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1-1

1.1 Layout off the Drainag ge Manual A Application Guide G .................................................. 1-2
2 ECONOMIC EVALUATI
E ION OF DR RAINAGE SY YSTEMS ......................................... 2-3
2.1 Example 2.1 – Net Prresent Value ............................................................................... 2-3 2
2.2 Example 2.2 – Presen nt Value ..................................................................................... 2-3 2
2.3 Example 2.3 – Internaal Rate of Reeturn (IRR)............................................................ 2-4 2
3 FLOOOD CALC CULATION NS ............................................................................................... 3-5
3.1 Worked example
e 3.1 - Small catchhment.................................................................... 3-5
3.1.1 Rational
R meth hod............................................................................................. 3-6
3.1.2 Unit
U Hydrogrraph method ............................................................................. 3-2 21
3.1.3 SDF
S method ................................................................................................. 3-2 29
3.1.4 SCS
S method ................................................................................................. 3-3 31
3.1.5 Empirical
E meethods ....................................................................................... 3-3 36
3.1.6 Comparison
C of
o solutions .............................................................................. 3-3 38
3.2 Worked example
e 3.2 - Large catchhment.................................................................. 3-3 39
3.2.1 Statistical
S meethod ........................................................................................ 3-4 42
3.2.2 SDF
S method ................................................................................................. 3-4 44
3.2.3 Empirical
E meethods ....................................................................................... 3-4 45
3.2.4 Comparisons
C of solutions ........................................................................... 3-4 46
4 HYYDRAULIC CALCULA ATIONS .................................................................................. 4-4 48
4.1 Example 4.1 - Flow characterisatiion, energy gradient g and normal
n depthh ............. 4-4 48
4.2 Example 4.2 - Graduaally varying river flow (backwater calculation – simple
sectional details) ....................................................................................................... 4-5 50
4.3 Example 4.4 – Neg gligible eneergy losses (converging g flow overr short
distance) ................................................................................................................... 4-552
4.4 Example 4.4 – Transition losses ............................................................................... 4-5 53
4.5 Example 4.5 – Identiffication of accting controls ...................................................... 4-5 54
5 SURRFACE DR RAINAGE................................................................................................... 5-5 56
5.1 Worked Example
E 5.1 - Flow depthh on the road d surface .......................................... 5-5 56
5.2 Worked Example
E 5.2 – Capacity oof side chann nel.................................................... 5-5 57
5.3 Worked Example
E 5.3 – Capacity oof drop grid inlet................................................. 5-5 58
5.4 Worked Example
E 5.4 – Kerb flow w........................................................................... 5-5 59
5.5 Worked Example
E 5.5 – Scour veloocity .................................................................... 5-6 60
5.6 Worked Example
E 5.6 – Protectionn measures ........................................................... 5-6 61
6 LOOW LEVEL CROSSING GS ............................................................................................ 6-6 62
6.1 Worked Example
E 6.1 – Low levell crossing............................................................. 6-6 62
7 LESSSER CULV VERTS AN ND STROMW WATER PIPES................................................. 7-6 68
7.1 Example 7.1 - Determ mination of thhe required culvert c size ....................................... 7-6 68
7.2 Example 7.2 - Erosion n protection downstream m from a culvert ............................... 7-7 77
8 BRRIDGES AND D MAJOR CULVERTS C S ......................................................................... 8-8 83
8.1 Worked Example
E 8.1 – Backwaterr at a bridge ........................................................ 8-8 83
8.2 Worked Example
E 8.2 – Scour at a bridge ................................................................ 8-8 89
9 STOORMWATE ER ANALY YSES AND D DESIGN ........................................................... 9-10 00
9.1 Example 9.1 – Pipe fllow ........................................................................................ 9-10 00
9.2 Example 9.2 – Introdu uction to usinng EPASWM MM ................................................ 9-10 02

iii Drainage manual – Ap

pplication Gu
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10 ASS SESSMENT T OF HYDR RAULIC CA APACITY OF EXISTIING DRAIN NAGE
STRRUCTURES S ............................................................................................................. 10-13
32
10.11 Example 10.1 – Levell pool routinng ..................................................................... 10-13 32
10.22 Example 10.2 – Levell pool routinng trough a cu ulvert (inlet controlled)
c .............. 10-13
35
11 FRE EE SURFACE FLOW DETERMIN NATION........................................................ 11-14 47
11.11 Basic floood line determination (HE EC-RAS) ........................................................ 11-14 47
11.22 Setting-upp a HEC-R RAS modell (river secction, bridge and weirr) and
performinng unsteady flow analysi s...................................................................... 11-18 81
12 SUB B-SURFAC CE DRAINA AGE...................................................................................... 12-24 42
12.11 Example 12.1 - Herrin ngbone drainnage system .................................................... 12-24 42

AP
PPENDICE
ES

Appendiix 3A - STATIS
STICAL ANA ALYSIS
Appendiix 3B - STANDARD DESIG GN FLOOD METHOD
Appendiix 3C - STANDARD FLOO OD CALCULLATION FOR
RMS
Appendiix 3D - QT/QRMFF RATIOS FO
OR DIFFER
RENT CATC
CHMENT AR
REAS
Appendiix 3E - SCS-SA
A ADDITION NAL INFORRMATION

iv Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
uide
 LIST
T OF SYMB
BOLS

Chapter 2
F = fuuture value
i = annnual discou unt rate as a ddecimal fracttion
IRR = innternal rate of
o return techhnique
n = d
discount perio
od in years
NPV = n present vaalue
net
r = raate at which the left-handd and right-h hand sides off the equatioon are equal, resulting
inn a NPV of zero
z

Chapter 3
a = constant
A = arrea of catchm ment (km²)
ARF = arrea reduction n factor (%)
ARFiT = arrea reduction n factor (%)
b = constant
C = ruun-off coeffiicient (dimennsionless)
C = catchment parrameter withh regard to reeaction time
C1 = ruun-off coeffiicient for ruraal area with a value betw ween zero andd one
C1D = ruural run-off coefficient
c inncorporating the effect off dolomites
C1T = ruural run-off coefficient inncorporating g the effect ofo dolomites and initial saturation
s
faactor
C100 = calibration co oefficient (SD DF method)
C2 = calibration co oefficient (SD DF method)
C2 = ruun-off coeffiicient for urbban area with h a value betw ween zero annd one
C3 = ruun-off coeffiicient for lakkes with a vallue between zero and onee
CN = C
Curve Numbeer
CNf = F
Final Curve Number
N
CNw = C
Curve Numbeer for wet coonditions
CN-II = reetardance facctor approxim mated by thee initial Curve Number unnadjusted forr
anntecedent soil moisture
CP = ruun-off coeffiicient accordding to averag ge soil permeeability
CS = ruun-off coeffiicient accordding to averag ge catchment slope
CT = combined run n-off coefficiient for T-year return period (dimensiionless)
CV = ruun-off coeffiicient accordding to averag ge vegetal grrowth
D = sttorm duration (hours)
F = laag coefficiennt
FT = adjustment faactor for initi al saturation n for return peeriod T
fiT = fllood run-off factor (%)
H = h
height (m)
H = h
height of mosst remote poiint above outtlet of catchm ment (m)
H0,10L = ellevation heig ght at 10% off the length of o the waterccourse (m)
H0,85L = ellevation heig ght at 85% off the length of o the waterccourse (m)
heiT = effective rainffall (mm)
I = raainfall intenssity (mm/houur)
Ia = innitial losses (abstractions
( s) prior to thee commencem ment of storm
mflow, compprising of
d
depression sto
orage, interceeption and in nitial infiltrattion (mm)
IT = avverage rainfaall intensity ffor return peeriod T (mm//h)
K = reegional constant
KRP = constant for T-year
T returnn period
KT = constant for T-year
T returnn period
Ku = d
dimensionless s factor
l = h
hydraulic leng
gth of catchm ment along th he main chan nnel (m)

v Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
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L = h
hydraulic leng
gth of catchm ment (waterccourse length
h) (km)
L = catchment lag g time (h)
LC = d
distance fromm outlet to cenntroid of catcchment area (km)
M = 2-year return period dailyy rainfall from m TR102
MAP = m
mean annual precipitation
p n (mm/a)
n = leength of reco ord (years)
P = m
mean annual rainfall
r (mmm/annum)
P = probability (% %)
P = d
daily rainfall depth (mm)), usually in nput as a onee-day designn rainfall forr a given
reeturn period
P1 = probability off at least one exceedence during the design
d life
PAvgT = avverage rainfaall over the ccatchment fo or the T-year return periodd (mm)
PAvgiT = avverage rainfaall for T-yearar storm duration (mm)
PiT = point intensity y for the retuurn period T (mm/h)
PT = point rainfall for the returnn period T (m mm)
Pt,T = thhe precipitatiion depth forr a duration of
o t minutes and
a a return period of T years
y
qp = peak discharg ge (m3/s)
Q = peak discharg ge (m³/s)
Q = sttormflow dep pth (mm)
Qe = peak discharg ge of unit hyddrograph (m³³/s)
QiT = peak discharg ge for T-yearr return perio
od (m³/s)
Qp = u hydrograaph peak disccharge (m³/s))
unit
QRMF = reegional maxiimum flood ppeak flow raate (m³/s)
QT = peak discharg ge for T-yearr return perio
od (m³/s)
r = rooughness coeefficient
R = avverage numb ber of days pper year on which
w thunderr was heard ((days/year)
S = potential max ximum soil w water retentio
on (mm),
Sav = avverage slopee (m/m)
T = tiime (hours)
T = reeturn period (years)
TC = tiime of conceentration (houurs)
TL = laag time L (ho ours)
Tp = tiime to peak (hours)
(
TSD = sttorm duration (hours)
t = d
duration (minnutes)
α = arrea distributiion factor
β = arrea distributiion factor
γ = arrea distributiion factor
qp = peak discharg ge of incremeental unit hyd drograph (m3/s)
Q = inncremental stormflow dep epth (mm)
D = u duration of time, usedd with the distribution off daily rainfalll to accountt for
unit
raainfall intenssity variationns (hours)
30 = 30-minute raiinfall intensitty for the 2-yyear return period (mm/hh)

Chapter 4
A = seectional areaa (m²)
A1 = uupstream secttional area (m m²)
A2 = d
downstream sectional
s areaa (m²)
B = frree surface width
w of crosss section (m))
C = C
Chézy constant
E = sppecific energgy (m)
Fr = F
Froude number

vi Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
uide
g = ggravitational acceleration
a (m/s²)
hl = trransition losss (m)
hf = frriction lossess (m)
ks = m
measure of ab
bsolute roughhness (m)
L = d
distance (m)
P = w
wetted perimeeter (m)
q = d
discharge per unit width ((m³/s/m)
Q = d
discharge (m³³/s)
rc = centre line rad dius (m)
R = h
hydraulic radiius i.e. area ddivided by wetted
w perimeeter (m)
Re = R
Reynolds nummber
So = B slope (m//m)
Bed
S = ennergy slope, which is equual to bed slo ope only wheen flow is unniform (m/m)
v = u
uniform channel velocity (m/s)
v = avverage veloccity (m/s)
vc = crritical flow velocity
v (m/ss)
y = d
depth of flow measured peerpendicularr to the stream mbed (m)
y = d
distance betw
ween water suurface and ceentre of graviity of sectionn (m)
yc = crritical flow depth
d (m)
yn = n
normal/unifor rm flow deptth (m)
z = bed level at point where ddepth of flow w = y (m)
γ = sppecific weigh ht (value forr water 9,8 x 103 N/m3)
Δx = d
distance (m)
ρ = m density = 1 000 kg/m
mass m3 for water
υ = k
kinematic viscosity (≈ 1,114 x 10-6 m²/ss for water)

Chapter 5
A = effective cross-sectional pplan area of thet opening (m²)
(
A = crross sectionaal area (m²)
B = tootal flow wid dth (m)
C = innlet coefficieent (0,6 for shharp edges or
o 0,8 for rou
unded edges)
C = C
Chézy constant
CD = d
discharge coeefficient
d = fllow depth off water (mm))
D = d
depth of flow (m)
d1 = particle size (m)
d2 = siide slope parrticle size (m m)
E = sppecific energ gy (m)
F = blockage factor (say, 0,5)
Fr = F
Froude number
H = tootal energy head
h above ggrid (m)
H = ennergy head ≈ flow depthh for upstream m conditionss (m)
H = h
head (m)
I = raainfall intenssity (mm/h)
KL = d
discharge coeefficient
Lf = leength of floww path (m)
n = M
Manning rougghness valuee (s/m1/3)
n1 = rooad crossfalll (%)
n2 = rooad gradient (%)
P = w
wetted parammeter (m)
Q = d
discharge (m³³/s)
R = h
hydraulic radiius i.e. area ddivided by wetted
w perimeeter (m)
s = ennergy gradieent (m/m)

vii Drainage manual – Ap

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S = bed slope (m//m)
Sf = sllope of flow path (m/m)
v = avverage veloccity (m/s)
W = w
width of road
dway (m)
y = d
depth of flow at deepest ppoint (m)

Chapter 6
Aover = arrea of flow over
o structuree at the flow depth selectted (m²)
Aeff = thhe effective inlet
i area thrrough the struucture (m²)
B = thhe width of the channel ( or the length h of the structure) (m)
d = d
depth of flow over the struucture (m)
D = thhe height of the
t soffit of tthe deck abo ove the river invert level ((m)
fi = a dimensionleess factor rel ated to the design
d level
Fr = F
Froude number
g = g
gravitational acceleration
a (9,81 m/s²)
LB = thhe total widthh of the deckk of the struccture (m)
n = M
Manning n-vaalue (s/m1/3)
nconcrete = M
Manning rougghness coeffi ncrete (s/m1/3)
ficient of con
nriver = M
Manning rougghness coeffi ficient of the river bed (s//m1/3)
Pcell = thhe total wetteed perimeterr of each cell (m)
Pconcrete = thhe part of thee wetted periimeter that haas a concretee surface perr cell (m)
Peff = Σ Pcell (effectiv t flow passsing through the structuree) (m)
ve wetted peerimeter for the
Pover = w
wetted perimeeter at the floow depth selected (m)
Priver = thhe part of thee wetted periimeter that iss made up by y the riverbedd per cell (m)
Q2 = d
discharge with a 1:2 year return period d (m³/s)
Qdesign = d
design dischaarge (m³/s)
Qover = d
discharge oveer the structuure within thee selected flo
ow depth (m³³/s)
Qunder = d
discharge cap
pacity of the oopenings thrrough the stru ucture (m³/s))
R = h
hydraulic radiius (m)
S0 = sllope in direction of flow (m/m)
v under = avverage veloccity of flow tthrough the structure
s (m/ss)
x = thhickness of th he deck (deppending on th he structural design outcoome) (m)

Chapter 7
A = crross sectionaal area (m²)
B = width (inside of culvert) ((m)
w
CB = innlet coefficieent for culverrts
Ch = innlet coefficieent for culverrts
D = innside diameter (m)
D = h
height (insidee of culvert) ((m)
Fr = F
Froude number
h f 1 2 = frriction lossess between crooss-section 1 and 2 (m)
 h 1 1 2 = trransition lossses between cross-section n 1 and 2 (m)
H1 = u
upstream enerrgy level, rellative to the invert
i level (m)
(
H2 = d
downstream energy
e level,, relative to th
he invert lev
vel (m)
Kin = innlet secondarry loss coeffi ficients
Kout = outlet secondaary loss coeffficients
R = h
hydraulic radiius i.e. area ddivided by wetted
w perimeeter (m)
S0 = n
natural slope (m/m)
Sc = crritical slope (m/m), wherre Fr = 1
v = avverage veloccity (m/s)
yn = n
normal flow depth
d (m)
yc = crritical flow depth
d (m)

viii Drainage manual – Ap

pplication Gu
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Chapter 8
A1 = fllow area at section 1 (m²))
A4 = fllow area at section 4 (m²))
An = fllow area at for
fo normal floow condition ns (m²)
An2 = projected flow w area at connstricted section 2 below normal wateer level (m²)
B = m
mean channell width (m)
Bn = m
mean channell width for noormal flow conditions
c (m
m)
Bn = tootal flow wid dth for the noormal stage (m)(
b = pier width (m m)
C = C
Chézy coefficcient
Cb = backwater coeefficient
D = fllow depth (m m)
d50 = avverage particcle diameter (m)
D50 = m
median size of
o bed materiial (m)
davg = avverage depth h in the mainn channel
Dc = crritical particlle size for thhe critical vellocity Vc (m))
ds = loocal scour deepth at pier (m m)
Es = sppecific energ gy (m)
FD = d
distance of the design floood, QT, below w a deck sofffit (undersidee of deck) (m
m)
Fr = F
Froude number
Fr1 = F
Froude number directly uppstream of th he pier
Fs = siide factor to describe bannk resistancee to scour
FSBP = frreeboard to shoulder
s breaakpoint (m)
g = g
gravitational acceleration
a (9,81 m/s2)
h* = backwater dam mming heighht, afflux (m m)
h*1A = backwater dam mming heighht abnormal stage conditiions (m)
ks = abbsolute roug ghness of riveer bed (m)
K* = seecondary eneergy loss coeefficient
K = pier shape coeefficient (1,55 for round-n nosed and 1,77 for rectangu
gular piers)
K = faactor appliedd for abutmennts
K1 = a factor defined
K1 = correction forr pier nose shhape
K2 = correction facctor for anglee of attack off flow
K3 = correction facctor for bed ccondition
K4 = correction facctor for armoouring due to o bed materiaal size
L = pier length (m m)
n = M
Manning’s oefficient of rroughness (ss/m1/3)
co
Q = tootal dischargge (m³/s)
Q = equivalent steeady dischargge which wo ould generatee the channell geometry (m m³/s)
QT = d
design flood (m³/s)
(
Q2T = twwice the recu urrence intervval design flood (m³/s)
S = ennergy slope (m/m)
s = sppecific graviity of soil parrticles
SF = reequired stabiility factor too be applied
q = d
discharge per unit width ((m³/s.m)
q = d
discharge thro
ough the subb-channel (m³/s.m)
V = v
velocity on piier (m/s)
vi = avverage veloccity through ssub-channel (a, b or c)
v1 = avverage veloccity through S m/s)
Section 1 (m
v1 = m
mean velocity
y upstream oof the pier (m
m/s)
v1 = avverage appro
oach velocityy (m/s)
v 2A = avverage veloccity in constrriction during
g abnormal stage
s conditioons (m/s)

ix Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
uide
v 2c = avverage critical velocity inn constriction
n (m/s)
v n2 = avverage flow velocity at ssection 2 baseed on An2
va = avverage veloccity in the maain channel
V* = shhear velocity y (m/s)
V*c = crritical shear velocity (m//s)
Vi = appproach velo ocity when pparticles at piier begin to move
m (m/s)
V = chharacteristic average veloocity in the contracted
c seection (m/s)
Vss = particle settlin ng velocity (m m/s)
VR = v
velocity ratio
Vc50 = crritical velociity for D50 beed material size (m/s)
Vc90 = crritical velociity for D90 beed material size (m/s)
y = m
mean depth of flow (m)
y = d
depth of flow in the contraacted bridge opening (m))
y = projected norm mal flow deppth in the con nstriction (m
m)
y0 = d
depth upstream of pier (m m)
y1 = fllow depth dirrectly upstreeam of pier (m m)
y2 = fllow depth un nder bridge (m m)
y2c = crritical depth in constricti on (m)
ys = sccour depth (m m)
Yt = tootal maximum m scour deptth (m)
Y0 = m
maximum genneral scour ddepth (m)
Ys = loocal scour deepth (m)
α1 = v
velocity coeffficient
α2 = v
velocity head coefficient ffor the consttriction
θ = bank angle wiith the horizoontal (°)
ρ = d
density of waater (kg/m3)
ρd = d bulk denssity (kg/m3)
dry
ρs = saaturated bulk k density (kgg/m3)
φ = riiprap angle of o repose (°)
τc = crritical tractiv
ve stress for sscour to occuur (N/m²)
ν = k
kinematic fluiid viscosity ((m²/s)

Chapter 9
A = fuull-flow areaa (m²)
A1, A2 = fuull-flow areaa for the inlett pipe and ou
utflow pipe (m
m²)
D = pipe inner diaameter (m)
g = g
gravitational acceleration
a (9,81 m2/s)
h = d
difference in elevation beetween the hiighest incom
ming pipe invvert and the centreline
c
of the outlet pipe
p (m)
hf1-2 = frriction lossess between crooss-section 1 and 2 (m)
hL = m
minor loss (m
m)
hl1-2 = seecondary lossses betweenn cross-sectio on 1 and 2 (m
m)

k = minor loss coefficient

m
ks = abbsolute roug ghness of connduit (m)
n = coefficient off roughness ( s/m1/3)
P = w
wetted perimeeter (m)
Q = fllow rate (m³//s)
R = h
hydraulic radiius (m) – A/P
P
S = sllope of the energy grade line (m/m)
v1 , v2 = v
velocity ow in the inleet pipe and outflow
of flo o pipess (m/s)
yc = crritical depth (m)

x Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
uide
z1, z2 = innvert elevatio
ons of the infflow pipes reelative to thee outlet pipe iinvert (m)
γ = sppecific weighht (value forr water 9,8 x 103 N/m3)
ν = k
kinematic viscosity (m²/s))

Chapter 10
D = v
vertical dimen
nsion of the eexisting culv
vert.
dS
= thhe change in storage overr the time steep of dt (m3)
dt
I = avverage inflow w (m³/s)
N = auuxiliary funcction (m³/s)
O = outflow throu ugh culvert (m m³/s)
O = avverage outflo ow (m³/s)
QT0 = d
design flood for the desiggn return peeriod which was w obtainedd from the review
r of
thhe road classsification, RCC0 and the ind
dex flood, Q20
2 (m³/s).
QC1 = m
maximum caalculated exiisting inlet capacity
c of the culvert bby limiting the total
ennergy head tot 1,2D (m³/ss)
QC2 = m
maximum callculated currrent existing hydraulic caapacity of thhe culvert byy limiting
thhe total energgy head to bee equal to thee shoulder brrake point lev
evel (SBP) (mm³/s)
QT1 = d
design flood for the desiggn return peeriod which was w obtainedd from the review
r of
thhe road classsification, RCC-1and the ind
dex flood, Q20
2 (m³/s)
Q20 = inndex flood foor the contribbuting catchm ment with a return
r periodd of 20 years (m³/s)
Q2T0 = fllow rate relaated to a retuurn period tw wice that whhich was obbtained for th he design
fllood, QT0 (mm³/s)
Q2T1 = fllood rate related to a retturn period twice
t that which was obbtained for th he design
fllood, QT1 (mm³/s)
RC0 = original road classificationn
RC-1 = reeflects the selection
s of a road classsification which
w is onee class less than that
d
determined fo
or the road
S = teemporal storaage or pondiing volume (m³)
S = suum of the stoorage volumee of the prism m and the weedge (m3)
T = d
design return period
Tc = tiime of conceentration (h)
Ts = tootal time durring the routting of the fllood when th he upstream energy head d is more
thhan 1,2D (h)
VT1 = m
maximum stoorage volum me upstream of the culv vert assuminng level-poo ol routing
conditions an nd an inflow hydrograph with a peak flow rate off QT1 and a triangular
t
d
distribution with
w a base w a the peak discharge occcurring at Tc (m³)
width of 3Tc and
Vstorm = calculated sto orm volume based on thee assumption n of an infloow hydrograp ph with a
peak flow rate of QT1 andd a triangularr distribution n with a basee width of 3T Tc and the
peak discharg ge occurring at Tc (m³)
x = a dimensionleess weightinng factor ind dicating the relative
r impoortance of th
he inflow
(II) and the ou
utflow (O) in determining g the storage (S) in the reaach
ΔS = chhange in storrage volume (m³)
Δt = tiime step thatt is used (s)
I1  I 2
Δ
Δt = avverage volum
metric inflow
w (m³)
2
O1  O 2
Δt = avverage volum
metric outfloow (m³)
2

Chapter 11
A = crross sectionaal flow area ((m)
B = toop width (m))
dy = chhange in watter depth (m))

xi Drainage manual – Ap
pplication Gu
uide
dx = ddistance over which changge occurs (m m)
Esc = sppecific minimmum energy (m)
Fr = F
Froude number
g = g
gravitational acceleration
a (m/s²)
h = sttage height (m)
Q = fllow rate (m³//s)
S = bed slope (m//m)
Sc = crritical slope (m/m)
Sf = reepresents thee slope of thee total energy
y line
S0 = bed slope (m//m)
V = m
mean cross-seectional veloocity
y = fllow depth (mm)
yc = crritical flow depth
d (m)
yn = n
normal flow depth
d (m)
α = v
velocity coeffficient
Es = sppecific energgy (m)

Chapter 12
A = suurface area (m2)
Ag = g
geotextile areea available ffor flow (m²))
At = tootal geotextille area (m²)
AOS = appparent open ning size (mm m)
B = a coefficient (dimensionle
( ess)
B = w
width of colleector drain (m m)
Cu = thhe uniformity y coefficientt
d = d
diameter of piipe (m)
D85 = sooil particle size for whichh 85% of opeenings are sm maller (mm)
Dx = thhe sieve size through whiich x% of thee material paasses (mm)
g = loongitudinal slope
s of the rroad (m/m)
i = h
hydraulic graddient (m/m)
I = d
design infiltraation rate (mm
mm/h)
k = D
Darcy coefficcient of perm meability (m/ss) and
ks = permeability of o material (m m/day)
kb = permeability of o an open-ggraded layer (m/day)
kt = permeability of o the channnel backfill (m
m/day)
L = leength of the pipe
p (m)
L = leength of paviing (1 m widde) subject to o infiltration (m)
1/3
n = M
Manning’s n (s/m )
nb = porosity of an n open-gradeed layer
O95 = opening size in i geotextile for which 95% of openin ngs are smalller (mm)
P = 1h duration/1 year return pperiod rainfaall intensity (mm/h)
(
q = d
drainage rate (mm/day)
q = d
discharge per meter widthh (m3/s.m)
S = sppacing (m)
S = crross-slope off a drainage llayer (m/m)
So = sllope of the pipe
p (m/m)
t = d
depth of flow in material ((mm)
T = d
drainage perio od for layer ((h)
tb = thhickness of drainage
d layeer (mm)
tb = effective thick kness of draiin layer (mm
m)
W = w
width of the drainage
d layeer (m)
ψ = g
geotextile perrmittivity

xii Drainage manual – Ap

pplication Gu
uide
1 CHAPTE
ER 1 - INTR
RODUCTIION

The SAN NRAL Drainage Manuaal had a maj ajor update ini 2006 whiich includedd additional chapters,
worked examples annd links to ap pplicable draainage softw
ware. SANRA AL decided tto revise andd upgrade
the manuual to be useed as a user tool for all ppersons invo
olved in the design of dra
rainage structures and
systems.. The purposse of the Draainage Manuual (cover sh hown in Figuure 1.1) is too provide a reference
documennt with regarrd to drainagge and to dem nd reference some softwaare for the modelling
monstrate an m
and anallysis of drainnage problem
ms.

The nummerous workeed exampless were well rreceived by industry

i w as acadeemia whom prescribe
as well
the Draiinage Manuaal as part of the Civil enngineering cu
urriculum that it was dec
ecided to exp
pand this.
The docuument was split
s into the Drainage M Manual and the
t Drainagee Manual Appplication Gu uide (this
documennt).

Figure 1.1: SA
ANRAL Dra
ainage Manu
ual

The Draainage Manual Applicatio

on Guide conntains the folllowing:

 Hand calcullations of typ

pical problem
ms.

 Reference too applicable software uti lities and useer manuals for
fo the prograams.

 Step-by-stepp worked exaamples usingg freeware so

oftware prog
grams.

1-1 Introducttion
1.1 Layout of the Drainage Manual Application Guide

The Drainage Manual Application Guide contains twelve chapters. The focuses in the different
chapters are:

Chapter 1: Provides an introduction to the Drainage Manual Application Guide.

Chapter 2: Review the economic considerations.

Chapter 3: Illustrate the various flood calculation methods for different recurrence intervals.

Chapter 4: Reflects basic hydraulic calculations.

Chapter 5: Demonstrates surface drainage design.

Chapter 6: Hydraulic analysis of low-level crossings.

Chapter 7: Contains analysis and design details for lesser culverts and storm water pipes.

Chapter 8: Focuses on bridges and major culverts and scour at these structures.

Chapter 9: Storm water analyses and design.

Chapter 10: Assessment of hydraulic capacity of existing drainage structures and the application of
flood routing.

Chapter 11: Free surface flow determination.

Chapter 12: Discusses sub-surface drainage.

It is trusted that the document will provide valuable assistance in the design of drainage systems.
References to all the figures and literature can be found in the Drainage Manual

1-2 Introduction
2 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

The following three simple examples have been included to illustrate the use of the economic
evaluation procedures. The supporting software is capable of determining the NPV, IRR and LCA for
more complex income and expenditure streams. It is suggested that the supporting software be used to
conduct sensitivity analyses.

2.1 Example 2.1 – Net Present Value

Evaluate which of the future income streams S1 or S2 is more favourable if the cost of capital is 10%
on a yearly basis and the amounts realize at the beginning of the year.

Year S1 S2
1 250 100
2 350 400
3 600 350
4 100 600
5 400 250

Solution Example 2.1

If you assume year 1 to be the base year then the NPV’s of the two income streams are:
NPVS1 = R1 412.39
NPVS2 = R1 374.43

These calculations reflect that the income stream S1 is more favourable when comparing the Net
Present Values (NPV).

The NPV was calculated using the following formula:

F
NPV  …(2.1)
1  i n
Where:
F = future value
i = interest rate
n = periods

Each future value was brought back to present values and accumulated to obtain the total NPV for
each income stream.

2.2 Example 2.2 – Present Value

Determine the current investment that should be made for the replacement of a R1,5 million
installation (current cost) after 15 years, if the expected CPIX is 15 % and the return on a fixed
investment is 8% p.a.

Solution Example 2.2

Firstly the future value (F) of the investment should be determined. The current installation (P) is
worth R1 500 000 and the escalation will be 15 % for a 15-year period.

F  P 1  i 
n
…(2.2)

2-3 Economic analysis

F  1 500 000 1  0,15  R12 205 592
15

Now the current investment (P) should be calculated by discounting the future required value (F) by
8% per annum for the 15-year period.

F
P …(2.3)
1  i n
12 205 592
P  R3 847 712
1  0,0815
2.3 Example 2.3 – Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

Determine the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) for the following cash flow.

Year Cash flow

0 -1 300
1 250
2 350
3 600
4 100
5 400

Solution Example 2.3

The internal rate of return is the rate where the NPVincome = NPVexpenditure

250 350 600 100 400

NPVincome      …(2.4)
1  i 1  i 1  i 1  i 1  i5
1 2 3 4

1300
NPVexpenditure  …(2.5)
1  i 0
Equation (2.11) = Equation (2.12)

250 350 600 100 400 1300

    
1  i 1  i 1  i 1  i 1  i 1  i0
1 2 3 4 5

Solving from this equation for “i”

IRR = 9,525%

2-4 Economic analysis

3 FLOOD CALCULA
C ATIONS

The mainn aim of thiss section is to

o provide thee reader with h a step-by-step explanattion of the prrocedures
used to ccalculate floood magnitudees for differeent return perriods.

In the tw
wo paragraphhs below, flo ood peaks w will be calculated for a smmall as well as a large catchment
c
using thee various releevant determ
ministic, statisstical and em
mpirical meth
hods.

3.1 Worked exxample 3.1 - Small catch

hment

The firstt worked exxample refleccts the floodd calculation

n for a small bridge on the Moretelle Spruit,
which ruuns through the
t eastern part of Pretoriia in a north--westerly dirrection (see F
Figure 3.1).

The smaall bridge, ass shown in Figure

F n Pretoria Eaast (locationn indicated on Figure
3.2, is located in
3.1). Thhe flooding ofo the bridge has to be annalysed for thhe 1:20 year and 1:50 yeear recurrencee interval
flood peeaks to deterrmine the rissk of floodinng Hans Strijjdom Drive, which has bbecome an important
i
artery inn the eastern suburbs
s of Pretoria.
P

Figgure 3.1: Moretele

M Spru
uit catchmen
nt area (sho
own on a 1:5
50 000 topoggraphical ma
ap)

3-5 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.2: Small Brridge acrosss the Moreteele Spruit (H
Hans Strijdoom Drive)

3.1.1 Rational method

m

Data reqquirements

The Ratiional methodd requires thee following ddata:

 Area off catchment

 Length of longest watercourse
w an
and average slope
s to calcu
ulate time off concentratioon
 Catchm
ment characterristics to calcculate run-offf coefficientts
 Mean annnual precipitation and raainfall regionn to determinne average raainfall intenssity

Calculattion proceduure

Step 1: Determine the catchment area (km²²).

Topographhical maps (1 1: 50 000) aare normallyy used to dettermine the area of a caatchment.
However, thet accuracy and contourr intervals on n these mapss are not alwa ways as requirred and it
is often usseful to obtaain 1: 10 0000 maps, if available.
a Ortho-photogr
O graphs should d also be
used, if avvailable. Usee graph papeer or a planiimeter to dettermine the total catchm ment area,
which will contribute to o the peak fllow. Pans orr areas that are artificiallyy isolated should thus
be excludedd.

The use off Geographical Informatioon Systems (GIS)

( has peermeated almmost every fieeld in the
engineeringg, natural an
nd social sciiences. GIS do not inheerently havee all the hyd drological
o, but are useed to determine many
simulation capabilities that complexx hydrologiccal models do
of the catcchment parammeters that hhydrologicall models or design floodd estimation methods
require. Otther software applicationns such AuttoCAD could also be ussed to deterrmine the
catchment area.

3-6 Fllood calculatiions

 The catchm
ment area off the Moretelle Spruit up to the smalll bridge is 228,5 km² as shown in
Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Deetermined catchment arrea

Step 2: Determine the length of the longestt watercoursee (km).

ment area as rrequired for Step 1, the longest waterrcourse and its length
For the deffined catchm
are determiined. The length of the w
watercourse for
f this exammple is L = 7,
7,25 km.

Step 3: Determine the average slope of the longest wateercourse.

Utilising thhe 10-85 metthod (m/m) aas developed d by the US Geological SSurvey, and tested by
the UK Institute of Hy ydrology, caalculate the average slop
pe. A longittudinal profiile of the
Moretele Spruit
S along the
t longest wwatercourse is shown in Figure
F 3.4.

H 0,855L  H 0,10L
Sav  … (3.1)
1 00000,75L
where:
Sav = averagee slope (m/m m)
H0,100L = elevatioon height at 10% of the length of the watercoursee (m)
H0,855L = elevatioon height at 85% of the length of the watercoursee (m)
L = length of watercourrse (km)
The elevatiion at 10% ofo the lengthh of the long ourse is H0,100L = 1 412,1 m and at
gest waterco
85% of thee length the elevation
e is H 0,85L = 1 528
8,8 m.

The calcculated averaage slope for this examplee is 0,02146 m/m.

3-7 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.4
4: Longitudiinal profile of
o the Moretele Spruit

Step 4: Calculate the time off concentratiion from caatchment ch haracteristics . The recom
mmended
empirical formula
f for calculating the time off concentration in naturaal channels has been
developed by the US Sooil Conservaation Servicees.
0,385
 00,87L2 
Τ C    … (3.2)
 1 000 S av 
where:
TC = time off concentratioon (hours)
L = length of watercourrse (km)
Sav = averagee slope (m/m m)

In most caases the long gest water ppath includess both overland and chaannel flows. In large
catchmentss the channel flow is uusually dom minant, but in small caatchments it may be
necessary to
t determinee TC as the ssum of the flow
f times fo
or both the ooverland and d channel
flow stretcches. To obttain a broadd indication, it may usu ually be acccepted that a defined
watercoursse exists wheen the averagge slope of th
he catchmentt is greater thhan 5 per cen
nt and the
catchment itself is largeer than 5 km²
m².

The time of concentratiion of the Mooretele Spruiit up to the sp

pecific pointt is TC = 1,33
38 hours.

Step 5: Obtain the mean annual precipitattion (MAP), from the So

outh Africann Weather Service or
from the sim
mplified Fig
gure 3.5.

When theree are two orr more rainfaall stations in

n the catchm
ment area thee Thiessen method
m or
weighted area
a method can
c be used to determinee the representative rainfafall for the caatchment.
ment area in this examplle contains one
The catchm o rainfall station withiin the catchm ment and
two adjacennt as shown in Figure 3. 6.

3-8 Fllood calculatiions

 Fiigure 3.5: M
Mean Annuall Precipitatiion

Figure 3.6:
3 Rainfalll stations ussed in determ
mining the representati
r ive MAP

3-9 Fllood calculatiions

 The weighted area method was used to determine the representative mean annual
precipitation as shown in Table 3.16 based on the applicable areas. All the stations in this
example are located in a straight line and thus the Thiessen method could not be utilized in
this example.

Table 3.1: Mean annual precipitation of catchment area

Weather Service rainfall Latitude Longitude MAP Area
station D M D M (mm) (km²)
0513529 – Garsfontein 25° 49' 28° 18' 771,8 16,53
0513531 - Rietvlei Agr. 25° 51' 28° 18' 714,0 9,69
0513528 - Constantia Park 25° 48' 28° 18' 702,5 2,28
Total 746,6 28,5

Also determine the rainfall region in which the catchment falls.

The mean annual precipitation (MAP) for this catchment is 746,6 mm (see Table 3.1) and
the catchment is located in the inland region.

Historically there have been a number of ways in which the rainfall intensity could be
determined. These alternative methods have been retained in this document although the latest
method using the Design Rainfall Estimation Software is recommended (Alternative 3).

 Alternative 1 – Original method using Depth-Duration-Frequency Diagram.

 Alternative 2 – The TR102 representative rainfall data and the modified Hershfield equation
is used (in the past this was referred to as the Alternative Rational Method).

 Alternative 3 – The design rainfall from the Design Rainfall Estimation software is used to
determine the point rainfall of the catchment.

Alternative 1
Step 6a: Determine the point rainfall values (PT) (mm) for the required return periods. Based on the
mean annual precipitation (MAP), the rainfall region, the time of concentration (TC) and the
required return period, Figure 3.7 can be used to determine the point rainfall. As shown in
Figure 3.7 the point rainfall for the 1:20 year and 1:50 year return periods are determined
using the co-axial Depth-Duration-Frequency diagram.

The point rainfall for the 1:20 and 1:50 year return periods is P20 = 78 mm and P50 = 104 mm
respectively.

Step 7a: Calculate the point intensity (mm/hour)

The point intensity (PiT) is the point rainfall divided by the time of concentration (if TC >
0,25 hours). If TC ≤ 0,25 hours divide by 0,25 hours.
PT
PiT  … (3.3)
TC
where:
PiT = point intensity for the different return periods (mm/h)
PT = point rainfall (mm)
TC = time of concentration (hours)

The point intensities for the 1:20 and 1:50 year return periods are Pi20 = 58,3 mm/h and
Pi50 = 77,7 mm/h respectively.

3-10 Flood calculations

 Figure 3.7: Dettermining th
he point rain
nfall utilizin
ng Depth-Du
uration-Freqquency diagram

Step 8a:: Determine the area redu

uction factorrs (ARF) for the differentt return perioods.

In this exam
mple the catcchment area is small and
d thus Figuree 3.8 is usedd. The resultiing ARFs
are ARF20 = 94% and ARF
A 50 = 91% % for the 1:20 and 1:50 years
y return pperiods respeectively.

3-11 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.8: Expeected percen
ntage run-offf as a functiion of point intensity (sm
mall areas),, ARF

Step 9a:: Determine the average rainfall intennsity or effecctive catchmeent precipitaation.
 ARFT 
I T  PiT   … (3.4)
 100 
w
where:
IT = rainfall inntensity averraged over th he catchmennt in millimeetres/hour
for the retturn period T.
T
ARFT = area reducction factor asa a percentaage for returnn period T (sshould be
smaller thhan 100%)
PiT = point intennsities for th
he different reeturn periodss (mm/h)

The averrage rainfall intensities arre I20 = 54,79

79 mm/h and I50 = 70,71 mm/h.
m

3-12 Fllood calculatiions

Alternative 2

Step 6b: Determine the representative rainfall from the available TR102 South African Weather
Service stations in and around the catchment (see Table 3.2).

Table 3.2: Representative rainfall station from TR102

Weather Service station Pretoria (The Willows)
Weather Service station no 513524
Mean annual precipitation 647 mm
Coordinates 25° 44' 28° 18'
Duration Return period
(days) 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
1 day 60 83 101 121 150 175 202
2 days 75 105 129 155 192 224 259
3 days 83 117 143 171 211 245 282
7 days 110 160 199 241 303 355 412

Step 7b: Based on the calculated time of concentration and representative rainfall, determine the
precipitation depth. In this example the time of concentration is 80 minutes, in other words
less than 6 hours, and thus the modified Hershfield relationship will be used.


Pt,T  1,130,41  0,64lnT  0,11  0,27lnt  0,79M 0,69 R 0,20  … (3.5)

where:
Pt,T = precipitation depth for a duration of t minutes and a return period of T
years (mm)
t = duration (minutes)
T = return period
M = 2-year return period daily rainfall from TR102
R = average number of days per year on which thunder was heard (days/year)
(Figure 3.9)

The average number of days on which thunder was heard (R) is equal to 61 and M is
60 (from Table 3.2). The calculated precipitation depths are:
Pt20 = 85,55 mm and Pt50 = 107,10 mm

Step 8b: Calculate the point intensity (mm/hour)

The point intensity (PiT) is the point rainfall divided by the time of concentration (if TC >
0,25 hours). If TC ≤ 0,25 hours, divide by 0,25 hours.
PtT
PiT  … (3.6)
TC
where:
PiT = point intensity for the different return periods (mm/h)
PtT = precipitation depth for a duration of t minutes and a return period of T
years (mm)
TC = time of concentration (hours)

The point intensity for the 1:20 and 1:50 year return periods is Pi20 = 63,93 mm/h and
Pi50 = 80,04 mm/h respectively.

3-13 Flood calculations

 Figure 3.9:
3 Averagee number off days per yeear on which
h thunder w
was heard

Step 9b:: Determine the area redu

uction factorrs (ARF) for the differentt return perioods from Fig
gure 3.10
or equationn 3.7.
F  90000  12800lnA  9830ln 60 0TC 
0,4
ARF … (3.7)

where:
ARF = area redduction factorr as a percentage (shouldd be less than
n 100%)
A = catchmeent area (km²²)
TC = time of cconcentration (hours)

The resultinng ARF = 96 % for the 11:20 and 1:50

0 years return periods.

Step 10b
b: Determinee the averagee rainfall inteensity or effeective catchm
ment precipittation
 ARFT  … (3.8)
I T  PiT  
 100 
w
where:
IT = rainfall intensity av veraged overr the catchm ment (mm/h) for the
return peeriod T.
ARFT = area redduction facto or as a percenntage for retturn period T (should
be smalller than 100 %)
PiT = point inttensities for the different return perioods (mm/h)

The averrage rainfall intensities arre I20 = 61,4 mm/h and I50
5 = 76,9 mm
m/h.

3-14 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.10:: Area reduction factors
Alternattive 3

This is the
t preferred method off obtaining point
p rainfa
all data for uuse in the
Rationall Method prrocedure.

Step 6c:: The designn rainfall frrom the Dessign Rainfalll Estimation n software iis the recom mmended
method to determine th he point desiggn rainfall of a catchmen nt (see Figurre 3.11). Utilising the
Design Raiinfall Estimaation in Soutth Africa software application the reepresentativee weather
station or coordinates
c as
a shown in F Figure 3.12 can be enterred. A summ mary of all th
he closest
rainfall stattions as welll as the n-dayy rainfall vallues as shown in Figure 3.13 is obtaiined. The
software ennables the esstimation of design rainffall for durations rangingg from 5 min nutes to 7
f 2 to 200 year return periods at any
days and for a 1' latitu ude x 1' longgitude point in South
Africa.

Enter the ccoordinates or

o station annd click on the
t proceed button (Figuure 3.12) to obtain a
summary of osest rainfall stations as well as the n-day
o all the clo n rainfal
all values (seee Figure
3.13).

3-15 Fllood calculatiions

Figure 3.11: Snapsshot of desig
gn rainfall database
d

Figure 3.12: Desiggn Rainfall estimation

e so
oftware

3-16 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.13: Desi gn Rainfall estimation results
r

Step 7c:: Based on thhe calculated a representtative rainfallll, determine the point
d time of conncentration and
rainfall values (see Figu
ure 3.14) forr the catchment area.

The calcculated precippitation deptths are Pt20 = 57 mm and Pt50 = 70 mm

m.

Step 8c:: Calculate thhe point inteensity (mm/hhour)

The point intensity (PiT) is the poiint rainfall divided

d by th
he time of cooncentration
n (if TC >
0,25 hours)). If TC ≤ 0,2
25 hours, divvide by 0,25 hours.
PtT
PiT  … (3.9)
TC
wherre:
PiT = poin
nt intensity fo
for the differeent return periods (mm/hh)
PtT = preccipitation deppth for a du
uration of t minutes
m and a return perriod of T
yearrs (mm)
TC = timee of concentrration (hourss)

The poinnt intensity for

f the 1:20 and
a 1:50 yeaar return periiods is Pi20 = 42,6 mm/h and Pi50 = 52,3 mm/h
respectivvely.

3-17 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.14: Grridded point rainfall va
alues

Now th hat the inteensities havee been calcculated usin

ng three alternative m
methods thee run-off
coefficieent can now be determin
ned.

Step 10:: Identify thee catchment characteristi cs to determ

mine the run-o
off coefficiennt.

The run-offf coefficientt in the ratioonal method is an integraated value reepresenting the
t many
factors influencing the rainfall run-ooff relationsh
hip.
There is noo objective theoretical m method for determining
d C and as a result the subjective
elements ofo experiencce and engiineering jud dgement playy a very im mportant rolle in the
successful application of
o this methood.

Table 3.3 provides

p reco
ommended vvalues of C for
fo the calculation of the rrun-off coeffficient.

The Moreteele Spruit caatchment is cclassified as 40% rural an

nd 60% urbaan based on the latest
a confirmeed by a visit to the catchm
informationn available (ii.e. topograpphical maps and ment (see
Figure 3.3) i.e. α = 0,4
4; β = 0,6 andd γ = 0,0.

Based on the available data from m the catchmment, the folllowing tablees were com
mpiled to
characterise the catchm
ment (Table 33.4 and Tablle 3.5).

3-18 Fllood calculatiions

 Table 3.3: Recommended values of run-off factor C for use in the rational method
Rural (C1) Urban (C2)
Mean annual rainfall (mm)
Component Classification 600 - Use Factor
< 600 > 900
900

Vleis and pans (<3%) 0,01 0,03 0,05 Lawns

Surface
Flat areas (3 to 10%) 0,06 0,08 0,11 - Sandy, flat (<2%) 0,05 - 0,10
slope
Hilly (10 to 30%) 0,12 0,16 0,20 - Sandy, steep (>7%) 0,15 – 0,20
(Cs)
Steep areas (>30%) 0,22 0,26 0,30 - Heavy soil, flat (<2%) 0,13 – 0,17
- Heavy soil, steep (>7%) 0,25 – 0,35

Very permeable 0,03 0,04 0,05 Residential areas

Permeability Permeable 0,06 0,08 0,10 - Houses 0,30 – 0,50
(Cp) Semi-permeable 0,12 0,16 0,20 - Flats 0,50 – 0,70
Impermeable 0,21 0,26 0,30
Industry
- Light industry 0,50 – 0,80
Thick bush and 0,03 0,04 0,05 - Heavy industry 0,60 – 0,90
plantation
Vegetation Light bush and farm 0,07 0,11 0,15 Business
(Cv) lands - City centre 0,70 – 0,95
Grasslands 0,17 0,21 0,25 - Suburban 0,50 – 0,70
No vegetation 0,26 0,28 0,30 - Streets 0,70 – 0,95
- Maximum flood 1,00

Table 3.4: Catchment characteristics (Rural)

Rural (C1)
Component Classification %

Vleis and pans (<3%) 20

Surface slope Flat areas (3 to 10%) 70
(CS) Hilly (10 to 30%) 10
Steep areas (>30%) 0
Very permeable 0
Permeability Permeable 50
(CP) Semi-permeable 50
Impermeable 0
Thick bush and plantation 0
Vegetation Light bush and farm lands 45
(CV) Grasslands 50
No vegetation 5

Utilising Table 3.4 the run-off coefficient for the rural area is calculated using the following formula:

C1  C S  C P  C V … (3.10)
where:
C1 = run-off coefficient with a value between zero and one
CS = run-off coefficient according to average catchment slope
CP = run-off coefficient according to average soil permeability
CV = run-off coefficient according to average vegetal growth

The average rainfall falls between 600 and 900 mm, and thus:

3-19 Flood calculations

 C1  0,20 x 0,03  0,70 x 0,08  0,10 x 0,16
 0,50 x 0,08  0,50 x 0,16
 0,45 x 0,11  0,50 x 0,21  0,05 x 0,28
C1  0,3665

If it is estimated that up to 10% (D%) of the area could be dolomitic, then the run-off factor should be
reduced as described earlier in this chapter. Based on the defined slopes, the following factors (Dfactor)
are used to adjust the run-off coefficient.
 Vleis and pans (slopes <3%) - 0,10
 Flat areas (3 to 10%) - 0,20
 Hilly (10 to 30%) - 0,35
 Steep areas (slopes >30%) - 0,50

C1D  C1 1  D %   C1 D %  D factor x C S% 
C1D  0,36651  0,1  0,36650,10,10 x 0,20  0,20 x 0,70  0,35 x 0,1
C1D  0,337

C1D is the rural run-off coefficient that incorporates the effect of the dolomitic area.

The influence of initial saturation is incorporated by means of an adjustment factor. Using these
adjustment factors (FT) for rural areas, the run-off coefficients (C1D) for the 1:20 and 1:50 year return
periods are adjusted as follows with F20 = 0,67 and F50 = 0,83.
C1T  C1D x FT … (3.11)

Thus C1(20) = 0,2258 and C1(50) = 0,2797

The run-off coefficient for the urban area (C2) is calculated using the defined catchment
characteristics (Table 3.5) and the most conservative coefficients of Table 3.5 (for this
example).

C 2  0,20 x 0,10  0,10 x 0,20 

 0,40 x 0,50  0,05 x 0,70 
 0,05 x 0,80 
 0,10 x 0,70  0,10 x 0,95
C 2  0,48

The combined run-off coefficient is calculated as follows:

C T   C 1T   C 2   C 3 … (3.12)
With α = 0,4; β = 0,6 and γ = 0,0.
C20 = 0,3783
C50 = 0,3999

3-20 Flood calculations

 Table 3.5: Catchment characteristics (Urban)
Urban (C2)
Use %
Lawns
- Sandy, flat (<2%) 20
- Sandy, steep (>7%) 10
- Heavy soil, flat (<2%) 0
- Heavy soil, steep (>7%) 0
Residential areas
- Houses 40
- Flats 5
Industry
- Light industry 5
- Heavy industry 0
Business
- City centre 0
- Suburban 10
- Streets 10
- Maximum flood 0

Step 11: Determine the peak flow for each of the required return periods utilising the simple linear
relationship and for this example the various methods used to calculate the average rainfall
intensity (Alternatives 1 to 3):
C I A
QT  T T … (3.13)
3,6
where:
QT = peak flow rate for T-year return period (m³/s)
CT = combined run-off coefficient for T-year return period
IT = average rainfall intensity over catchment for a specific return
period (mm/hour)
A = effective area of catchment (km²)
3,6 = conversion factor

The peak flow rates based on the rational method for the 1:20 year and 1:50 year return periods
(calculated by means of equation 3.13) are:

Peak flood Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3

Q20 164 m³/s 184 m³/s 128 m³/s
Q50 224 m³/s 243 m³/s 166 m³/s

3.1.2 Unit Hydrograph method

Step 1: The first three steps of the Rational method described above are also applicable to the Unit
Hydrograph method, thus A = 28,5 km2, L = 7,25 km and S = 0,02146 m/m.

Step 2: Determine the veld-type zone in which the catchment is located from Figure 3.15. The
catchment of the Moretele Spruit falls in Zone 8.

3-21 Flood calculations

 Figgure 3.15: Regions with generalised
d veld types in
i South Afr
frica

Step 3: Calculate thhe catchmennt index by mmeans of the following

f formula:
L LC
Indeex  … (3.14)
S
wherre: L = hydrauulic length off catchment (km)
(
LC = distancce between outlet
o and cen
ntroid of catcchment (km))
S = averagge slope (as for
f Rational method
m in m
m/m)
The measured length h from thee catchmentt outlet alo ong the waatercourse and a then
perpendicuular to the cen T calculateed catchmentt index is 230,1.
ntroid is LC = 4,65 km. The

Step 4: Determine the lag tim

me in hours from Figurre 3.16 based on the ccatchment in
ndex and
veld-type zone.
z The Laag time (TL) equals 1,35 hours.

3-22 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.16: Ratio of lag time to catchmen
nt index

Step 5: From Tablle 3.6 obtain

n the value oof KU for thee specific veeld-type. Foor this examp
ple Ku =
0,367.

Tablee 3.6: Valuess of KU for various

v veld
d types
Regional number
n
Geeneralised veeld type F
Factor Ku
(Figure 3.15)
1 Coastal
C tropiccal forest 0,261
2 Schlerophyllo
S ous bush 0,306
3 Mountain
M souurveld 0,277
4 Grasslands
G off interior platteau 0,386
5 Highland
H souurveld and Do ohne sourvelld 0,351
5a As
A for Zone 5 – but soils weakly deveeloped 0,488
6 Karoo
K 0,265
7 False
F Karoo 0,315
8 Bushveld
B 0,367
9 Tall
T sourveld 0,321

Step 6: The peak flow

f rate for the unit hyddrograph acccording to th
he regional cclassification
n given in
Table 3.6 in
i zone 8 is calculated
c ussing the follo
owing formulla:
A
Qp  Ku … (3.15)
ΤL
wherre:
QP = peak floww rate of unit hydrograph (m³/s)
A = size of cattchment (kmm²)
TL = Lag time (hours)

The unitt hydrographh peak dischaarge is 7,75 m

m³/s.

Step 7: Obtain the mean annu ual precipitattion (MAP), as described for the Raational meth
hod. The
his catchmentt is 746,6 mm
determinedd MAP for th m/a.

Step 8: This step has

h to be reepeated for ddifferent sto
orm durationns as well ass for differeent return
periods. The
T main aim m is to deterrmine the efffective rainffall (heiT) foor the differeent storm
durations with which the dimennsionalised unitu hydrogrraph peak fflow could then be
multiplied.

3-23 Fllood calculatiions

 Step 8.1: Determine the point rainfall for the required return periods (PT) based on the mean
annual precipitation (MAP), the rainfall region, and the storm duration (TSD). Point
precipitation for various durations, normally shorter than or equal to the lag time, is
obtained. Figure 3.5 may be used to determine the point rainfall although it is
preferred that the Design Rainfall software utility is used (see Figure 3.12). The
probable maximum flood can also be calculated using the Unit hydrograph method,
see the Drainage Manual Chapter 3 for more details.

For this example the point rainfalls for the 0,25 hour, 0,5 hour, 1 hour and 2 hour
storms have been determined for the different return periods 1:20 and 1:50 year (see
Table 3.7).

Step 8.2: Calculate the point rainfall intensity (mm/hour). The point intensity (PiT) is the point
rainfall divided by the storm duration (TSD).
P
PiT  T … (3.16)
TSD
where:
PiT = point intensities for the different return periods (mm/h)
PT = point rainfall (mm)
TSD = storm duration (hours). If duration < 0,25 hours use 0,25 hours.
See solution in Table 3.7.

Step 8.3: Determine the area reduction factors (ARFiT) for the different return periods based on
the catchment area and different storm durations from Figure 3.8. The determined
ARFiT values are shown in Table 3.7.

Step 8.4: Calculate the average rainfall (PAvgiT) for the different return periods and storm
durations. This is the area reduction factor (ARFiT) multiplied by the point rainfall
(PT). The average rainfall values are shown in Table 3.7.

Step 8.5: Determine the flood run-off factor from Figure 3.17. This factor is based on the
average rainfall, veld-type zone and catchment area. The flood run-off factors (fiT) are
given in Table 3.7.

Step 8.6: Calculate the effective rainfall (heiT) for each return period and selected storm duration
by multiplying the flood run-off factors (fiT) with the average rainfall values (PAvgiT).

Table 3.7: Calculation of effective rainfall values (heiT)

Return period
1:20 1:50
Description Unit
Storm duration (TSD) hours 0,25 0,5 1 2 0,25 0,5 1 2
Point rainfall (PT) mm 41 63 84 97 50 77 102 118
Point intensity (PiT) mm/hour 164 126 84 48,5 200 154 102 59
Area reduction factor (ARFiT) % 84 88 92 95 80 85 90 94
Average rainfall (PAvgiT) mm 34,44 55,44 77,28 92,15 40,00 65,45 91,80 110,92
Flood run-off factor (fiT) % 12 16 19 22 13 18 22 24
Effective rainfall (heiT) mm 4,13 8,87 14,68 20,27 5,20 11,78 20,20 26,62

3-24 Flood calculations

 Figure 3.177: Average storm
s losses

Step 9: The maximmum flood peeak is obtainned by multip plying the efffective rainffall for speciific storm
durations with
w the unnit hydrograpph peak flo ow. The durration of sto torms that cause
c the
maximum peak
p discharrge is obtaineed by trial an
nd error. Sin
nce the standdard duration n of a unit
hydrographh is one houur (from thee one-hour raainfall), the duration sho hould be incrreased or
decreased to
t make prov vision for othher rainfall durations.
d

d by staggerinng a numberr of unit hydrographs by the unit duration and

An S-curvee is obtained
then summ ming them as shown Figu re 3.18. It iss recommendded that an S--curve be co
onstructed
in all casess.

Once the S-curve

S has been
b drawn, lagging an identical seccond S-curvee by the duraation and
then subtraacting one from the otherr provides a unit hydrograph of the llagged durattion. The
resulting vaalues only neeed to be muultiplied by a proportionate factor to oobtain a new unit run-
off hydrograph. This unit hydroggraph could again a be dim
mensionalisedd using the values of
QP and TL. It is thus ad
dvisable to caalculate the run-off
r valuees for the origginal unit hy
ydrograph
at such tim
me intervals thhat the durattion of the reequired hydroographs willl be divisiblee by these
time intervvals.

3-25 Fllood calculatiions

 Figure 3.188: Illustration of S-curvee

The dimennsionless onee-hour unit hhydrograph forfo veld-type zone 8 is shhown in Figu ure 3.19,
obtained frrom Table 3.8, and the cconstructed S-curve
S in Fiigure 3.20. TThe rising annd falling
limbs of thhe unit hydro
ograph used tto construct the S-curve are not equaal. If the ord dinates of
the staggerred unit hydrographs aare summed,, the constructed S-curv rve is not constantly
c
increasing until it reacches the maxximum valuee thereof. Ass illustrated in this exam mple, this
leads to ann uneven S-curve as show wn in Figuree 3.20. It is suggested
s thhat this be rectified as
shown by preventing
p th
he S-curve vvalues for ex
xample (Q/Q Qp)t being lesss than (Q/Qp)t-1. This
approach iss conservativve, which coould probably y lead to an over-estimat
o tion in calcullating the
b should prrovide a concceptually corrrect answer in terms of the flood
volume of discharge, but
peak value.

Figure 3.19:
3 Dimenssionless one--hour unit hydrograph
h for veld typpe Zone 8

3-26 Fllood calculatiions

 Table 3.8: Dimensionless one hour unit hydrographs for various veld zone regions
Time as Run-off as Q/QP for veld-type regions
T/TL 1 2 3 4 5 5a 6 7 8 9
0 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
0,05 0,035 0,012 0,010 0,011 0,018 0,004 0,024 0,006 0,006 0,011
0,10 0,070 0,024 0,023 0,024 0,038 0,011 0,052 0,014 0,014 0,027
0,15 0,112 0,036 0,039 0,038 0,063 0,019 0,087 0,024 0,025 0,043
0,20 0,163 0,052 0,057 0,041 0,095 0,027 0,140 0,032 0,035 0,065
0,25 0,228 0,072 0,074 0,070 0,142 0,037 0,260 0,044 0,050 0,093
0,30 0,306 0,091 0,106 0,089 0,220 0,05 0,700 0,058 0,069 0,142
0,35 0,414 0,121 0,139 0,111 0,315 0,064 0,983 0,074 0,100 0,225
0,40 0,524 0,152 0,184 0,138 0,500 0,083 1,000 0,095 0,150 0,350
0,45 0,709 0,198 0,261 0,175 0,685 0,107 0,970 0,121 0,245 0,570
0,50 0,921 0,258 0,376 0,220 0,810 0,140 0,915 0,160 0,655 0,772
0,55 0,983 0,342 0,518 0,350 0,936 0,210 0,848 0,275 0,905 0,930
0,60 0,996 0,472 0,670 0,700 0,985 0,425 0,795 0,480 0,980 0,982
0,65 0,998 0,676 0,809 0,980 1,000 0,885 0,754 0,700 0,994 1,000
0,70 0,964 0,940 0,970 1,000 0,960 0,958 0,714 0,950 0,991 0,985
0,75 0,893 0,991 1,000 0,987 0,800 0,993 0,678 0,975 0,966 0,945
0,80 0,826 0,995 0,990 0,885 0,675 0,991 0,641 0,993 0,860 0,900
0,85 0,758 0,973 0,935 0,760 0,588 0,955 0,605 1,000 0,755 0,814
0,90 0,700 0,888 0,840 0,670 0,524 0,740 0,572 0,995 0,655 0,750
0,95 0,652 0,807 0,755 0,580 0,473 0,535 0,540 0,980 0,565 0,670
1,00 0,605 0,741 0,675 0,530 0,432 0,440 0,514 0,900 0,500 0,600
1,05 0,563 0,678 0,612 0,470 0,397 0,385 0,488 0,805 0,440 0,530
1,10 0,525 0,622 0,546 0,430 0,365 0,340 0,465 0,730 0,392 0,472
1,15 0,491 0,567 0,500 0,393 0,340 0,300 0,443 0,655 0,355 0,413
1,20 0,463 0,513 0,460 0,364 0,315 0,265 0,422 0,590 0,322 0,364
1,25 0,437 0,467 0,424 0,336 0,295 0,235 0,402 0,530 0,294 0,316
1,30 0,411 0,425 0,395 0,310 0,276 0,209 0,382 0,477 0,270 0,280
1,35 0,387 0,394 0,368 0,288 0,260 0,187 0,365 0,432 0,250 0,260
1,40 0,362 0,364 0,347 0,271 0,242 0,169 0,347 0,388 0,231 0,241
1,45 0,341 0,338 0,325 0,252 0,228 0,152 0,330 0,350 0,215 0,225
1,50 0,321 0,313 0,305 0,235 0,214 0,140 0,315 0,308 0,200 0,210
1,55 0,302 0,291 0,290 0,218 0,200 0,128 0,300 0,280 0,186 0,198
1,60 0,283 0,272 0,276 0,201 0,187 0,116 0,287 0,255 0,174 0,188
1,65 0,265 0,253 0,264 0,187 0,174 0,105 0,274 0,232 0,164 0,176
1,70 0,252 0,236 0,252 0,172 0,163 0,097 0,260 0,211 0,155 0,168
1,75 0,238 0,220 0,238 0,159 0,152 0,088 0,249 0,194 0,146 0,158
1,80 0,226 0,206 0,228 0,147 0,143 0,081 0,237 0,177 0,137 0,151
1,85 0,215 0,192 0,216 0,136 0,134 0,074 0,225 0,164 0,130 0,144
1,90 0,204 0,181 0,208 0,125 0,126 0,067 0,214 0,152 0,122 0,137
1,95 0,194 0,171 0,200 0,115 0,120 0,061 0,203 0,140 0,115 0,131
2,00 0,183 0,160 0,194 0,108 0,112 0,055 0,193 0,130 0,110 0,124
2,05 0,174 0,152 0,186 0,098 0,106 0,050 0,183 0,120 0,103 0,119
2,10 0,165 0,143 0,178 0,089 0,100 0,046 0,173 0,111 0,098 0,113
2,15 0,157 0,136 0,171 0,081 0,094 0,041 0,164 0,102 0,091 0,108
2,20 0,149 0,130 0,165 0,074 0,088 0,038 0,155 0,094 0,086 0,103
2,25 0,142 0,123 0,158 0,068 0,084 0,034 0,147 0,087 0,081 0,097
2,30 0,135 0,118 0,152 0,062 0,079 0,031 0,138 0,081 0,075 0,093
2,35 0,128 0,114 0,147 0,056 0,074 0,028 0,130 0,075 0,070 0,087
2,40 0,121 0,108 0,142 0,052 0,070 0,025 0,122 0,069 0,066 0,085
2,45 0,116 0,104 0,139 0,047 0,066 0,023 0,115 0,063 0,062 0,079
2,50 0,110 0,100 0,132 0,043 0,062 0,021 0,109 0,058 0,058 0,075
2,55 0,105 0,096 0,128 0,039 0,058 0,019 0,102 0,053 0,054 0,071
2,60 0,100 0,093 0,124 0,035 0,055 0,017 0,097 0,049 0,050 0,070
2,65 0,096 0,089 0,120 0,032 0,051 0,015 0,090 0,045 0,047 0,063
2,70 0,091 0,085 0,114 0,029 0,048 0,013 0,085 0,041 0,044 0,061
2,75 0,087 0,081 0,111 0,026 0,045 0,012 0,080 0,039 0,041 0,055
2,80 0,082 0,078 0,107 0,023 0,042 0,011 0,075 0,036 0,038 0,053
2,85 0,078 0,074 0,103 0,021 0,039 0,010 0,069 0,033 0,035 0,049
2,90 0,074 0,070 0,099 0,019 0,036 0,009 0,064 0,030 0,032 0,045
2,95 0,070 0,066 0,095 0,017 0,033 0,008 0,059 0,029 0,029 0,041
3,00 0,066 0,063 0,091 0,016 0,030 0,006 0,054 0,026 0,026 0,038
3,05 0,062 0,060 0,087 0,012 0,027 0,004 0,049 0,023 0,024 0,035
3,10 0,057 0,056 0,084 0,011 0,025 0,003 0,044 0,021 0,022 0,030
3,15 0,054 0,053 0,081 0,009 0,022 0,002 0,040 0,019 0,020 0,027
3,20 0,050 0,050 0,078 0,008 0,020 0,001 0,036 0,017 0,019 0,022
3,25 0,047 0,047 0,075 0,006 0,018 0,000 0,031 0,015 0,017 0,018
3,30 0,043 0,044 0,071 0,004 0,016 0,000 0,027 0,013 0,015 0,014
3,35 0,039 0,040 0,068 0,003 0,013 0,000 0,022 0,011 0,013 0,010
3,40 0,036 0,037 0,064 0,002 0,011 0,000 0,018 0,010 0,011 0,007
3,45 0,032 0,034 0,062 0,001 0,010 0,000 0,013 0,008 0,009 0,004
3,50 0,029 0,031 0,059 0,000 0,008 0,000 0,010 0,006 0,007 0,002
3,55 0,025 0,027 0,056 0,000 0,006 0,000 0,005 0,005 0,005 0,000
3,60 0,022 0,024 0,051 0,000 0,004 0,000 0,000 0,004 0,004 0,000
3,65 0,019 0,021 0,048 0,000 0,002 0,000 0,000 0,001 0,002 0,000
3,70 0,016 0,018 0,046 0,000 0,001 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,001 0,000
3,75 0,012 0,015 0,043 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
3,80 0,009 0,011 0,040 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
3,85 0,005 0,008 0,037 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
3,90 0,003 0,005 0,035 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
3,95 0,000 0,002 0,032 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
4,00 0,000 0,000 0,029 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
4,05 0,000 0,000 0,027 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
4,10 0,000 0,000 0,024 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
4,15 0,000 0,000 0,021 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
4,20 0,000 0,000 0,011 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
4,25 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000

3-27 Flood calculations

Step 10:: The 0,25, 0,5
0 and 2-ho our unit hydrrograph peakks are obtain
ned by multiiplying the maximum
m
he previous step with the peak flow rate of the uunit hydrograph (Qp),
obtained vaalues from th
see Table 3.9.
3

Step 11:: The last step is to caalculate the peak flows for the diffferent returnn periods an nd storm
durations. The maxim mum peak floow for each return
r period
d is then useed as the dessign peak
flood for thhat specific return
r periodd as shown in
n Table 3.9. The peak vvalues are addjusted as
indicated for
fo QPiT/QP < 1; in this casse 0,9923.

Figu
ure 3.20: S-ccurve for veeld type Zon
ne 8 and lagg
ged by 0,25 hhour

Tablee 3.9: Peak flows

fl utilisin
ng the dischaarge unit hy
ydrograph mmethod
Return n period
1:20
0 1:5
50
Variab ble Unitt
Storm dduration
houurs 0,25 0,5 1 2 0,25 0,5 1 2
(TSD)
Effectivve rainfall
mmm 4,13 8,87 14,68 20,27 5,20 11,78 20,20 266,62
(heiT)
Unit hyydrograph peeak
m³//s 24,52 14,48 7,68 4,7
77 24,52 14,48 7,68 4
4,77
(QPiT)
Peak floow
m³//s 101,34 128,42 112,73 1 96,64 127,500 170,56 155,05 126,91
(QiT)
Adjusteed for QPiT/QQP < 1 m³//s 102,12 129,42 113,60 1 97,39 128,499 171,88 156,26 127,89

The peaak flow ratess, based on the

t unit hyddrograph metthod, for thee 1:20 year and 1:50 yeear return
periods aare:

Q20 = 1229 m³/s and Q50 = 172 m³³/s

3-28 Fllood calculatiions

3.1.3 SDF methood

The calcculation sequuence to deterrmine the floood peaks baased on the SDF method iis as followss:

Step 1: Identify thee drainage baasin in whichh the site is located from Figure 3.211. The catchm
ment falls
in drainagee basin number 1.

Step 2: Determine the area off the catchm

ment. In thiss example itt has alreadyy been calcu
ulated as
A = 28,5 km
m².

Step 3: Determine the length of

o the main cchannel. In th
his example it has alreaddy been calcculated as
L = 7,25 km
m.

Step 4: Determine the average slope of thhe catchmentt as describeed for the R
Rational method. The
calculated average
a slope (S) for thiss example is 0,02146 m/m
m.

Figure 3.21: Standarrd Design Flood

F draina
age basins

Step 5: Apply the US Soil Co mula to deteermine the tiime of conccentration

onservation Service form
d in HRU1/722 (3.23).
TC (hours) as suggested
0,385
 0,87L2 
TC    … (3.17)
1000S av 
The timee of concentrration is as caalculated earrlier, i.e. TC = 1,338 hourrs.

3-29 Fllood calculatiions

Step 6: Convert TC (hours) to t (minutes) and determine the point precipitation depth PtT (mm) for
the different the return period T (years). In this example the modified Hershfield equation
will be used.


Pt,T  1,130,41  0,64lnT  0,11  0,27lnt  0,79M 0,69 R 0,20  … (3.18)

where:
M = mean of the annual daily maxima from Table 3B.1 (in Appendix B)
equals 56 mm.
R = average number of days per year on which thunder was heard from
Table 3B.1 equals 30.

Table 3.10: Calculating point precipitation

Return period 1:20 1:50
PtT (mm) 70,84 88,69

Step 7: Multiply the point precipitation depth PtT (mm) by the area reduction factor ARF (%) to
determine the average rainfall over the catchment for the required return period (PAvgT). The
corresponding rainfall intensity IT (mm/h) is obtained by dividing this value by the time of
concentration.
ARF  90000  12800lnA  9830lnt
0,4
… (3.19)

Table 3.11: Calculating point intensity

Return period 1:20 1:50
ARF (%) 96 96
PAvgT (mm) 68,00 85,14
IT (mm/hour) 50,83 63,63

Step 8: The above steps constitute the standard procedures used in the conventional rational method.
The SDF uses calibrated run-off coefficients C2 (2-year return period) and C100 (100-year
return period) from Table 3B.1 instead of determining these from catchment characteristics.
The run-off coefficients for the range of return periods are derived by applying the return
period factors YT in Table 3.12, using the equation below:

C 2  YT  C100 C 2 
CT      … (3.20)
100  2,33  100 100 

Table 3.12: Return period factors

T 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
YT 0 0,84 1,28 1,64 2,05 2,33 2,58

With the calibrated coefficients being C2 = 10 % and C100 = 40 %, and the return period factors Y20 =
1,64 and Y50 = 2,05 the run-off coefficients are calculated for the 1:20 and 1:50 year return periods:

C20 = 0,3112 and C50 = 0,3639

Step 9: Finally, the flood peak QT (m³/s) for the required return period is calculated as follows:
C I A
QT  T T … (3.21)
3,6

3-30 Flood calculations

 Table 3.13: Calculating flood peaks
Return period 1:20 1:50
CT 0,3112 0,3639
IT (mm/hour) 50,83 63,63
QT (m³/s) 125 183

Step 10: The SDF hydrograph is triangular in shape with the duration of the rising limb equal to the
time of concentration TC (hours), and that of the falling limb equal to twice the time of
concentration. Use linear interpolation between these two values.

3.1.4 SCS method

The SCS method requires a minimum input of catchment area, the catchment response time (Time of
Concentration), design rainfalls and soils and land cover classification. The catchment can be divided
into sub-areas or Hydrological Response Units (HRUs) which are areas with similar soils and land
cover and hence have a relatively similar hydrological response to rainfall.

Step 1: Catchment information

The following information is provided or has been calculated above:

Table 3.14: Previously determined information

Catchment name Moretele Spruit
Latitude 25 o 47,75'
Longitude 28 o 17,95'
Total catchment area - A 28,5 (km2)
Catchment time of concentration - Tc 1,334 (h)

The catchment is 40% rural and 60 % urban.

Step 2: Initial Curve Number determination

From the ISCW images of soil Land Types, the following Land Types are found in the
catchment: Ib7, Ba3 and Ba9. For each of the Land Types, the dominant terrain unit was
assumed to represent the entire HRU. Similarly, the dominant land class and soil series
within a terrain unit was assumed to respresent the entire unit and, where more than one soil
series is grouped to form the land class, the median SCS soil classification was used. For
each soil series representing each HRU, the appropriate SCS soil classification was
determined using tables from the Visual SCS-SA User Manual. The classification determined
as described above is summarised in Table 3.15, with the catchment divided into four HRUs.
For each HRU in Table 3.15 the soil and land cover classification is used to determine the
initial CN using information contained in Table 3E.3 (in Appendix 3E). From the initial
CN, values of S can be determined using Equation 3.22.

25400
S  254 …(3.22)
CN

3-31 Flood calculations

 Table 3.15: Determination of initial CN and S
SOIL LAND COVER
Area
Cover Initial S
HRU (%) SCS Practice/ Stormflow
Form Series Texture Cover Class CN (mm)
Ai Group Treatment potential
(S/I/D)

1 30 Glenros Trevanian SaClLm B/C Urban I 30% imp 77 75,9

2 30 Glenros Trevanian SaClLm B/C Urban I 25% imp 75 84,7
3 20 Hutton Msinga SaClLm A Veld I Moderate 49 264,
Glenros 4
4 20 Trevanian SaClLm B/C Veld I Moderate 75 84,7

Step 3: Lag estimation

The catchment lag is computed from the time of concentration for the catchment using
Equation 3.23.

L  0,61,334  0,8 hours … (3.23)

Step 4: Areal reduction factor (ARF)

Given that the SCS method is primarily intended to estimate peak discharge from small
catchments, over which a uniform daily rainfall may be assumed, the reduction of point to
catchment rainfall by means of an ARF is generally not applied. However, to be consistent
with the example, an ARF20 = 94% and ARF50 = 91% for the 20 and 50 year return periods
respectively is used.

Step 5: One-day design rainfall estimation

The SCS method requires the input of one-day design rainfalls which can be estimated using
a number of different methods. The Visual SCS-SA software includes the following options:
(i) User estimated design rainfalls computed directly from raingauge data.
(ii) Design rainfall extracted for a selected station from Adamson’s TR102 report.
(iii) Using at-site design rainfall calculated from the representative rainfall stations used to
represent the rainfall in each of the 712 hydrological zones.
(iv) Design rainfall estimated using the regional method developed by Smithers and
Schulze (2003).

Given the regional approach used and the longer periods of record from all available stations
used in the analysis compared to all previous studies, it is recommended that the regional,
scale invariance approach to design rainfall estimation developed for South Africa by
Smithers and Schulze (2003) be used to estimate the one-day design rainfall.

The results from the application of this approach at the location of the three rain gauges
located in and close to the catchment are summarised in Table 3.16. Given the relatively
small differences in design rainfall between the values computed from the at-site data and
the RLMA&SI methodology, as well as between the different locations, the RLMA&SI
values for Garsfontein were used in the estimation of the design floods. These were then
reduced by the areal reduction factors of 94 % and 91 % for the 20 and 50 year return period
events respectively in order to determine the catchment design rainfalls.

3-32 Flood calculations

 Table 3.16: Estimation of one-day design rainfalls at stations around the Moretele Spruit
catchment used in this example
Location Return period (years)
20 50
At-site RLMA&SI At-site RLMA&SI
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
0513529 – GARSFONTEIN
Latitude: 25o 49' 110,5 118,6 135,4 145,7
Longitude: 28o 17'
0513531 – RIETVLEI
Latitude: 25o 51' 121,4 114,6 148,8 140,5
Longitude: 28o 18'
0513528 - CONSTANTIA PARK
Latitude: 25o 48' * 120,4 * 147,7
o
Longitude: 28 18'
* No at-site values available

Step 6: Catchment one-day design rainfall

The ARF is used to calculate the catchment design rainfall, as shown in Table 3.17.

Table 3.17: Calculation of one-day catchment design rainfall

Return period (years) 20 50
Areal reduction factor - ARF (%) 94 91
Design daily rainfall depth - PD (mm) 118,6 145,7
Catchment design rainfall 111,5 132,6

Step 7: Design stormflow depth estimation

For each sub-area or HRU which the catchment has been divided into, the stormflow is
calculated using Equation 3.24, as shown in Table 3.18. For example, the computation for
the 20 year return period stormflow from HRU 1 is:
(P  Ia) 2
Q for P > Ia …(3.24)
P  Ia  S

where
Q = stormflow depth (mm),
P = daily rainfall depth (mm), usually input as a one-day design rainfall for a
given return period,
S = potential maximum soil water retention (mm),
 index of the wetness of the catchment's soil prior to a rainfall event,
Ia = initial losses (abstractions) prior to the commencement of stormflow,
comprising of depression storage, interception and initial infiltration (mm)
= 0,1S (recommended for use in South Africa)

Q 20 
111,5  (0,1  75,9)2  60,0 mm
111,5  (0,1  75,9)  75,9

3-33 Flood calculations

 Table 3.18: Calculation of stormflow depth (mm)
Return period (years) 20 50
Design stormflow depth
Sub-Area
(mm)
HRU 1 60,0 77,8
HRU 2 56,5 73,8
HRU 3 20,7 30,4
HRU 4 56,5 73,8

Step 8: Total stormflow depth

The stormflow from each sub-area is area weighted to calculate an equivalent stormflow
depth from the entire catchment using Equation 3.25 with the results shown in Table 3.19.

N
Q Q A
i 1
i i … (3.25)

where
Q = average stormflow depth from entire catchment (mm)
Qi = stormflow depth (mm) from i-th sub-area calculated using Equation 3.24
Ai = fraction of sub-area of total catchment area for i-th sub-area
N = number of sub-areas

Table 3.19: Calculation of total stormflow depth

Return period (years) 20 50

Total runoff depth (mm) 50,4 66,3

Step 9: Total runoff volume

The stormflow volume from the catchment is calculated using Equation 3.26 and is given in
Table 3.20.
QA … (3.26)
V
1000
where
V = stormflow volume (m3x106)
Q = stormflow depth (mm)
A = catchment area (km2)

Table 3.20: Calculation of total stormflow volume

Return period (years) 20 50

Total runoff volume (m3x106) 1,4 1,9

Step 10: Peak discharge estimation

The peak discharge from the catchment is calculated using Equation 3.27.

0,2083AQ
q  … (3.27)
p 1,83L

3-34 Flood calculations

 For the 20 year return period, the peak discharge is calculated as:
q 
0,208328,550,4  204,5 m³/s
p 1,830,8
Results

The computed peak discharge for the 20 and 50 year return periods are summarised in Table 3.21 for
both the manual calculation method, as summarised above, and computed by the Visual SCS-SA
software. The differences in the calculated peak discharge by the two methods are a result of:

(i) No adjustment of the initial CNs into final CNs is included in the manual method. In the
Visual SCS-SA method, the median condition method was used to adjust the initial CNs into
final CNs, thus accounting for typical soil moisture conditions.
(ii) The manual method does not use the incremental unit hydrograph approach and does not take
into account the regionalised typical rainfall hyetographs, both of which are used in the Visual
SCS-SA software.

Table 3.21: Computed peak discharge

Return period (years) 20 50

Peak discharge (m3/s): Manual method 204,5 268,9

Peak discharge (m3/s): Visual SCS-SA 181,7 245,0

A standard calculation sheet is included in Appendix 3C for the manual method. The output from the
Visual SCS-SA software is shown in Figure 3.22 and Figure 3.23. The manual method outlined in this
guide is a simplified version of the adaptations to the SCS method for South Africa. The full
adaptations can be performed manually using the SCS-based design runoff user manual developed by
Schmidt and Schulze (1987b). The full adaptations are incorporated into the Visual SCS-SA software,
including the estimation of design rainfall using the RLMA&SI developed by Smithers and Schulze
(2003).

300

250
Discharge (m3/s)

200

150

100

50

0
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Time (minutes)
20 Year 50 Year

Figure 3.22: Hydrographs generated by Visual SCS-SA

3-35 Flood calculations

 CATCHMENT NAME : Garsfontein
PROJECT NO : Example
RUN NO : 1
TOTAL CATCHMENT AREA (km2) : 28.50
STORM INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION TYPE : 3
CATCHMENT LAG TIME (h) : 0,80
COEFFICIENT OF INITIAL ABSTRACTION : 0,10

CURVE NUMBERS: Initial Final

Sub-catchment 1 77 72,1
Sub-catchment 2 75 70,4
Sub-catchment 3 49 49,0
Sub-catchment 4 75 70,4

RETURN PERIOD (YEARS) 20 50

DESIGN DAILY RAINFALL DEPTH (mm) 111 132

DESIGN STORMFLOW DEPTH (mm)

Sub-catchment 1 51,4 67,8
Sub-catchment 2 48,6 64,5
Sub-catchment 3 20,5 30,1
Sub-catchment 4 48,6 64,5

TOTAL RUNOFF DEPTH (mm) 43,8 58,6

DESIGN STORMFLOW VOLUME
(thousands m3)
Sub-catchment 1 439,3 579,5
Sub-catchment 2 415,2 551,4
Sub-catchment 3 116,8 171,7
Sub-catchment 4 276,8 367,6

TOTAL STORMFLOW VOLUME 1,2 1,7

(millions m3)

COMPUTED CURVE NUMBER 67,3 67,1

PEAK DISCHARGE (m3/s) 181,7 245,0

Figure 3.23: Output from Visual SCS-SA

3.1.5 Empirical methods

Peak discharges for return periods less than or equal to 100 years can be determined by means of an
empirical deterministic method developed by Midgley and Pitman. The formula reads:

Q T  0,0377KT PA 0,6C 0,2 … (3.28)

where:
QT = peak flow for T return period (m³/s)
KT = coefficient based on veld-type region (see Figure 3.24 and Table 3.22).
P = mean annual precipitation over catchment (mm/a) (see Figure 3.5 or utilise Design
Rainfall software for the catchment (see Figure 3.11).
Α S
and C  (Catchment parameter with regard to reaction time) … (3.29)
L LC

3-36 Flood calculations

 where:
A = area of catchment (km²)
S = average slope of stream (m/m)
L = hydraulic length of catchment (km)
LC = distance between outlet and centre of gravity of catchment (km)

Table 3.22: Constant values of KT for different veld types

Return period T in years 10 20 50 100
1 Coastal tropical forest 0,17 0,23 0,32 0,40
Winter 0,42 0,52 0,68 0,80
2 Schlerophyllous bush
Zone number and Generalized Veld type

All year 0,83 1,04 1,36 1,60

3 Mountain sourveld 0,29 0,40 0,55 0,70

4 Grasslands of interior plateau 0,59 0,68 0,95 1,20

(Figure 3.15)

Highland sourveld and Dohne

5 0,59 0,80 1,11 1,40
sourveld
As for Zone 5 – but soils weakly
5A 0,59 0,68 0,95 1,20
developed
Winter 0,33 0,45 0,63 0,80
6 Karoo
All year 0,67 0,91 1,26 1,60
7 False Karoo 0,67 0,91 1,26 1,60

8 Bushveld 0,42 0,57 0,79 1,00

9 Tall sourveld 0,50 0,68 0,95 1,20

With the catchment being in veld-type zone 8, the KT values are 0,57 and 0,79 for the 1:20 and 1:50
year return periods respectively. The calculated catchment parameter C with regard to reaction time is
0,1238.

The flood peaks as determined with the empirical method for the 1:20 and 1:50 year return periods are
78,85 m³/s and 109,28 m³/s respectively.

3-37 Flood calculations

 Figgure 3.24: Regions with generalised
d veld types in
i South Afr
frica

3.1.6 Comparisoon of solutio

ons

Table 3..23 summarises the resultts for the fivve methods used in this ex
xample.

Table
T 3.23: C n of solution
Comparison ns
Return period
p
Method
1:20
1 1:50
Raational (Alterrnative 1) 164 224
Raational (Alterrnative 2 184 243
Raational (Alterrnative 3) 128 166
Unnit Hydrograph 129 172
SD
DF 125 183
SC
CS-SA 205
2 269
Em
mpirical 79 109

3-38 Fllood calculatiions

3.2 Worked exxample 3.2 - Large catcchment

The secoond worked example is a design floood calculation n for a new low-level
l briidge across the
t Tsitsa
River, w
which runs through
t the Eastern Cappe in a soutth-easterly direction
d (seee Figure 3..25). The
position of the propoosed Tsitsa lo
ow-level riveer bridge is shown on Figgure 3.25.

F
Figure 3.25: Proposed T
Tsitsa low-leevel river brridge positioon

d are used in the calculatiion of the

The catcchment charaacteristics weere determineed (see Tablle 3.24 ), and
flood peaks for varioous recurrencce intervals.

Table
T 3.24: C
Catchment characteristi
c ics
Descriptiion of charaacteristic Determ mined valuee Com mment
Catchmennt area (see Figure
F 3.25) 43318 km² Catchmment area mayy be clearly defined
d
Starts at Anteloppe Spruit, joins j the
Length off longest wattercourse Tsitsanaa River andd further do ownstream
1779,5 km
(see Figu
ure 3.27) joins th
he Ixnu Riveer to form the Tsitsa
River
Height diifference Total height
h differe
rence equals 1 814 m,
(1085-meethod) 5500 m very steeep slopes allong the upper reaches
(See Figu
ure 3.28) of the water
w course
Average ccatchment sllope 00,37% See detaailed descripption below
Distance to catchmennt centroid 885 km
SDF Draiinage basin number
n 23
Based on calculatted averagee from a
Average rrainfall 8 60 mm numberr of weatherr stations in n the T35
drainage basin
Catchmment area fallls within reegions K5
RMF K-ffactor 5,,0 – 5,2 and K6 (assume higghest value).
(See Figgure 3.26)

3-39 Fllood calculatiions

Descriptiion of charaacteristic Determin ned value C
Comment
Rural aarea only with a
combinattion of flat and
a hilly
zones, ssteep slopes along
perimeterr of catchmment and
Descriptioon of catchm
ment run-off pans w with slopess <3%;
characteriistics permeabiility varyinng from
permeablle to semi-
permeablle, light bu ush and
cultivatedd lands, as well as
grasslandds.
Generalissed veld typee zone
Zone 2
(Figure 33.24)
T3H016 Tsitsa RiverR @ This
T gaugingg station is cllose to the
Xonkonxxa N2
N river bbridge apprroximately
Gauging station (see Figure
F 3.29))
Latitude:: 31°14’13’’ 5 km upstreaam of the proposed
Longitudde: 28°51’15’’ bridge
b site

Figure 3.26:
3 Maxim
mum flood peeak regions in southern Africa from
m Kovács

3-40 Fllood calculatiions

Figure 3.27: Catchmentt area and lo
ongest waterrcourse (3.211)

Figure 3.28:
3 Waterccourse profiile and avera
age slope

3-41 Fllood calculatiions

 Figu
ure 3.29: Ga
auging statioon (T3H016
6 Tsitsa Riveer @ Xonko nxa)

3.2.1 Statistical method

There iss a gauging station

s approoximately 5 km upstream m of the prooposed bridgge site, and flow
f data
from 19551/52 until 1997/98
1 are available. H
Historical floo he gauging sstation were obtained
od data for th
from thee Departmennt of Water Affairs
A and FForestry. Th
he gauging sttation, T3H0016, is situatted at the
N2-Briddge. The dataa unfortunateely contain pperiods, full hydrologicaal years and parts thereoof, during
which thhe flow was not measureed. The hyddraulic capaccity of the structure, whiich is 1091 m³/s,
m was
i the statistical analysiss are shown in Table
exceededd on at leastt three occassions. The daata as used in
3.25.

The floood peak of March

M 1976 measured
m at thhe Tsitsa Riv
ver gauging station
s was oone of the flo
ood peaks
used in tthe derivationn of the Fran
ncou-Rodier K-values forr this specificc region.

The histtorical data indicated

i thaat the flood ppeak was higher than 10091 m³/s, whhich is the maximum
m
capacity of the gaugging station. In a techniical report en ntitled, “Maximum floodd peak disch harges in
South A
Africa: An em mpirical apprroach”, Repoort No. TR10 05, by Kováccs, a peak floow of 1 699 m³/s was
used in deriving the Francou Ro odier K-valuue. The maxiimum record ded water levvel was 3,488 m. This
represennted the highest peak floww recorded uup to March 1976. The other high ppeak flow of February
1972 waas less than this peak flowf (i.e. beetween 1 091 and 1 6999 m³/s), and it was estimmated as
1 364 m³³/s.

Another peak flow event, during which the m measuring weeir was overtopped, occurrred in Octob
ber 1976.
It is estim
mated that thhis peak flow
w was 1347 m
m³/s.

3-42 Fllood calculatiions

 Table 3.25: Historical annual maximum flood peaks for T3H016
Year Discharge Comment Description Adopted peak flow
(m³/s) value (m³/s)
1951/52 60 60
1952/53 112 112
1953/54 120 Incomplete year Includes summer period 120
1954/55 197 Incomplete year Too short year -1
1955/56 126 126
1956/57 188 188
1957/58 188 188
1958/59 274 274
1959/60 185 185
1960/61 52 Incomplete year Too short year -1
1961/62 338 338
1962/63 788 788
1963/64 488 488
1964/65 322 322
1965/66 343 343
1966/67 492 492
1967/68 111 111
1968/69 380 Incomplete year Includes summer period 380
1969/70 303 Incomplete year Too short year -1
1970/71 660 660
1971/72 1091 Rating limit exceeded From TR105 1364
1972/73 229 229
1973/74 326 326
1974/75 297 297
1975/76 1091 Rating limit exceeded From TR105 1699
1976/77 1091 Rating limit exceeded From TR105 1347
1977/78 926 926
1978/79 82 Incomplete year Too short year -1
1979/80 97 Incomplete year Includes summer period 97
1980/81 -1 Missing data -1
1981/82 -1 Missing data -1
1982/83 -1 Missing data -1
1983/84 295 295
1984/85 851 851
1985/86 443 443
1986/87 332 332
1987/88 881 881
1988/89 904 904
1989/90 672 672
1990/91 90 90
1991/92 301 301
1992/93 110 110
1993/94 580 580
1994/95 273 273
1995/96 995 Incomplete data Includes summer period 995
1996/97 486 Incomplete data Includes summer period 486
1997/98 709 Incomplete data Includes summer period 709
1998 - 2004 -1 Missing data -1

Based on the historical flow records the results from statistical analyses are shown in Table 3.26.
Equations and statistical tables are included in Appendix 3A.

3-43 Flood calculations

Table 33.26: Statistiical analysess for Tsitsa river gaugin
ng station T3H016 (misssing data exxcluded)
Return n Extreme value General Log
L Pearsonn Log exxtreme
Log normal
period
d Typpe 1 ex
xtreme valu ue Type 3 value
2 4221 414 35
52 358 30
07
5 7666 758 71
14 719 64
45
10 9994 991 1035 1022 10
057
20 12114 1221 1401 1359 16
696
50 14997 1527 1980 1850 31
126
100 17110 1764 2507 2286 49
953

The freqquency distribbution curvee that fitted th

the data the best
b was the Log Pearsonn Type 3 currve (LP3)
(see Figuure 3.30).

Figu Type 3 fit through historrical data pooints

ure 3.30: Log Pearson T

The folloowing gaugee record inforrmation relattes to Figuree 3.30.

YT (recoord length inn years) = 53
NA (peaaks ≥ high thrreshold) = 1
NB (peaaks between thresholds
t xcluding misssing data) = 39
ex
LW (nonn-zero peaks below low threshold)
t =0
ZR (zeroo flows) = 0
NC (misssing data) = 13

3.2.2 SDF methood

The calcculation sequuence to determine the floood peaks haas been descrribed in the ffirst worked example,
and will therefore noot be repeated d here. The main resultss are presenteed in Table 33.27. In thiss example
the pointt precipitatioon is obtained
d from the w
weather service station selected for thhis basin from
m TR102;
i.e. Station nr. 1804339 @ INSIZW WA.

3-44 Fllood calculatiions

 Table 3.27: Results of SDF calculation
Description Answer obtained
Area (km²) 4318
L (km) 179,5
S (m/m) 0,0037
TC (hours) 31,16
M (mm) 60
R (days) 45
C2 (%) 10
C100 (%) 80
Return period 1:10 1:20 1:50 1:100
PtT 116,81 144,32 180,69 208,20
ARF (%) 80 80 80 80
PavgT (mm) 93,23 115,19 144,21 166,17
IT (mm/hour) 2,99 3,70 4,63 5,33
CT 0,485 0,593 0,716 0,80
QT (m³/s) 1739 2628 3974 5117

3.2.3 Empirical methods

Peak discharges for return periods less than or equal to 100 years could be determined by means of an
empirical deterministic method developed by Midgley and Pitman. The formula reads:

Q T  0,0377K T PA 0,6 C 0,2 … (3.30)

where:
QT = peak flow for T return period (m³/s)
KT = coefficient based on veld-type region (see Figure 3.24 and Table 3.22).
P = mean annual precipitation over catchment (mm/a) (see Figure 3.5 or utilise Design
Rainfall database for the catchment (see Figure 3.11).
Α S
and C  (Catchment parameter with regard to reaction time) … (3.31)
L LC
where:
A = area of catchment = 4318 km²
S = average slope of stream = 0,0037 m/m
L = hydraulic length of catchment = 179,5 km
LC = distance between outlet and centroid of catchment = 85 km

In this example the catchment falls within Zone 2 (All year) with KT values of K10 = 0,83,
K20 = 1,04, K50 = 1,36 and K100 = 1,60

The calculated catchment parameter C with regard to reaction time is 0,01721.

The flood peaks as determined using the empirical method (Equation 3.30) for the different return
periods are shown in Table 3.28.

Table 3.28: Flood peaks based on empirical method

Return period Peak flows (m³/s)
10 1 812
20 2 270
50 2 969
100 3 493

3-45 Flood calculations

The regional maximum flood may be calculated as follows using the Francou-Rodier relationship:
1  0,1K
 Α 
Q RMF  10  8 
6
…(3.32)
 10 
where:
QRMF = regional maximum flood peak flow rate (m³/s)
K = regional constant (Obtainable from the regional classification detailed
in Figure 3.26 and simplified in Table 3.29)
106 = total world MAR (m³/s)
108 = total world catchment area (km²)

Step 1: Determine the catchment area: 4318 km².

Step 2: Identify the region in which the site is located (Figure 3.26). In this example, as shown in
Table 3.24, the region is K6 (higher K-value). Note that the regions on the map refer to the
location of the site and not to the catchment. Only if the site is located near a boundary
between regions would it be necessary to consider adjusting the K-factor.

Step 3: Utilise the equation provided in Table 3.29 to calculate the RMF as 8059 m³/s

Table 3.29: RMF region classification in southern Africa

Number Transition zone Flood zone
Kovács
K of Area range QRMF Area range QRMF
region
floods # (km²) (m³/s) (km²) (m³/s)
K1 2,8 6 1 – 500 30A0,262 500 – 500 000 1,74A0,72
K2 3,4 12 1 – 300 50A0,265 300 – 500 000 5,25A0,66
0,34
K3 4,0 26 1 – 300 70A 300 – 300 000 15,9A0,60
K4 4,6 55 1 – 100 100A0,38 100 – 100 000 47,9A0,54
K5 5,0 155 1 – 100 100A0,50 100 – 100 000 100A0,50
0,56
K6 5,2 61 1 – 100 100A 100 – 30 000 145A0,48
K7 5,4 34 1 – 100 100A0,62 100 – 20 000 209A0,46
K8 5,6 25 1 – 100 100A0,68 100 – 10 000 302A0,44
Notes: # Recorded flood data are reflected in the DWAF report TR105

3.2.4 Comparisons of solutions

Comparing the calculated flood peaks below (Table 3.30) provides an overview of the range of
expected floods. Based on the flood calculations above, a structurally sound low-level bridge structure
was designed to withstand the high floods and provide a safe crossing during the lower floods (Figure
3.31 and Figure 3.32). Further analysis was also performed on the historical flow data to ensure that
the bridge will not be inundated for prolonged periods, cutting off communities from each other.

Table 3.30: Comparison of calculated peak flows (m³/s)

Return Empirical Standard Regional Statistical
period design flood maximum (LP3)
flood (RMF)
10 1 812 1 739 1 022
20 2 270 2 628 1 359
50 2 969 3 974 3 951* 1 850
100 3 493 5 117 4 796* 2 286
8 059
*Using QT/QRMF ratios as detailed in Appendix 3D.

3-46 Flood calculations

Figurre 3.31: Tsit sa crossing downstream
m view

Figure 33.32: Tsitsa crossing

3-47 Fllood calculatiions

4 HYDRAU
ULIC CAL
LCULATIO
ONS

4.1 Example 4.1

4 - Flow ch
haracterisatiion, energy gradient an
nd normal deepth

m description
Problem n Example 4.1
4

The totaal discharge through a ch hannel sectioon is 477 m³/s.

m The dim
mensions andd absolute roughness
values foor the channeel are shown
n below (Figuure 4.1).

Figure
F 4.1: C
Cross-sectio
on of channeel

Determiine:

(i) T
The energy gradient
g (Sf)..
(ii) W
Whether the flow is sub-- or supercrittical.
(iii) T
The average velocity throough sectionn 3.
(iv) Whether the flow is lamiinar or turbullent.
W
(v) T
The normal flow
f depth.

n Example 4.1
Solution 4

Divide thhe channel as

a shown abo
ove and derivve the follow
wing details (T
Table 4.1):

Table 4.1:
4 Channeel characteriistics (Exammple 4.1)
Section
n
Paraameter
1 2 3
Areea (A) 28,,5 m² 9,0 m² 499,25 m²
Wetted perimeter (P) 12,,24 m 3,0 m 1 5,42 m
Hydraulic raadius (R = A//P) 2,333 m 3,0 m 33,19 m
Absolute roughness
r (ks) 0,,3 m 0,7 m 0,7 m
Chézy
 12R 
l 
C  18 log  35,44 m½/s 30,8 m½/s 311,3 m½/s
 ks 

 T
The energy gradient (Sf )

BBy assumingg uniform flo ow conditionns the local slope of the channel, S0, may be sett equal to
tthe energy slope, Sf. Con ntinuity of m
mass and eneergy (Chézy equations) ccombined provide the
ffollowing rellationships:

4-48 Hydra
aulic calculatiions
 Q total  Q
Q total  A1 C1 R 1Sf  A 2 C 2 R 2Sf  A 3 C 3 R 3Sf


Q total  28,535,4 2,33  9,030,8 3,0  49,2531,3 3,19 Sf 
Q total  (1541 480  2754) Sf

Q 2total
Sf   0,01 m/m (Energy gradient)
4776 2

 Determine the flow regime

Q 2 B 477  25,5 
2
(Froude)² =   Fr  0,952  1,0 thus subcritical
gA 3 9,81(86,75) 3

 Determine the average velocity through section 3

Q 3 2754 477
v3     5,59 m/s
A 3 4776 49,25

 Identify the flow type

Calculate the Reynolds Number

vR
Re 
υ

v
Q  477
 5,50 m/s
 A 28,5  9  49,25
R
A  86,75
 2,83 m
 P 12,24  3,0  15,42
υ = 1,14 x 10-6 m²/s (kinematic viscosity of water)

vR 5,502,83
Re    13,65  10 6
υ 1,14 x 10 6
Re >> 2000  Highly turbulent

 Calculation of normal flow depth

The normal (uniform) flow depth for a given discharge is calculated by the same procedure,
except that the flow depth is the unknown quantity and the energy gradient, Sf, is equal to the
average (near constant) bed slope, S0.

Q total  477,0  A1 C1 R 1Sf  A 2 C 2 R 2Sf  A 3 C3 R 3Sf

As shown above, the area, wetted perimeter and hydraulic radius can be written in terms
of the unknown depth, Y. If Y is the depth in section 3, then the variables may be written
as shown in Table 4.2.

4-49 Hydraulic calculations

 Table 4.2: Channel characteristics written in terms of unknown flow depth (Example 4.1)
Section
Parameter
1 2 3
1 2 Y 2

Area (A) (m2) Y  6Y  14 3Y - 2    9Y  2 
2  4 
 5 
Wetted perimeter (P) (m) 8  
2 Y  2  3,0  8 7
 4
Y 
 
Hydraulic radius (R = A/P)
(A/P) * Y - 2  (A/P) *
(m)
Absolute roughness (ks) (m) 0,3 0,7 0,7
Chézy
 12R  ½
C  18 log   (m /s) * * *
 ks 
Note: * The relationship is not shown, but could be obtained from the combination of the given relationships.

With a known slope, S0, and flow rate, Q, Y can be solved. In this case Y = 5 m.

4.2 Example 4.2 - Gradually varying river flow (backwater calculation – simple sectional
details)

Problem description Example 4.2

Determine the flood level at section 3 for a river of trapezoidal section with side slopes 1:2 and
varying bed width. The characteristics of the cross-sections are reflected in Table 4.3.

Q50 = 43,3 m³/s

Table 4.3: Characteristics of the river cross-sections

Base width Bed level Chainage Manning, n
Section Remark
(m) (m) (m) (s/m1/3)
1 6 1203,02 0 0,032 Downstream
2 4,8 1203,24 65 0,026
3 5,6 1203,75 147 0,024 Site
4 5,4 1203,99 214 0,028
5 5,6 1204,42 280 0,024 Upstream

Using the principle of conservation of mass and energy would solve this problem. It is assumed that
the flow rate is constant at 43,3 m³/s. It is necessary to determine the type of flow to establish the
control, and then to work away from the control.

Although the assumption that uniform flow will be present at the cross-sections is incorrect,
calculation of the “normal flow depth” at each section will give an indication of the type of flow. In
Table 4.4 the “normal flow depths” have been calculated. This is not the solution to the problem but
merely a way to establish the type of flow!

Solution Example 4.2

From Table 4.4 it could be concluded (Fr < 1) that the flow will be subcritical and hence that the
control will be downstream.

4-50 Hydraulic calculations

 Table 4.4: Flow characteristics (Example 4.2)
Calculation based on uniform flow assumption
Section Position Invert Slope (local) Yn A P R Cal Q Fr
ID ID (m) (m/m) (m) (m²) (m) (m) (m³/s)
a* b c d e f g h i j
1 Downstream 3,02 0,003 1,980 19,718 14,854 1,327 43,3 0,589
2 3,24 0,006 1,653 13,403 12,194 0,973 43,3 0,952
3 Site 3,75 0,004 1,725 15,614 13,316 1,027 43,3 0,792
4 3,99 0,007 1,622 14,026 12,656 0,958 43,3 0,908
5 Upstream 4,42
Note: * Refer to the legend table (Table 4.6)

Now start with the assumption of a flow depth at section 1 (downstream) and work upstream by
applying the continuity of energy as shown in Table 4.5. Assume that the secondary losses will be
negligible.

The flow depth at section 1 is assumed to be 2,258 m. The total energy level at this section is then
equal to 2,427 m.

Table 4.5: Flood level calculations

Section ΔX H total Fr Area P Velocity E1 Sf (So-Sf)avg E2' Δ(E2'-E1) Water
energy level
ID (m) (m) (m²) (m) (m/s) (m) (m/m) (m/m) (m) (m) (m)
a k l m n o p q r s t u v
1 1205,246 0,589 19,718 14,854 2,196 1205,246 0,00338 1205,00
65 0,000198 1205,245 -0,001
2 1205,544 0,675 17,499 13,709 2,474 1205,544 0,00299 1205,23
82 0,002349 1205,545 0,000
3 1205,832 0,904 14,105 12,765 3,070 1205,832 0,00475 1205,35
67 -0,000622 1205,833 0,001
4 1206,195 0,692 17,282 13,829 2,506 1206,195 0,00366 1205,87
66 0,002394 1206,195 0,000
5 1206,505 0,889 14,286 12,832 3,031 1206,505 0,00459 1206,04
Notes: A brief description of the columns content for the above tables is listed in Table 4.6

Table 4.6: Legend table

Column ID Description of the variable
a Section identification
b Description of the position
c Invert level (m)
Local slope calculated from the level difference between that of the section and the
d
upstream section divided by the distance between the sections
e Yn is the calculated flow depth assuming that uniform flow characteristics will occur
f Calculated area for the given Yn
g Calculated wetted perimeter for the given Yn
h Calculated hydraulic radius for the given Yn
i Calculated flow rate
j, m Froude number
k Distance between the sections
n Calculated area
o Calculated wetted perimeter

4-51 Hydraulic calculations

 Table
T 4.6: L
Legend tablee (continued d)
Colum
mn ID Desscription of the variablee
p Callculated veloocity
q Callculated totall energy
r Callculated enerrgy slope
s Callculated diffeerence of thee energy slop
pe and the channel slope
t Speecific energyy
u Diffference in th
he specific ennergy
v Callculated wateer level

4.3 Example 4.4

4 – Negligiible energy llosses (conveerging flow over short ddistance)

Problem
m description
n Example 4.4
4

A concreete chute witth a stream width

w of 0,6 m conveys water
w down the
t side of aan embankmeent 3,0 m
high witth a slope off 1,5 verticall to 1,0 horizzontal, see Figure
F T dischargge is 0,1 m³/s and the
4.2. The
water floows away frrom a trough ty, depth of flow and
h in the roadd profile. Caalculate the flow velocity
Froude nnumber at thee toe.

Figure 4.2: Concrrete chute down embankment

Solution
n Example 4.3
4

Since thee water has to

t dam in ord
der to run offf, a control iss created at the upper endd (Fr = 1)
Q2Β
 3 1
gΑ c
W
With:
Q = 0,1 m³/s
B = 0,66 m
Ac = Bcyc = 0,6yc
g = 9,881 m/s²
yc = 0,141 m
vc = 1,178 m/s

and E c  y c  v c  0,,141  1,178  0,212 m

2 2

2g 29,81

he energy loosses will be small in relaation to the chhange in leveel.

Since thee channel is very steep, th

4-52 Hydra
aulic calculatiions
 v 22
Consequently H  3,0  0,212  y 2  can be assumed.
2g
q  v 2 y 2  0,167 m 3 /sm
v2
v 2 = 7,9 m/s; y2 = 0,021 m and Fr2   17
gy 2
The actual velocity will be slightly lower. (If H>> y2, then v2  2gH )

4.4 Example 4.4 – Transition losses

Problem description Example 4.5

The normal (uniform) flow depth in a long 2 m wide, rectangular canal is 2 m and the normal flow
velocity 2 m/s. The Manning n-value is 0,02 s/m1/3. There is a 90° bend with a centre-line radius of
7 m. Calculate the Froude number for uniform flow conditions.

Solution Example 4.4

Calculate the flow depths just upstream and just downstream of the 90° bend.

vn 2,0
Frn    0,452 (based on the normal flow depth)
gy n 9,812,0

Downstream control and hence the depth just downstream of the bend will be 2 m.

Energy head loss through bend: h  

2B v 2
. 
2,0 2,0 2,0   0,1165 m
2

rc 2g 7,0 2 9,81 

Energy equation:
v2
Upstream energy head: H 1  H 2  h l   y2  hl
2g

H1 
2,02  2,0  0,1165  2,321 m
29,81
v12
 y1   2,321 m
2g
Write the velocity in terms of the upstream flow depth (y1) using continuity:

Q 2,02,0  2,0 4,0

v1   
A1 y1 2,0 y1
2
 4,0 
 
 y1 
 y1   2,321 m . Solving the only unknown term - y1
29,81
y1 = 2,143 m (depth upstream of bend)

4-53 Hydraulic calculations

4.5 Example 4.5
4 – Identifiication of accting controls

Problem
m description
n Example 4.5
4

Water flows across a 16 m wide road. The rooad has cross-falls of 2%%. Calculate tthe dischargee per unit
width thhat would floow across th
he road whenn the adjaceent level risees 0,5 m aboove the shouulder, see
Figure 44.3.

Figure 4.33: Flow across the road

Solution
n Example 4.5
4

Assume that the conntrol (point of release) occurs at th he crown (B). If there are no energgy losses
between A and B, thhe specific energy
e at thee top of the crown will be 0,5 – 0, 16 = 0,34 m and the
critical ddepth yc = 0,2227 m (two thirds
t of the specific enerrgy).

The corrresponding discharge

d perr unit width:
3

q  v c y c  g y c2  0,338
0 m 3 /s.m
m Assuume that the actual disch
harge is 0,3 m
m³/s.m

q2 and 3
yc  3  0,209 m Ec  y c  0,314 m
g 2

With this discharge, the normal flow

f depth (M
Manning) wiill be given by:
b

5 1
y 3S 2
q
n
Manning n-vaalue = 0,013 s/m1/3
With a M
5 1
y 3 0,02  2
0,3  y n  0,116 m  y c  0,209 m
0,013

The sloppe of 2% is thhus hydrauliccally steep an

and the controol is indeed at
a B. If yn waas found to be
b greater
than yc tthis would mean
m that thee control wass at C, and th
he depth therre would be yc, from wh hich point
calculatiions would then
t progresss upstream. Because thee depths of flow
f are smaall, one shouuld test to
see whetther the flow
w is indeed tuurbulent.

vy 0,3
Re   6
 2,6  10
0 5  2000 , indicating the
t flow is tu
urbulent.
υ 1,14  100

Now dettermine the depth

d yA at A.
A

4-54 Hydra
aulic calculatiions
 v A2 v2
0,5  y A   0,35 A (Energy equuation with prrovision for transition
t lossses)
2g 2g

and y A v A = 0,3 (conntinuity)

Thus yA = 0,472 m

The deptth varies froom 0,209 to 0,472

0 m andd since the crross-sectionaal areas diffeer by more thhan 40%,
more thaan one increm ment should be used. Usee three increements; i.e. depths
d of: 0,2209; 0,297; 0,384
0 and
0,472 m (see Figure 4.4), and Ta able 4.7.

Figure 4..4: Incremen

nts of flow depth
d acrosss the road

dE
 So  Sf (Energy equation for prismaticc channels)
Δx

dE  v2   v2 
x  dE   y 1  1    y 2  2 
So  Sf  2g   2g 

v2n 2
So = -0,002 m/m (uphill) Sf  4

y 3

Tabble 4.7: Calcculation tablle (Example 4.5)

y E Sf Sf(average) Δx
(m) (m) (m//m) (m/m) (m)
0,209 0,314 0,0022792
0,001831
0 1,60
0,297 0,349 0,0000870
0,000619
0 3,23
0,385 0,416 0,0000368
0,000277
0 3,81
0,472 0,493 0,0000185
ΣΔx
Σ = 8,64 m

ΣΔx = 8,64 > 8,0 thuus the dischaarge per unit width should be less ([Link]. q should bee smaller).
Choose ssmaller q andd repeat until ΣΔx ≈ 8,0 m for a moree accurate annswer.

4-55 Hydra
aulic calculatiions
5 SURFAC
CE DRAINA
AGE

A numbeer of typical problems are explained bbelow.

5.1 Worked Example

E 5.1 - Flow deptth on the roa
ad surface

m description
Problem n Example 5.1
5

Determinne the depthh of flow if th

he rainfall inntensity is 10
00 mm/h on a roadway w
with a width
h of 10 m
and a crooss-fall of 2%
%. The road gradient is 66%.

The aim
m should alw ways be to liimit the flow
w depth on the maximum of 6 mm to
t road surrface to a m
prevent hhydroplaningg.

n Example 5.1
Solution 5

Figure 5.1 providess the relatioonship betweeen the road

d gradient and road crooss-fall, widtth of the
roadwayy, the energy slope and th
he flow depthh.

F
Figure 5.1: Depth
D of sheeet flow on rroad surfacee (Laminar flow
f conditioons assumed
d)

Figure 55.1 could bee used to deetermine thee flow depth

h by starting with the rooad gradient (n2) and
moving anti-clockwiise on the nomograph.

Sf, the ennergy slope is

i dependent on n1 and n2 and may bee calculated as
a follows:
Sf  n 12  n 22
…(5.1)
…

5-56 Surface
S drain
nage
Sf  2 2  6 2
Sf  6,322%

Calculatte the flow paath length, Lf:

1 1
 n2 2  6 2  2
L f  W 1  22   110 1  2 
n1   2  
  …(5.2)
…
L f  31,662

 
d  4,6xx102 L f I
0,55
S 
0.2
f …(5.3)
…


d 4,6xx102  31,62100 0,5
0,066320.2  4,499 mm
5.2 Worked Example
E 5.2 – Capacity of side chan
nnel

m description
Problem n Example 5.2
5

Determinne the flow capacity in a side channeel cross secttion shown in

n Figure 5.22, and the dim
mensions
providedd below.

Figure 5.2:: Channel crross section

Manningg roughness, n = 0,015 s//m1/3

Flow deppth, Y = 1000 mm
Y1 = 40 m
mm
1/ZA = 1/20
1/ZB = 1/40
Road graadient = 5 %

n Example 5.2
Solution 5

The folloowing relatioonships could

d be obtainedd for geomettry (units in mm):
m

Y – Y1 )
X = ZA(Y …(5.4)
…

X = (20))(100 – 40)
X = 12000
ZBY1 = ((40)(40)
ZBY1 = 11600
Top widdth, T = 12000 + 1600 = 28
800 mm
T
Z
Y

5-57 Surface
S drain
nage
Q = QA+ QB see calculations
c in Table 5.11.
S = 0,05 m/m
s 1/3
Manningg n = 0,015 s/m

Ta
able 5.1: Ch
hannel flow characterist
c tics
Parameterr Section A SSection B
A A  0,,50,1  0,041,2 A B  00,50,040 1,6 
Crosss-sectional arrea (m²)
A A  0,0084 A B  00,032

Wetted perimeteer (m)


PA  0,1  0,06   1,2 
2

2 0,5

PB  1,6 0,044   0,001
2

2 0,5
0,04
PA  1,3002 PB  1,6001

Hydraulic radiuus (m) RA = 0,06454 R B= 0,020

Flow ratte from Mannning (m3/s)

R 0,667S0,5 Q A = 0,2015 QBB = 0,03514
Q A
n

The total capacity off the channel is:

Qtotal = 00,2366 m3/s

5.3 Worked Example

E 5.3 – Capacity of drop grid
d inlet

m description
Problem n Example 5.3
5

Determinne the flow capacity of a drop grid inlet, dimennsions of 0,9 by 0,6 m an
and a submerrgence of
0,2 m iff the approacching flow is subcriticall. For compaarison with Figure
F 5.6 aassume that the inlet
coefficieent = 0,8 andd the blockag
ge factor, F = 0,5.

n Example 5.3
Solution 5

Figure 55.3 provides the relationsship of flow rrate for an orrifice controll or a broad-ccrested weir..

Figure 5.3: Section th rough outleet: Drowned conditions

Q  CFA 2gH
H …(5.5)
…

w
where:
C = inlet coefficient (0,6 forr sharp edges or 0,8 for rounded
r edgees)
F = blockage faactor (say 0,55)
A = effective crross-sectionaal plan area of
o the openinng (m²)
H = total energyy head abovee grid (m)

5-58 Surface
S drain
nage
 Fig
gure 5.4: Exxample of ty
ype of grid in
nlet

From Eqquation 5.5:

Q  1,777A H

A  0,90,6  0,54 m
m²

Q  1,77 0,54  0,,2

Q = 0,4227 m3/s

The calcculation of thhe flow rate was

w based onn the orifice equation.
e

5.4 Worked Example

E 5.4 – Kerb flow
w

Problem
m description
n Example 5.4
5

Determinne the kerb flow

f rate if th
he flow deptth is 100 mm
m and the roaad gradient iss 4%. The ro
oad cross-
1/3
fall is 2%
% and the Maanning rough hness is 0,01 5 s/m .

Solution
n Example 5.4
5

The Mannning equatioon may be ussed.

5
1 A3
Q S
n 2
P3
1
A YT  0,5 0,,1 5,0  0,2
Y 25 m²
2

5-59 Surface
S drain
nage
P  Y  Y 2  T 2  0,1  0,12  5,02  5,101 m

4
S  0,04 m/m
100
5

Q
1 0,25 3 0,04  0,446 m³/s .
0,015 5,101 23

Strictly speaking, the very wide section with variable velocities should be subdivided into narrower
sections.

5.5 Worked Example 5.5 – Scour velocity

Problem description Example 5.5

Determine the maximum flow depth and velocity in a wide channel with a slope, S is 2%. The channel
is lined with stones (relative density 2,65) and representative size (more than 50% by mass) of
250 mm.

Solution Example 5.5

For a wide channel it is known that:

R=D=y

where:
R = hydraulic radius (m)
D = y = flow depth (m)

From Chezy:
 12R 
V  18log   RS
 k 
s
…(5.6)

From Shields (Equation 5.7) it follows that for a stable channel:

d1 > 11 DS …(5.7)

Dy
0,25 1,14 m
110,02
Now the velocity can be calculated using Equation 5.6:

 121,14 
v  18 log  1,140,02
 0,25 

v = 4,71 m/s

5-60 Surface drainage

5.6 Worked Example
E 5.6 – Protection
n measures

Problem
m description
n Example 5.6
5

Determinne the requiired diameterr of stones tto protect th

he sides and bottom of a trapezoidall channel
with sidee angles of 25°
2 and a floww depth of 1 ,8 m. The stones are slig
ghtly angularr and have an
n angle of
repose of 30°. The chhannel slope is 0,1%.

Solution
n Example 5.6
5

For a staable bed the particle

p size (d1) should aat least be:

DS  11 1,8 0,001  0,0

d 1  11D 0198 m

For stablle side slopes the particlee size (d2) shhould at least be:

8,3Ds
d2 
tan 2 θ
cossθ 1 
tan 2 φ
…(5.8)
…
where:

θ = anglle of slope off sides of thee channel (°)

Ø = anglle of repose of
o stone mateerial (°)

F
Figure 5.5: Required
R sizzes of the stoone for erossion protectiion of loose bbed channells
(Thhe side slopee, θ, should always
a be sm
maller than th
he angle of reepose, Ø, to eensure stability.)

From Eqquation 5.8:

d2 
8,3 1,8 0,001
0   0,028
0 m
tan 2 25 
cos 25  1 
tan 2 30 

5-61 Surface
S drain
nage
6 LOW LE
EVEL CRO
OSSINGS

6.1 Worked Example

E 6.1 – Low level crossing

Problem
m description
n Example 6.1
6

A river crossing sttructure is to t be provid ded for a teertiary road linking

l rurall settlementss on both
banks off a river. Noo structure exists and veehicles such as tractors, four-wheel ddrive vehiclees, LDVs
and donkkey carts crooss via the saandy riverbedd. The route is not accesssible for motoorcars. Moto orcars use
an alternnative route via
v the main road with a llength of 45 km. Althoug gh the currennt traffic voluume is 50
vehicles per day, it is expected to increase to 300 vehiicles per day y, should a pproper river crossing
structuree be providedd. The expected traffic grrowth rate fo
or the next 200 years is 2%% per year.

At the ppoint of the crossing

c the river has a catchment area
a of 360 km².
k The 1:22 year flood has been
determinned as 120 m³/s.
m

Test pitss were excavvated in the sandy

s riverbeed. Solid rocck was encou
untered at deppths varying
g between
1,2 m annd 2,0 m. Rocck is also dayy lighting in places.

The apprroach gradieents of the ro oad are modeerate and therre is no horizzontal curvat
ature. The preeliminary
design oof the verticall alignment of
o the road aacross the stru
ucture to be provided hass also been done.
d The
straight section in thhe middle (L2) has a lenggth of 20 m, and K1 and K3 are both 4 m (refer to t Figure
6.1). Thee slope of thee road on thee southern baank is - 5,6%
%, and on the northern bannk 7,0%.

Figgure 6.1: Deefinition of syymbols for the

t flow oveer the structture

The deckk thickness is

i taken as 500
5 mm, andd the soffit of the deck iss on average 1 400 mm above
a the
riverbedd.

Solution
n Example 6.1
6

 Desiign flow ratee

The design level is determined as per Secttion 6.3.3. Design D level 1 is taken as the initiaal choice.
Because of the expected traffic volumev of 3000 vehicles per
p day exceeeding the suuggested 250 0 vehicles
per day, the design level
l is increeased to leveel 2. This is supported
s by
y the availabbility of an allternative
route of length less than
t the sugg gested 50 kmm. As the critteria suggestted for designn level 3 aree not met,
design leevel 2 is seleected.

6-62 Low
w level crossiings
The design flow rate is determined from Equation 6.1:

Q design  f i Q 2 …(6.1)

From Table 6.1 follows that f2 is 0,50 and Q2 is the discharge with a 1:2 year return period (120 m³/s).

Table 6.1: Levels of design for low-level structures*

Average no of times flow can be Average length of period flow is
Design Dimensionless expected to be exceeded per year exceeded (hours)
level factor, fi Min Max Average Min Max Average
value value value value value value
1 0,25 0,0 4,2 1,3 0,0 30 9,0
2 0,50 0,0 2,4 0,8 0,0 13 5,5
3 1,00 0,0 1,4 0,5 0,0 6 3,4
Note: * Based on observed data from the Northern Province

Qdesign = 0,5 x 120 m³/s

= 60 m³/s

 Cross-section

With a design period of 20 years and 2% growth in traffic per year, the anticipated 300 vehicles per
day is expected to increase to 446 vehicles per day after 20 years. Because of this being less than the
suggested 500 vehicles per day and visibility being good, a single-lane structure is opted for. The
cross-fall in the direction of flow is taken as 2%.

 Selection of structure

Because of good, but uneven founding conditions a low-level bridge is opted for. Six spans of 6 m
each fit the river cross-section well. Piers are 300 mm thick.

 Hydraulic calculations

The capacity of the structure is determined as the sum of the flow that can be accommodated over the
structure and through the structure.

Flow over the structure

Assume supercritical flow and decide on a maximum flow depth of 0,1 m (d). The flow that can be
accommodated over the structure is determined from Equation 6.2.

A 5/3 1/2
over S 0
Q over  2/3
…(6.2)
n Pover

A over  A 1  A 2  A 3 , or

1 1
A over  d 800K1d  dL 2  d 800K 3 d …(6.3)
3 3
and

6-63 Low level crossings

Pover  P1  P2  P3 , or

1 1
Pover  800K 1d  L 2  800K 3 d …(6.4)
2 2

where:
Qover = the discharge that could be accommodated over the structure within the
selected flow depth (m3/s)
Aover = area of flow over structure at the flow depth selected (m²)
S0 = slope in direction of flow, for example 0,02 or 0,03 m/m
n = Manning n-value. For a concrete deck nconcrete
Pover = wetted perimeter at the flow depth selected (m)
A1, A2, A3 = the areas defined in Figure 6.1 (m2)
d = depth of flow over the structure (m)
K1 = the geometric K value for vertical curve 1
K2 = the geometric K value for vertical curve 3
With K being a vertical road alignment parameter, defined as the horizontal length of
road required for a 1% change in the gradient of the road.

S0 is 0,02 (2% as above) and Manning n roughness parameter for concrete is 0,016 s/m1/3. The cross-
section area of flow is determined using Equation 6.2.

1 1
A over  d 800K1d  dL 2  d 800K 3 d where K1 and K3 are both 4 and L2 is 20 m (Equation 6.3)
3 3
Aover = 3,19 m2
1 1
Pover  800K 1d  L 2  800K 3 d = 37,89 m (equation 6.4)
2 2

From Equation 6.2:

A 5/3 S1/2 3,19 5 3 0,02 1 2
Q over  over2/3 0 
n Pover 0,016 37,89 2/3
Qover = 5,42 m³/s

Establish whether flow is indeed supercritical by calculating the Froude number (Equation 6.5):

2
Q over B …(6.5)
Fr 
g A 3over

where:
B = L1 + L2 + L3 (m), the width of the channel (or the length of the structure)
g = 9,81 m/s², the gravity constant

1 1
and L1  800K 1d and L 3  800K 3 d
2 2

B = L1 + L2 + L3, L1 = L3 = 8,94 m and L2 is 20 m, giving B equal to 37,89 m

Fr = 1,87, which is > 1,0 m, confirming supercritical flow over the deck of the structure.

Flow passing through the structure

6-64 Low level crossings

Assume outlet controol, then:
Q under  v under A eff …(6.6)
…

v under is determined from

f Equatio
on 6.7, for w
which the following is req
quired:

H1  H 2 …(6.7)
…
v under  2
C n eff LB
 4/3
2gg R

w
where:
Aeff = the effective inllet area throu ugh the struucture (m²) = ΣAcell (the effective
inlett area througgh the structu
ure)
LB = the total
t width o f the deck off the structure (m)
v undeer = the velocity
v of fllow through the structuree (m/s)
C = facto
or that refleccts the transittion losses (E
Equation 6.8))

C   K inl  K out each cell

c
…(6.8)
…

Kinl and Kout are determin

ned as follow
ws for rectang
gular section
ns:

Kinl at outlet control: Sudden transsition: Kinl = 0,5

Gradual trannsition: Kinl = 0,25
5

Kout at outlett control: Sudden transsition: Kout = 1,0

Gradual trannsition: Kout = 1,0 for
f 45º < θ < 80º
0,7 for
f θ = 30º
0,2 for
f θ = 15º

Figure 6.2 : Definition of symbols

6-65 Low
w level crossiings
By applying the conservation of energy principle, determine the depth upstream of the structure, h as
shown in Figure 6.2, that is required to pass the flow rate, Qover:

v 22
h d …(6.9)
2g
H1 = h + x + D …(6.10)

where:
x = the thickness of the deck (depending on the structural design outcome) (m)
D = the height of the soffit of the deck above the river invert level (m)

H 2  D  L BS0 …(6.11)
where:
LB = the total width of the deck of the structure (m)
S0 = slope of the conduit underneath the structure (m/m)

Determine the depth upstream of the structure, h, that is required to pass the flow rate, Qover using
Equation 6.9.
v2
h  2  d , where v 2 = Qover/Aover = 1,70 m/s
2g
h = 0,247m

From Equation 6.10:

H1 = h + x + D, where h is as above, x = 0,5 m and D = 1,4 m
H1 = 2,147 m

From Equation 6.11:

H2 = D – LB S0, where LB = (4,0) + (2)(0,25) = 4,5 m (for the guide-blocks)
H2 = 1,4 – (4,5) (0,02)
H2 = 1,31 m

Assume Kinl = 0,5 and Kout = 1,0 (both sudden transitions), then
C = 6 x (0,5 + 1,0), see Equation 6.8.
C=9

Pcell is the total wetted perimeter of each cell (m).

Pcell = (5,7)( 2) + (1,4)(2) = 14,2 m
Pconcrete n concrete Priver n river
n cell   and assume nriver to be 0,03 s/m1/3
Pcell Pcell
5,7  21,40,016 5,70,03
n cell  
14,2 14,2
1/3
ncell = 0,022 s/m

Peff = ΣPcell = (6)(14,2) = 85,2 m

n eff 
 n cell Pcell 
Peff

n eff 
60,02214,2
85,2
neff = 0,022 s/m1/3

6-66 Low level crossings

R = Aeff/Peff where
Aeff = (6)(5,7)(1,4) = 47,88 m2

R = 0,562 m

v under from Equation 6.7 is:

H1  H 2 2,147  1,31
v under  2 
C n eff

LB 9 0,022  4,5
2


0,562 4/3
4/3
2g R 2(9,81)
v under = 1,344 m/s

Also from Equation 6.6 Q under  v under A eff = 64,35 m³/s

Design discharge

The capacity of the structure at the design level Qover + Qunder = 69,8 m³/s

As Qover + Qunder is larger than Qdesign (60 m³/s), the design is complete as the structure is adequate. If
this was not the case, the level of the deck would have to be adjusted, and the calculation be redone.

6-67 Low level crossings

7 LESSER CULVERT
TS AND ST
TROMWA
ATER PIPE
ES

7.1 Example 7.1

7 - Determ
mination of th
he required culvert sizee

Problem
m description
n Example 7.1
7

A culverrt size needs to be determ

mined whichh would hand
dle the design
n flood (QD)). The calculated 1:20
8 m3/s and the
year floood (Q20) is 85 t road cann be assumedd to be a Claass 3 road. From Figurre 7.1 the
design fflood frequenncy is determ
mined as T = 15 years and the callculated 1:155 year flood d (Q15) is
44,5 m3//s.

Figu
ure 7.1: Desiign flood freequency estimate

No signiificant debris is anticipatted since thee catchment area consists mainly of grassland. The T client
favours tthe use of cirrcular (pipe)) culverts. Thhe final levell of the roadw
works acrosss the river will be at a
level of 22,5 m above the riverbed d.

The absoolute roughnness, ks, for the

t trapezoiddal river chaannel is 0,1 m. m The crosss-sectional details
d are
providedd in Figure 7.2
7 . The natu
ural slope of tthe river, S0, is 0,0015 m/m
m upstream m from the cuulvert and
it is 0,0004 m/m dow wnstream froom the culveert. The culv vert will be placed at thhe same slop pe as the
upstreamm river sectioon. The subm
mergence of the culvert should
s be lim D ratio of about 1,2.
mited to a H/D

7-68 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

 Figure 7.2:: Cross-sectiional detailss of the natu
ural channell

Solution
n Example 7.1
7

First calcculate the noormal flow depth, Yn andd flow condittions in the channel upstrream and dow
wnstream
of the planned culverrt.

 D
Determine the
t upstream
m normal floow depth

For a unniform channel the relatio

onship of Chèèzy can be used.

QC RS A
…(7.1)
…

where:
Q = flow raate (m3/s)
C = Chèzyy constant
R = hydrauulic radius (m
m)
A = m2)
area (m
Yn upstream = Y = uppstream norm mal flow dep
pth (notation used here) (m
m)

 12R 
44,5188 log  RS A
 ks 
 12A  AS
44,5  188 log  A
 k s P  P

Substitutting the valuues for A, P, S and ks in thhe above equ

uation provid
des:

44,5  188 log


 (12) 8Y
Y  (2)(0,5)(Y
Y 2 )(2)   8YY  (2)(0,5)(YY )(2)(0,00115) 8Y  (2)((0,5)(Y
2
2
)(2) 
(0,1)(8  (2) 5 Y)
Y  (8  (2)) 5 Y)
 

Solve th
he upstream normal flow
w depth Y in
n the above equation.

Y = 2,0 m and A = 24,0

2 m2, hen
nce V = 1,8511 m/s.

The floww type can bee determined

d by calculatiing the Froud
de number,
2
Q B
Fr 2   0,2327 and
a Fr = 0,482
A3
gA

7-69 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

The flow is thus subcritical (Fr < 1) and therefore the cross-sectional area of the river may be reduced,
resulting in a deceleration of the flow and some damming upstream from the intended structure (Note:
In the case of supercritical flow it is not allowed to decelerate the flow, because it might lead to the
creation of a hydraulic jump that might breach the downstream structure).

 Determine the downstream normal flow depth

In a similar way as above, the downstream normal flow depth can be determined. In this case
the downstream normal flow depth, Yds = 1,541 m, Frds = 0,841 and the flow is subcritical.

2
Total energy head upstream of the culvert, H 1  v  Y  2,175 m
2g
 Determine the size of the culverts to manage the flow

The height difference between the river bed and the final road level is 2,5 m. If the optimum H/D ratio
of 1,2 is used the maximum vertical dimension of the culvert (D) is 2,5/1,2 = 2,08. Based on Figure
7.4 multiples of 1,8 m diameter pipe culverts will be used.

For a culvert with a diameter of 1,8 m and the downstream flow depth of 1,541 m, the flow will
probably be inlet controlled (to be verified) and the flow can be evaluated based on the relationship for
inlet control (Table 7.1).

Table 7.1: Relationships for the flow rate under inlet control

ROUND CULVERTS RECTANGULAR CULVERTS

D = height (inside) (m)

D = inside diameter (m)
B = width (inside) (m)
For : For:
0 < H1/D < 0,8 0 < H1/D ≤ 1,2

0,05 1,9
Q S   H1  2 2
 0,48 0  D Q  C B BH1 gH1
D 2
gD  0,4    3 3
Where: CB = 1,0 for rounded inlets (r > 0,1B)
CB = 0,9 for square inlets
And for: 0,8 < H1/D ≤ 1,2 * And for: H1/D > 1,2

Q  C h BD 2gH 1  C h D 
0,05
1,5
Q  S0   H1 
 0,44    
 0,4   D 
2
D gD
Where: Ch = 0,8 for rounded inlets
(S0 = slope of culvert bed with slight
Ch = 0,6 for square inlets
effect on capacity)
Note:
* For H1/D > 1,2, the orifice formulae
 D
applies Q  C D A 2 g  H 1   with
 2
CD ≈ 0,6

H 1 2,5
In this example, the maximum   1,39 and the flow rate through a culvert can be determined.
D 1,8

7-70 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

Table 77.1 reflects thhat for a circular pipe cculvert, undeer submerged
d conditions with H/D ≥ 1,2, the
flow ratee can be deteermined as fo
ollows:
 D
Q  C D A 2g H 1   …(7.2)
…
 2
1,8   1,8 
2

Q  0,6 29,81 22,5 - 
 π   8,5 5 m³/s
 2   4 
The nummber of pipess required = 44,5/8,55
4 = 55,20.

Determinne if it is praactical to insttall 6 pipe cuulverts in the cross-section of the riveer.

Assume the distancee between thee pipes is 1000 mm and th he wall thickness of the ppipes is abou
ut 78 mm,
then the total width of six culveerts will be = (6)[1,8+(2 2)(0,078)] +(5)(0,1) = 1 2,236 m. With
W some
groundw n in Figure 7.3
work it is posssible to place the culvertts as is shown 7 .

Figure 7.3: Posittioning of th

he 6 pipe cullverts

ulverts that could have been used here.

There are, howeverr, also box cu h

Figure 77.4 reflects the requiredd culvert sizee for a given n (design) flow
fl rate andd a H/D ratiio of 1,2.
Referencce to pipe annd portal (box
x) culverts arre reflected here.
h

By meanns of Figure 7.4 and by assuming thaat a portal (b box) culvert could be useed as an alterrnative to
the calcuulation abovee, the requireed culvert sizze for Inlet Control
C condiitions could bbe obtained.

Assume that 5 culverrts will be ussed, the flow

w per culvert = 44,5/5 = 8,9 m³/s.

7-71 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

 Fiigure 7.4: Diagram
D for the determiination of sizzes of culverrts and storm
m water pip
pes

Using Fiigure 7.4 forr a square cu

ulvert and fo llowing the lines for Inleet Control ((clockwise), the value
for H1 = 2,4 m for thhe flow of 8,,9 m³/s, a 18 00 x 1800 mm
m portal culvert could bbe selected (as shown
in Figurre 7.5). The H/D ratio will
w howeverr be 1,33 an nd the capacity of the 5 culverts neeeds to be
verified.

t followingg formula (Table

This resuult can be chhecked with the T 7.1):

Q  C h BD 22gH1  C h D 
…(7.3)
…

Where Ch = 0,8 for rounded inleets and Ch = 0,6 for squarre inlets.

Q  0,61,81,8 29,812,4  0,61,88 = 9,893 m³/s

m
aand hence 5 culverts willl be sufficiennt.

7-72 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

Figure 7.5: Determ
mining culverrt size (inlet control)

7-73 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

 E
Evaluation of the same problem wiith the upstrream slope equal
e to the downstream
m slope

It follow
ws from the new
n slope deetails (S0 upstrream and S0 doownstream is 0,0
0015 m/m) tthat the upstrream and
downstreeam normal flow depths will be 2,0 m, as was determined
d beefore. If the upstream water level
is limited to a maxim
mum of 2,5 m to prevennt the inundaation of the road, r the cullvert flow rate can be
determinned as follow
ws.

For inlett control connditions the length, rougghness, slopee and hydrau
ulic radius off the culvertt have no
F outlet coontrol these variables do influence thhe flow rate and have
influencee on the disccharge rate. For
to be connsidered.

Assume that the folllowing inforrmation is s till valid:

Slope off the culvert, S0 = 0,0015 m/m

Roughneess of the cullvert, ks = 0,0
002 m
Diameteer of the culvvert, D = 1 8000 mm
Length oof the culvertt, L = 25 m
By assumming that 6 culverts
c will be used the fflow rate perr culvert = 44
4,5/6 = 7,4177 m³/s.

It was reeflected abovve that the up

pstream floww is subcriticcal, i.e. Fr = 0,482, hencee downstream
m control
i the channeel prior to thee placing of the culvert.
will be eexperienced in

By appllying the energy

e equaation betweeen the upsttream/inlet (Position suubscript 1) and the
downstreeam/outlet (PPosition subsscript 2) (as represented in Figure 7.6) the requiired upstream
m energy,
H1, can bbe determineed by using th
he energy prrinciple.

Figure 7.6: Energy com

mponents off flow throug
gh a culvertt

H1  S0 L  H 2  h l1 2  h f1 2 …(7.4)

…
(betweenn Position 1 (upstream) and
a Position 2 (downstreaam))

For the fflow of 7,4177 m³/s the flo

ow velocity iin the pipe cu
ulvert can bee determinedd as follows:

7,4417
v  2,9155 m/s
π( 0,9) 2

The secoondary lossess, hl, can be determined

d aas follows:

h l1-2 = hl inlet + hl outleet …(7.5)

…

h l1- 2  (K
K inlet  K outleet )
v2
 0,5  1
2,915 = 0,649 m
2

2g 29,81

7-74 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

The friction losses, hf, can also be determined, assuming that full bore flow conditions in the culvert
will prevail:
λLv 2
hf  …(7.6)
2gD

For rough turbulent flow conditions,

1 3,7D
 2log( ) …(7.7)
λ ks

λ  0,02015

h f1 2 = 0,121 m

For outlet control conditions, the upstream conditions can now be determined (Equation 7.4):

H1  H 2  Z1  h l1 2  h f1 2

H1 = (2,0 + 0,175 ) - 0,0015(25) + 0,649 + 0,121

H1 = 2,908 m

The value of H1 for outlet control is greater than the maximum allowable damming height of 2,5 m,
hence outlet control will be maintained through the culvert. The only way to reduce the upstream flow
depth is to consider more culverts of similar dimension in parallel or larger culverts.

Assume that seven culverts will be used. With the flow of 44,5/7 = 6,357 m³/s ( v = 2,498 m/s) and the
value of the losses, H L  h l1 2  h f1 2 = 0,477 + 0,089 = 0,566 m, the upstream conditions can now be
determined.

H1 = H2 - Z1 + HL

H1 = (2,0 + 0,175) - 0,0015(25) + 0,566

H1 = 2,704 m (which is still greater than the allowable upstream damming height)

To illustrated the use of Figure 7.4, start at Q = 6,357 m³/s (flow rate in each of the 7 culverts) and
HL = 0,566 m, then it can be seen that the 1 800 mm pipe culvert is still insufficient to transport the
flow (Figure 7.7). Figure 7.4 could thus be used to consider other culvert sizes.

Placing the seven culverts in parallel will also however result in a section width of about
(7)[1,8+(2)(0,078)] +(6)(0,1) = 14,3 m, which is much wider than the river base of 8,0 m.

The number of 1,8 m pipe culverts required to prevent overtopping of the road will be eight (although
still marginally undersize). Alternatively portal culverts with a larger vertical dimension (2,1 m) could
be used following the same procedure as above.

An economic/technical assessment of the alternatives i.e. re-alignment of the road against provision of
a practical culvert design have to be conducted to select the solution for implementation without
changing the risk of failure.

7-75 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

Figure 7.7: Determiining culvertt size (outlett control)

7-76 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

7.2 Example 7.2
7 - Erosion
n protection downstream
m from a culvert

Problem
m description
n Example 7.2
7

In Exammple 7.1 it was

w indicated that for inleet control it is o convey 8,99 m3/s (for H/D = 1,2)
i possible to
through a 1,8 m diammeter circulaar culvert. Yoou are now requested
r to design the pprotection wo orks for a
single 1,,8 m diameteer culvert, fu
unctioning unnder inlet con
ntrol conditio
ons with H/DD = 1,2. Thee concrete
culvert is 28 m long with an estimmated absoluute roughness of 0,003 m.m The culvert rt will be insttalled at a
slope of 0,01 m/m.

The flow
w releases intto a natural trapezoidal
t rriver section with a base width of 2,00 m and side slopes of
1V:2H. T The natural slope of the river is 0,0004 m/m and the roughnesss is 0,05 m.. Details of the
t cross-
section aare given in Figure
F 7.8.

Fig
gure 7.8: Up
pstream view
w of the culv
vert

Solution
n Example 7.2
7

The unifform flow eqquations of Manning

M andd Chezy can only
o be usedd if uniform fflow occurs. Uniform
flow willl occur if thet cross-secctional param meters, rougghness and slope
s remainn constant. With the
culvert length of onlyy 28 m it is unlikely
u w be reachhed within the culvert.
thatt the normal flow depth will
By assum ming that thhe normal flo ow depth wiill be reached, the analysis is conserrvative, resullting in a
flow deppth that is less (for the slope steeper that the crittical slope, S0 > Sc) or thhe flow deptth will be
greater ffor a subcriticcal slope (S0 < Sc).

Firstly tthe normal fllow depth, yn

n, downstreaam from the culvert in the river is dettermined by using the
Chezy foormula:

vC R
RS
…(7.8)
…
 122R 
Q  vA  18  log  RSA
 k s  …(7.9)
…
where:
Q = flow w rate (m3/s)
v = averrage velocity y (m/s)
R = hydrraulic radius (m)
ks = absoolute roughneess (m)
S = slope of the riverr section (m//m)
Table 7.22 reflects thee cross-sectio
onal parametters for a circcular pipe.

7-77 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

Firstly thhe normal floow depth, yn, downstream
m from the culvert
c in thee river is dettermined by using the
Chezy foormula:

vC R
RS
…(7.8)
…
 12RR
Q  vA  18  log  RSA
 k s  …(7.9)
…
where:
Q = flow w rate (m3/s)
v = averrage velocity y (m/s)
R = hydrraulic radius (m)
ks = absoolute roughneess (m)
S = slope of the riverr section (m//m)
T
Table 7.2: Sectional parrameters forr a circular cross-sectionn
V
Variable Y < D/2 (θ < π radials)) Y > D/2 (θ > π radia
als)

Cross--sectional viiew

Area, θ θ

R 2 θ  20,5 R  y Sin  R R 2  (R 2 θ)  2 0,5R  y Sin
πR S  R
A (m2) 2 2
Wetter perimeter, R θ  R 2π  θ
P (m)
Hydrraulic radius, A
R (m) P

By substtituting the known

k valuess:

 12R 
8,9  18  log  R 0,004 A
 0,05 
with:
A  2y n   20,5 y n  2y n 
P  2  2  5 y n 
A
R
P
where:
yn = the unknown
u norrmal flow deepth (m)

Solving for yn:

yn = 1,0068 m

This indicates that thhe normal flo

ow depth in tthe river secttion downstreeam from thee culvert willl have no
backwatter influence on the culveert flow (yn < D).

7-78 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

Now the flow depth at the outlet of the culvert is determined. (Refer to the reasoning above where the
influence of assuming uniform flow in the culvert was explained.)

The critical slope in the culvert can be determined. Critical conditions will occur when Fr = 1, and the
critical slope Sc can be determined for full flow conditions as follows:
v2 Q2
Sc  2  2 2 …(7.10)
C R C A R

Sc = 0,00792 m/m

This indicates that the flow depth in the culvert will reduce downstream from the position where
critical flow occurs near the inlet of the culvert because S0 > Sc.

If it is assumed that the flow depth in the culvert Y is more than D/2, solve for a potential flow depth,
Y.

It is found that:
y = 1,330 m; A = 2,015 m² ; B = 1,582 m (top width of flow); v = 4,417 m/s and Fr = 1,25
(subcritical).

y/D = 1,330/1,8 = 0,739

Figure 7.9 can now be used to select the appropriate erosion protection.

In this example the appropriate protection falls in the Type III. Figure 7.10 can now be used to obtain
dimensions for outlet erosion protection.

7-79 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

.
Figu
ure 7.9: Lim
miting values for differeent methods of erosion protection
p at culvert outlets

7-80 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

 Ca
alculated dim
mensions:
D500 = 0,258 m
C = 10,8 m
A = 9,0 m
B = 9,0 m
D = 0,517 m
E = 1,8 m
F = 0,9 m

Figuree 7.10: Dimeensions for the

t outlet errosion protecction

Using Fiigure 7.11 with

w a flow of 8,9 m³/s in a circular cuulvert the vallues of Froudde and the flow depth
can also be obtained which will correspond
c w
with the calcu
ulated valuess.

7-81 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

Figurre 7.11: Diagram for the determinaation of outlet velocities for steep cuulverts and storm
water pipes (O
Only H1/D = 1,2, So > Sc)
S

7-82 Lesser culverts and stormwater pipes

8 BRIDGES AND MA
AJOR CUL
LVERTS

8.1 Worked Example

E 8.1 – Backwateer at a bridg
ge

Problem
m description
n Example 8.1
8

Determinne the backw

water causedd by a propoosed bridge across
a the Broekspruit. Details of th
he bridge
wn below in Figure
are show F 8.1.

Design ddischarge Q = 150 m3/s

Averagee bed slope So = 0,00
0082 m/m
Angle off skew ø = 15º
Bridge sspan on skeww bs = 17,6
6m
Projectedd bridge spann b = 17,0
0m
No of roows of piers Np = 1
Projectedd width of piier Wp = 2,00
0m

Fig
gure 8.1: Up
pstream view
w of the brid
dge

Determiine:

(i) C
Characteristiics of the uncconstricted fflood state
(ii) T
The flow typpe
(iii) Bridge opening ratio
B
(iv) V
Velocity heaad coefficients
(v) C
Calculate baackwater

Solution
n Example 8.1
8

(i) Characteristtics of the un

nconstricted fflood state:

First determine the normal

n flow depth,
d yn.

8-83 Bridges and

a major cu
ulverts
 Table 8.1: Sub-section details
Sub-section ni Ai (m2) Pi (m)

1 0,035 1,602y2 (y2 + 10,26 y2)0,5

2 0,030 18,61y 18,61
3 0,035 1,163y2 (y + 5,41 y2)0,5
2

Utilising the Manning equation the normal flow depth can be calculated, yn = 3,157 m.

Table 8.2: Sub-section flow characteristics

Ai qi
Sub- Ai Pi Ri  qi vi 
section (m2) (m) Pi (m3/s) Ai
(m) (m/s)

1 15,96 10,59 1,51 17,17 1,08

2 58,75 18,61 3,61 120,69 2,05

3 11,59 7,99 1,45 12,14 1,05

86,30 37,19 150,00

This result in the:

Flood stage level = 84,56 m
Width at flood stage = 36,06 m

(ii) Determine flow type:

 150 2 36,06  
1 1

 Q2B 
2 2

Frn =  
 gA 3    3 

 n   9,8186,30  

= 0,359 < 1

Flow is Type I or Type II.

Calculate specific energy (Esn) of unconstricted normal flow:

with yn = 3,157 m (Flood stage level – river bed level)

Q 150
vn = 
A n 86,30
= 1,738 m/s

Esn = yn 
vn
2

 3,157 
1,738
2

2g 29,81
= 3,311 m

8-84 Bridges and major culverts

Calculatte specific ennergy (Esc) off constricted flow criticall depth:

 150 2
1 1

 Q2  
3 3

y2c =  2     = 1,995 m
 9,81177 2 
 gb   
Q 150
v 2c =  = 4,424 m/s
y 2c b 2,817 17 

Esc = y 2c 
v 2cc
2
 1,995 
44,4242 = 2,992 m < Esn indicaating Type I flow (see
2gg 29,81
Figure 8..2).

Figgure 8.2: Typ

pe I flow witth substantiial damming
g and does not
n reach criitical condittions

Because the values of Esn and Esc are fairlyy close, and other lossess are so far ignored, it would
w be
prudent tto check Typpe I and Type II flow.

(iii) Calculate brridge opening

g ratio:

17   Q b 1110,25
Qb = 120,69  M = 
 17  1,61  Q 1150
= 110,25 m3/s = 0,735

(iv) Calculate velocity

v head
d coefficientss:

α1 =  qv  2

2
Qv n
= 1,20
α2 = om Figure 8..3)
1,15 (fro

8-85 Bridges and

a major cu
ulverts
 Figure 8.3: Estim
mation of thee velocity coeefficient, α2 (generic exaample)

(v) Calculate baackwater

For Typ
pe I flow:

Determinne secondaryy energy losss coefficient K* from Fig

gure 8.4:

F
Figure 8.4: Chart
C to deteermine the backwater
b coefficient,
c K
K*

8-86 Bridges and

a major cu
ulverts
 Projected area of piers in flow direction and projected area below normal water level.

Ap = Wp y n An2 = (bcosø)(yn)
= (2)(3,157) = 17cos15 3,157 
o

= 6,314 m² = 51,84 m²

Ap 6,314
J = 
A n2 51,84
= 0,122 (use J = 0,1 from Figure 8.4)

Eccentricity
e = Qa 12,14
1 1
Qc  17 
17,17  120,69  1  
 17  1,61 
= 0,56

From Figure 8.4 and with ø = 15º:

K* = 0,80

Approximate backwater (to estimate A1 in Equation 8.1):

2
v n2  A  2  A  2  v 2
h1  K α 2
* *
 α 1  n2    n2   n2 …(8.1)
2g  A 4   A 1   2g
where:
K* = secondary energy loss coefficient
α1, α2 = velocity coefficients
v n2 = Q (m/s) where Q = design discharge (m³/s)
A n2
An2 = projected flow area at constricted section 2 below normal water level of the
river section (m²)
A1 = flow area at section 1, including the influence of the backwater on the flow
depth (m²)
A4 = flow area at section 4 (m²)

= Q 150
v n2 
A n2 51,84
= 2,894 m/s

2
v
h1*1 = *
K α 2 n2 …(8.2)
2g

0,801,15 2,894
2
h1*1 =
29,81
= 0,393 m

A1 = A n  h 1*1 B  86,3   0,393 36,06 

= 100,46 m²

8-87 Bridges and major culverts

 uation 8.1):
Final esttimate of bacckwater (Equ
 A 
2
A 
2
v 2
h1*1 = h  α 1  n2
*1
1
   n2   n2
 A 4   A1   2g
2
 511,84  2  51 1,84    2,894  
2 2
= 0,393  1,20         
 866,30   100,46    29,81 
= 0,441 m
For Typ
pe II flow:

bc = b   W   17,0  2,0
p

= 15,0 m

Cb = om Figure 88.5
0,152 fro

Figure 8.5
5: Estimation
n of the Bacckwater Coeefficient, Cb
1 1

 Q 2  3  150  2 3
y2c =    
 gb 2   9,811152 
 c   
= 2,168 m

A n2 51,84
y = 
b 17
= 3,050 m

In 1st iterration, assum

me
Q 150
1
v1 = 
A n 86
6,30
= 1,738 m//s

for v 2c based on thee net width:

v 2c = gy2c 0,55  9,812,,1680,5
= 4,612 m//s

8-88 Bridges and major cu

ulverts
 2 2
v 2c v
h1*1 = α2 C b  1  α1 1  y 2c  y
2g 2g

=
1,154,6122 0,152  1  1,201,7382  2,168  3,050
29,81 29,81
= 1,436 - 0,185 + 2,168 - 3,050
= 0,371 m

Adjust result for improved value of v1 :

A1 = A n  h 1*1 B  86,30   0,371 36,06 
= 99,67 m²

150
v1 =
99,67
= 1,505 m/s

h1*1 = 1,436 
1,201,5052  2,168  3,050
29,81
= 0,417 m

Although the difference in this case is negligible, to be conservative, the higher value should be used.
From the calculations h1*1 for Type II flow was 0,417 m which is less than the backwater calculated
for Type I flow, thus Type I flow prevails i.e. h1*1 = 0,441 m.

Note that this example was also modelled in HEC-RAS (provided on the supporting flash drive) and
that the highest backwater was obtained by the Standard Step Energy Method. The backwater is
300 mm, which is less than the value of 441 mm obtained above. However, in this model the
ineffective flow area option had been used. The model was then re-run, with this option switched off
and a higher backwater of 580 mm was obtained in the revised model.

Users of HEC-RAS should therefore carefully consider the option where the bridge approach
conditions are “smoothed”, thereby reducing the backwater.

8.2 Worked Example 8.2 – Scour at a bridge

Problem description Example 8.2

Consideration is being given to construct a bridge across the Sand River, which is some 730 m wide at
the proposed bridge site. The potential scour at the bridge should be determined. This problem was
also evaluated with HEC-RAS, and the data files are included with the data files as [Link].

Figure 8.6 shows a plan view (obtained from the HEC-RAS problem evaluation) and the position of
the bridge relative to the other cross-sections. The cross-sectional information for all the sections is
available. The bridge will be positioned at cross-section 6.5 (downstream from cross-section 7 and
upstream of cross-section 6).

8-89 Bridges and major culverts

 Figure 8.66: General layout of thee cross-sectio
ons and the position of the bridge

The briddge data is deescribed belo own in Figurre 8.7.

ow and the brridge cross-ssection is sho

The briddge opening between the sloping abuutments is ap pproximately 126,61 m w wide and the bridge is
supporteed by five piiers, each with
w a width of 1,5 m (eequally spacced). The higgh (road surface) and
low cordd (bridge sofffit) values fo
or the bridge deck on the upstream sid
de are 6,7 annd 5,5 m resp
pectively.
The userr can open thet project (Example2.p
( prj) in HEC-RAS and by y selecting thhe appropriaate icons,
review thhe bridge datta which is not
n repeated hhere in detail.

The desiign flow ratee for which th

he scour anaalyses have to be conducted is the 1:1100 year floo
od (Q100),
which haas been deterrmined to be 850 m³/s.

The floww in the riverr is downstreeam control and the norm

mal flow dep
pth, yn, couldd be calculatted at the
bridge, aassuming a reepresentativee slope of 0,0002 m/m.

Bed matterial characcteristics

The sievve analyses (ppercentage passing)

p of thhe bed materiial revealed the
t followingg:

D50 = 0,00200 m
D90 = 0,00455 m

8-90 Bridges and

a major cu
ulverts
 Figu
ure 8.7: Upsstream and downstream
m bridge cro
oss-section frrom the HE
EC-RAS ana
alysis

Cross-seection detailss

The crooss-section details

d are given
g in the Table 8.3 below.
b Thesse details caan be obtain
ned from
analysis of the surveeyed cross-seection inform
mation, usin
ng software such
s as HEC C-RAS, or coomputing
the variaables by han
nd, as illustra
ated in Exammple 8.1.

Slope off the river

The geneeral slope off the river is 0,2

0 %.

Determiine

(i) Short-terrm general scour

(ii) Contracttion scour
(iii) Local sccour at the piers and abutm
ments
(iv) Total scoour
(v) Verify thhe scour depth with the m
method based
d on the principle of appllied stream power.
p

Solution
n Example 8.2
8

d discharge oof 850 m3/s will

For this analysis the design flood w be used (Chapter 3 describes prrocedures
mine the desiign flood).
to determ

his will result in a dischaarge per unit width of

The conttracted widthh at the bridge will be 1 26,61 m. Th
850/126,61 = 6,713 m3/s.

8-91 Bridges and

a major cu
ulverts
The normal flow depth (fixed bed), yn, of the river can be determined by the assumption of the energy
slope to be equal to the bed slope 0,002 m/m and by using the Chezy or Manning equations.

It is estimated that the bed roughness under flood conditions will be 0,002m, equal to D50 the
representative sediment material size.

Table 8.3: Details of cross-section 6.5 (Obtained from HEC-RAS analysis)

Wetted perimeter
Section yn (m) Area (m²) Flow rate (m3/s)
(m)
Left bank 209,97 288,17 168,75
Main channel 2,98 258,73 126,67 542,60
Right bank 185,40 283,48 138,65
Total 654,10 698,32 850,00

R = 0,937 m and v = 1,299 m/s

Top flow width = 698,2 m for the calculated normal flow depth of 2,98 m.

It is assumed that the bed material consists of deep alluvial sand with no cohesion.

(i) Short-term general scour

The regime equations are applied to establish equilibrium conditions at the design flow:

B  14Q 0,5 D 50
0,25
Fs0,5 …(8.3)

where:
B = mean channel width (m)
y = mean depth of flow (m)
Q = equivalent steady discharge which would generate the channel geometry (m3/s)
q = discharge per unit width (Q/B) (m3/s.m) (Note: To estimate channel geometry
conditions under flood conditions the design flood flow may be used.) (8.9)
D50 = median size of bed material (m)
Fs = side factor to describe bank resistance to scour (Table 8.4)

Table 8.4: Side factors

Bank type Value of Fs
Sandy loam 0,1
Silty clay loam 0,2
Cohesive banks 0,3

With Fs = 0,1 from Table 8.4 for sandy loam, the width B can be calculated.

B = 273 m, which is wider than the proposed bridge of 126,61 m.

Use Equation 8.4 to determine the mean flow depth at the equilibrium width:

 0,17
y  0,38q 0,67
D 50 …(8.4)

where:
y = mean depth of flow (m)
D50 = median size of bed material (m)

8-92 Bridges and major culverts

q = 850/273 = 3,114 m³/s.m

Mean depth y = 2,34 m. The maximum depth, Ymax = 1,25y = 2,92 m.

The maximum live-bed depth, Ymax, is slightly less than the fixed bed depth, yn of 2,98 m, which
reflects that no general short term scour will occur.

(ii) Contraction scour

It has been indicated that contraction scour can be determined by applying either the regime
equations (Equations 8.4 for the case of an alluvial channel) or the contraction equations (Equations
8.5 with 8.6 or 8.7).

The depth of scour is given by:

 v 22  v12 
d s  y 2  y 1   1  K   

…(8.5)
 2g 

Sediment-laden flow
6/7 2/3 1/3
y2  Qt   B1   n2 
      …(8.6)
y1  Q c   B2   n1 

Clear water flow

3/7
 Q2 
y2    ...(8.7)
2/3
 40D m B 22 

First apply the regime equation on the reduced width of 126,61 m. In this case q = 850/126,61 =
6,714 m³/s.m leading to a mean flow depth, y of 3,915 m. From Table 8.5, ymax can be determined as
follows: ymax = 1,25 x 3,915 = 4,893 m. This reflects a scour depth, ds = 4,893 – 2,98 = 1,913 m

Table 8.5: Factors to convert mean flow depth (y) to maximum channel depth
Description Multiplying factor
Straight reach of channel 1,25(*)
Moderate bend 1,50
Severe bend 1,75
Right-angled abrupt turn 2,00
Note: * Neill recommends that this factor be increased to 1,50 in cases where dune movement
takes place on the riverbed.

Secondly the contraction equations are used to determine the scour depth after it has been established
if the flow will be sediment laden or not.

V* can be determined using Equation 8.8.

V* = gDS = 9,81(2,98)(0,002) = 0,242 m/s …(8.8)

and the term, V*D50/ν = 483 >> 13, thus in turbulent flow region (see Figure 8.8).

8-93 Bridges and major culverts

The critiical shear vellocity is:
V*C
 0,12 …(8.9)
…
VSS

The settlling velocityy, Vss can be obtained froom Figure 8.9

8 for the rep
presentative particle, D500, and the
relative ddensity of 2,65, it follow
ws:

Vss = 0,224 m/s, and V*c = 0,029 m/s

m

The veloocity at the boundary

b between sedimment movemeent and no sediment movvement (the ‘critical’
velocity)), Vc, is deterrmined from
m the logarithhmic relationsship:

12R
Vc  5,75V*cc log …(8.10)
…
ks
12R   0,937  
From Eqquation 8.10:: Vc  5,75V
V*c log  5,75 0,029log12    0,6255 m/s
ks   0,00
02 

Figuree 8.8: Modifi

fied Lui Diag
gram showin
ng the relatiionships forr incipient seediment mov
vement

8-94 Bridges and

a major cu
ulverts
 F
Figure 8.9: Settling veloccity as a fun
nction of the sediment siize
(Shap on) (8.13)
pe factor nott taken into consideratio

Figure 8.10:
8 Long constriction
c in sedimentt-laden flow
w: definition of terms

8-95 Bridges and

a major cu
ulverts
The average approach flow velocity of 1,299 m/s > ‘critical’ velocity of 0,625 m/s, thus sediment will
be entrained and Equation 8.11 together with Figure 8.10 can be used to estimate contraction scour.
6/7 2/3 1/3
y2  Qt   B1   n2 
      …(8.11)
y 1  Q c   B2   n1 

6/7
y 2  850 
   1,469 (widths and n-values are equal for these sections)
y1  542,6 

y2 = (1,469)(2,98) = 4,378 m

Assuming a level bed with a total depth of 4,378 m, the velocity in the contraction can be determined:
850
v2   1,63 m/s
4,378126,61  51,5
Note that in this case the downstream area is 521,5 m², calculated as follows (4,378 x (126,61 –
5(1,5))). This is larger than the upstream main channel area of 258,73 m² (Table 8.3), and thus the
flow is expanding. Equation 8.12 is used to determine the contraction scour depth.
 v 2  v12 
d s  y 2  y1   1  K  2  and with K = 1 for a sudden transition
 …(8.12)
 2g 
 1,63 2  1,299 2 
d s  4,378  2,98  1  1,0 
 29,81 

ds = 1,468 m

This scour depth (1,468 m) is less than that obtained with the regime theory (1,913 m).

(iii) Local scour at piers and abutments

For piers in alluvial cohesionless materials:

Use Equations 8.13 and 8.14 to compute local scour in two different ways for alluvial channels
(cohesionless material). Obtain the factors needed for Equation 8.13 from Table 8.6 and Table 8.7.
Obtain the factors needed for Equation 8.14 from Table 8.6 to Table 8.8 and K4 in cases where
armouring is applicable. Compare answers obtained from Equations 8.13 and 8.14 and select a
conservative answer using good engineering judgement.

8-96 Bridges and major culverts

 Table 8.6: Correction factor K1, for pier nose shape
Length/Width
Shape of pier in plan # K1
ratio (L/b)
Circular 1,0 1,0
2,0 0,91
3,0 0,76
Lenticular
4,0 0,67-0,73
7,0 0,41
Parabolic nose 0,8
Triangular 60º 0,75
Triangular 90º 1,25
2,0 0,91
Elliptic
3,0 0,83
Ogival 4,0 0,86-0,92
2,0 1,11
Rectangular 4,0 1,11 (HEC 18) - 1,40 (F&C)
6,0 1,11
#
Note: Table 8.6 is based on the list by Faraday and Charlton (1983), which is more
complete than the list in HEC 18 documentation

Table 8.7: Correction factor K2, for angle of attack of the flow
Angle (skew angle
L/b = 4 L/b = 8 L/b = 12
of flow)
0 1,0 1,0 1,0
15 1,5 2,0 2,5
30 2,0 2,75 3,5
45 2,3 3,3 4,3
90 2,5 3,9 5,0
Note: In the case of L/b larger than 12, the ratio’s for L/b = 12 should be used.

Table 8.8: Correction factor K3, for bed conditions

Bed condition Dune Height (m) K3
Clear-water scour Not applicable 1,1
Plane bed and anti-dune flow Not applicable 1,1
Small dunes 0,6 m – 3 m 1,1
Medium dunes 3m–9m 1,1 – 1,2
Large dunes ≥9m 1,3

From Equation 8.13, with depth y0 in the bridge section as determined from regime:

d s  1,8y 0,75
0 b
0,25
 y0 …(8.13)
where:
ds = local scour depth at pier (m)
y0 = depth upstream of pier (m)
b = pier width (m)

d s  1,8 (3,915 0,75 )(1,5 0,25 )  3,915

d s  1,629 m

Note that the scour level is (3,915 + 1,629) = 5,544 m below the design flood level.

8-97 Bridges and major culverts

Alternatively Equation 8.14, for the longest piers close to the minimum river invert could be used to
calculate the local scour depth at the pier.

0,35
ys y 
 2,0 K 1 K 2 K 3 K 4  1  Fr10,43 …(8.14)
b  b
with
b = 1,5 m
y1 = 2,98 m (normal flow depth upstream of the bridge, Table 8.3)
Fr1 = 0,429 based on main channel data directly upstream of the pier
K1 = 1,0 for round nose
K2 = 1,0 for zero skew angle
K3 = 1,1 for small dunes
K4 = 1,0 for uniform sediment (no armouring), see Drainage Manual for details of
calculating K4 correction factor, then
0,35
ys  2,98 
 2,0 1,0  1,0  1,1 1,0    0,429 0,43  1,943
b  1,5 
ys = 2,915 m

Note that the scour level is (2,98 + 2,915) = 5,895 m below the design flood level associated with
the normal flow depth and a fixed bed level.

For abutments in alluvial cohesionless materials:

Apply factors in Table 8.9 to the general short-term average scour depth obtained from Equation 8.13.

From Table 8.9 the factor for flow that impinges at right angles on bank = 2,25; hence the scour at the
abutments can be determined as shown below:

d s (abutments )  2,25 3,915  2,98   2,10 m

(iv) Total scour

Total scour is the sum of the long and short-term general scour, contraction scour and local scour.
Table 8.9 reflects a summary of all the calculated scour depths.

Table 8.9: Summary of the calculated scour depths for Worked Example 8.2
Scour type Calculated scour depth, ds (m)
Short term general scour No scour
Regime equation 1,913
Contraction scour
Contraction equation 1,468
Piers 2,915
Local scour
Abutments 2,102
Piers 4,828
Total expected scour
Abutments 4,013

8-98 Bridges and major culverts

Review of the contraction or short-term scour using different analyses procedures

The potential general scour at the bridge has been determined in (i) using Equations 8.5. A more
correct approach is to estimate contraction scour separately for the main channel and over banks, as is
done in HEC-RAS, where the over bank flows may then reflect clear water scour. The scour depth in
the channel calculated in the approach used in HEC-RAS is less than 3,1 m. With the regime theory
reflecting a scour depth of 1,91 m and the HEC-RAS result of 3,1 m, the contraction scour calculation
of 1,468 m using Equation 8.12 is too conservative and hence discarded.

Based on the summary in Table 8.9 the total scour can be determined as follows.

Total scour at piers in main channel

Total scour level at piers, below design flood level (not accounting for backwater)
= 1,913 + 2,915 = 4,828 m

Total scour at abutments

With the right abutment on the edge of the main channel, the scour would be the sum of main channel
contraction scour plus abutment scour, thus:

Total scour at abutments = 1,913+ 2,1 = 4,013 m below design flood level

The scour for the left bank abutment would be less.

Verify the scour depth with the method based on the principle of applied stream power

For total scour at piers in alluvial rivers, check the answer against values obtained by means of
Equation 8.15 that is based on the principle of applied stream power.

Equation 8.15 reflected the following relationship:

C(Yt )(vss k s )1/3

F
q g
…(8.15)

With F = 0,8; ks = 0,002 m ; vss = 0,24 m/s; q = 542,6/126,61 = 4,29 m³/s.m and C calculated from
the Chezy relationship for total section, C = 67,5; it follows that:

Yt = 2,03 m below design flood level, which is substantially less than obtained above.

The designer will experience these conflicting results, which reflect amongst other the complexities
involved in the mathematical description of scour estimates and the shortcoming in the assumption
that the material is cohesionless.

Considering the risk of failure of the structure due to scour and the potential consequences, these cases
require further evaluation by experienced persons.

The problem is also evaluated using HEC-RAS, and the data files are contained as Example 2 in the
supporting data files.

8-99 Bridges and major culverts

9 STORMWATER ANALYSES AND DESIGN

9.1 Example 9.1 – Pipe flow

Problem description Example 9.1

Water flows from a submerged catch pit at a kerb inlet through a 20 m concrete drain pipe where it
releases into a river stream. The inside diameter of the pipe is 0,3 m. The pipe has a slope of 0,5 % and
the depth of the water in the catch pit above the top of the pipe is 0,2 m (i.e. available head).

Calculate the discharge rate for this set-up.

Solution Example 9.1

To solve this problem the conservation of energy principle will be used i.e. Equation 9.1. The entrance
(point 1) and exit (point 2), are open to atmosphere and thus p1/γ = p2/γ = 0 if the stream line is
selected along the top of the water surface.
v12 p 1 v 22 p 2
  z1    z 2  h f1  2  h ι 1  2
2g γ 2g γ ...(9.1)

The velocity in the catch pit ( v1 ) is negligible (large catch pit area in comparison with pipe area). If
the datum line is selected through the invert of the pipe outlet (point 2) z2 will be zero and z1 can be
calculated as follows:

z 1  (0,2)  20 0,005   0,3

The first term is the height above the pipe inlet and the second term the length of the pipe multiplied
by the slope of the pipe to obtain the vertical height difference between inlet and outlet.
The last two terms in the energy equation are the loss terms. The friction loss can be calculated using
the Chezy equation (Equation 9.2) with the C-value determined by Equation 9.3. The absolute
roughness value of the pipe was estimated as ks = 0,0004 m.
v2L
h f 1- 2  …(9.2)
C2R

 D
 12  
 12R  4
C  5,75 g log  or C  5,75 g log    for circular pipes …(9.3)
 ks 
 ks   
 
  0,3  
 12 
4 
C  5,75 9,81 log   60,37
 0,0004 
 
 

v 22 20 
h f1- 2   0,07317v 22
60,37 2  0,3 
 4 

9-100 Stormwater analyses and design

A secondary inlet loss will occur at the entrance. From Table 9.1, an inlet coefficient of k = 0,5 will
be used for a blunt entrance.
Table 9.1: Transition losses in pipe flows
Description Sketch k-value
Inlets
kv 2 Protruding 0,9
h1 
2g Oblique 0,7
( v = average velocity in
conduit) Blunt 0,5

Well-rounded 0,2

Diverging sections Sudden 1,0

k v 1  v 2 
2

h1  Cone 45° < θ < 180° 1,0

2g
θ = 30° 0,7

θ = 15° 0,2
Converging sections
kv 2 Sudden 0,5
h1 
2g 0,25
Cone

Bends
kv 22 θ = 90° 0,4
h1 
2g θ = 45° 0,3

Outlets
2
kv 2  A  Sudden 1,0
h1  1 1  1 
2g  A2 

The diameter does not change and the velocity where the water enters the pipe can be assumed to be
equal to v 2 .
kv 22 0,5 v 22
h1    0,02548 v 22
2g 29,81

The energy equation is simplified as follows:

02  0  0,3  v 22  0  0  0,07317 v 2  0,02548 v 2
   
29,81 29,81
2 2

v 2 = 1,416 m/s
  0,3  2 
Q  v 2 A 2  1,416   π    0,1 m /s
3
  2  
 

This pipe can discharge 100 l/s if it is allowed to dam at the entrance up to 500 mm above the pipe
inlet level.

9-101 Stormwater analyses and design

9.2 Example 9.2 – Introduction to using EPASWMM

The EPA Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a dynamic rainfall-runoff simulation model
that computes runoff quantity and quality from primarily urban areas. The runoff component of
SWMM operates on a collection of subcatchment areas that receive precipitation and generate runoff
and pollutant loads. The routing portion of SWMM transports this runoff through a system of pipes,
channels, storage/treatment devices, pumps and regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity and quality of
runoff generated within each subcatchment and the flow rate, flow depth, and quality of water in each
pipe and channel during a simulation period comprised of multiple time steps.

SWMM was first developed in 1971 and since then has undergone several major upgrades. It
continues to be widely used throughout the world for planning, analysis, and design related to storm
water runoff, combined sewers, sanitary sewers, and other drainage systems in urban areas and has
also been used for modelling non-urban areas. The most current implementation of the model is
version 5.0 which was released in 2005. It has modernized both the model’s structure and its user
interface, making SWMM easier to use and more accessible to a new generation of hydrologists,
engineers, and water resources management specialists.

All the practical exercises after this first tutorial are developed for the same catchment area and each
one builds in some degree on the results of a previous example. Therefore, it is recommended to begin
with Exercise 1 and work sequentially through up to Exercise 6, while hopefully building the required
input data files and running them with SWMM for each exercise. These files, as well as the backdrop
image files that are needed to complete the exercises, are available on the flash disk.

Goal: This first tutorial provides an introduction to using EPA SWMM, Version 5,
for modeling the quantity of storm water runoff produced from an urban area. The
topics to be covered include:
Project Setup
Constructing a SWMM Model
Saving and Opening Projects
Setting the Properties of SWMM Objects
Running a Single Event Analysis
Viewing Simulation Results

In the exercises the decimal separator will be the decimal comma (,) whilst in the EPA SWMM
program the decimal point (.) is used. The EPA SWMM program is constantly upgraded and the
screen layouts on newer versions may differ from what is shown in this example.

PROJECT SETUP

To begin this tutorial, start the EPA SWMM program by double clicking the EPA SWMM icon on the
desktop. The main window should appear as shown in Figure 9.1.

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 Figure
F 9.1: SWMM 5 main
m window
w

In this ttutorial a draainage system serving a 0,48 ha residential areea will be m modelled. Th he system
layout iss shown beloow in Figuree 9.2 and coonsists of sub bcatchment areas
a S1 throough S3, storrm sewer
conduitss C1 through C4, and con nduit junctionns J1 through
h J4. The system discharrges to a stream at the
point labbelled Out1. The first steeps are to creeate the objects shown inn this diagramm on SWMM M's Study
Area Maap and setting the variouss properties of these objeects. The water quantity rresponse to a 75 mm,
6-hour raainfall eventt, as well as a continuous,, multi-year record will th
hen be simullated.

Figuree 9.2: System

m layout

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Our firstt task is to crreate a new project
p in EP
PA SWMM and make su ure that certaain default opptions are
selected.. Using thesee defaults wiill simplify th
the data entry
y tasks later on. The firstt step in developing a
SWMM application is to start a new n project.

Go to File menu
1. G m on the main w and select New
m window N .

2. Select Projeect >> Defau

ults to open tthe Project Defaults
D diallog.

3. OOn the ID Labels

L page, set the ID P
Prefixes as follows
f ve the others blank) and shown in
(leav
FFigure 9.3:
RRain Gages: Gage
Subcatchmennts: S
JJunctions: J
OOutfalls: Out
CConduits: C
IID Incremennt: 1

Figure 9.3: P
Project Defau
ults: ID labeels

T
This will make
m EPA SWMM
S bjects with cconsecutive numbers
autoomatically laabel new ob
ffollowing thee designated prefix.

On the Sub
4. O bcatchments page of thhe dialog sett the following default values (as shown
s in
F
Figure 9.4):
A
Area: 1,619
W
Width: 120
% Slope: 0,5
% Imperv: 50
N
N-Imperv: 0,01
N
N-Perv: 0,10
D
Dstore-Impeerv: 1,3
D
Dstore-Perv:: 1,3
%
%Zero-Impeerv: 25,0

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 Figure 9.4: Proj ect Defaultss: Subcatchm
ments

Infiltration Model <cllick to edit>, as

shown in Figure 9.5.
Method: Green-Amppt
- Suction Head:
H 90
- Conductivvity: 12,5
- Initial Defficit: 0,26

Figurre 9.5: Infilttration Edito

or

On the Nodees/Links pag

5. O ge set the folllowing defauult values (Fiigure 9.6):
N
Node Invert:: 0
N
Node Max. Depth:
D 1,2
N
Node Ponded Area: 0
C
Conduit Lenngth: 120
C
Conduit Geoometry: <clicck n in Figure 9.7
to editt >, as shown 9 .
- Shape: Circular
- Max. Depthh: 0,3
- Barrels 1
C
Conduit Rouughness: 0,01
F
Flow Units: LPS
L
R
Routing Moddel: Kinematic
K W
Wave
F
Force Main Equation:
E Hazen-Willia
H ams

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 Fig
gure 9.6: Prooject Defaults: Nodes/Liinks

Figure 9.77: Cross-Section Editor

6. Select Save as
a defaults for
fo all new prrojects and click
c OK to accept
a these choices and close the
ddialog.

Setting M
Map Option
ns

Next wee will set somme map displlay options sso that ID lab
bels and sym
mbols will bee displayed as
a we add
objects tto the study area
a map, and links will hhave directioon arrows.

1. Select Tools >> Map Display

D Optioons to bring up the Map Options diaalog (see Fig
gure 9.8).

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 Fig
gure 9.8: Maap Options: Subcatchments

2. Select the Subcatchmen

S yle to Diagonal and the SSymbol Sizee to 5 (as
nts page, sett the Fill Sty
shown in Fiigure 9.8).

3. Then select the Nodes page

p and set tthe Node Sizze to 5 (see Figure
F 9.9).

Figure 9.99: Map Options: Nodes

4. Select the Annotation

n page and check off the boxes that will diisplay ID laabels for
Subcatchmments, Nodess, and Links. Leave the others
o wn in Figuree 9.10.
un-cheecked as show

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 Fiigure 9.10: M
Map Option
ns: Annotation

5. Finally, seleect the Flow Arrows pagge; select thee Filled Arro
ow style, andd set the Arro
ow size
to 7 (see Figgure 9.11).

Fig
gure 9.11: M
Map Optionss: Flow Arro
ows

6. Click the OK button to accept these choices and

d close the diaalog.

Before pplacing objeccts on the maap we shouldd set its dimen

nsions.

1. Select View | Dimension

ns … to bringg up the Map Dimension
ns dialog.

2. Y
You can leavve the dimen nsions at theeir default vaalues for thiss example. SSet the Map Units to
M
Meters by seelection this option
o and cclick on the OK
O button.

Finally, look in the status bar at a the bottomm of the main window and a check thhat the Auto o-Length
feature is Off. If it is on, then clicck the down arrow button
n and select "Auto-Lengtth: Off" from
m the pop-
up menuu that appearss.

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 CO
ONSTRUCT
TING A SW
WMM MODE
EL

Drawingg the Drainaage Area Su

ubcatchmentts

We are nnow ready too begin addinng componeents to the Sttudy Area Map
M to createe the model layout as
shown inn Figure 9.12. We will sttart with the subcatchments.

Figure 9.12: Modeel layout

1. BBegin by cliicking the button onn the Objectt Toolbar. (If

( the toolbaar is not vissible then
sselect View | Toolbars | Object). Nootice how thee mouse cursor changes sshape to a pencil.

2. MMove the mouse

m to the map locatioon where onee of the corn
ners of subcaatchment S1
1 lies and
lleft-click thee mouse.

3. DDo the samee for the nextt three corneers and then right-click
r th
he mouse (orr hit the Enteer key) to
cclose up the rectangle th
hat representts subcatchmment S1. You u can press th
the Esc key if instead
yyou wanted to cancel yo our partially drawn subcaatchment and d start over again. Don'tt worry if
tthe shape or position of the
t object isnn't quite righ
ht. We will gog back laterr and show how
h to fix
tthis.

4. R
Repeat this process
p ubcatchmentts S2 and S3. Note.
for su

Observe how sequenntial ID labeels are geneerated autom matically as we

w add objeccts to the map.
m The
model shhould look siimilar to the one shown iin Figure 9.1
13.

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 Figure 9.13: Modeel with the th
hree subcatcchments

Drawingg the Drainaage System Nodes

N

Next wee will add in the

t junction nodes and thhe outfall nod
de that comp
prise part of tthe drainage network.

1. T
To begin addding junction
ns, click the o the Objecct Toolbar.
button on

2. MMove the moouse to the position

p of juunction J1 (aas shown in Figure 9.12 ) and left-cliick it. Do
tthe same for junctions J2
2 through J4.

3. TTo add the outfall

o node, click the button on the Object Toolbar, m move the mou use to the
ooutfall's locaation on the map,
m and lefft-click. Notee how the ou
utfall was auutomatically given the
nname Out1.

o the one shoown in Figurre 9.14.

The moddel should loook similar to

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 Figure 9.14:
9 Model with added junctions and outlet

Drawingg the Drainaage System Links

L

Now wee will add thhe storm sew wer conduits that connecct our drainaage system nnodes to onee another.
(You muust have creaated a link's end
e nodes ass described inn the previouus topic befoore you can create
c the
We will begin with conduitt C1 which cconnects juncction J1 to J2
link.) W 2.

1. C
Click the t Object T
button on the Toolbar. Thee mouse curssor changes sshape to a crosshair.

2. C
Click the moouse on juncttion J1. Notee how the mo
ouse cursor changes
c shappe to a pencil.

3. MMove the moouse over to junction J2 (note how an n outline of the

t conduit iis drawn as you
y move
tthe mouse) and left-click to create tthe conduit. You could have cancellled the operation by
eeither right-cclicking or by
y hitting the Esc key.

Repeat tthis procedurre for conduiits C2 througgh C4. The model

m d look similaar to the one shown in
should
Figure 99.15.

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 Figure
F 9.15:: Model with
h added link
ks

Adding a Rain Gagge

To compplete the construction of our

o study areea schematicc a rain gage need to be ad
added.

1. C
Click the Raain Gage buttton on thhe Object Toolbar.

2. MMove the moouse over thee Study Areea Map to where

w the gag
ge should be located and left-click
tthe mouse.

Note in F Figure 9.15 that the subcatchments aare not yet liinked to a sp
pecific junctiion. This will be done
later in tthe exercise.

Re-Posittioning Objects

At this ppoint we havve completed d drawing thhe example study

s area. Your
Y systemm should look k like the
one showwn in Figuree 9.16. If thee rain gage, ssubcatchmen
nts or nodes are out of poosition you can
c move
them aroound by:

1. C
Clicking the button to map in Objeect Selection
t place the m n mode;

2. cclicking on the
t object to be moved;

3. ddragging thee object with the left mouuse button held down to itts new positiion.

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 Figure 9.16: Modeel layout

To re-shhape a subcattchment's outtline:

1. WWith the maap in Object Selection m

mode, click on o the subcattchment's cenntroid (indicated by a
ssolid square within the su
ubcatchmentt) to select it..

2. T
Then click thhe button on the Maap Toolbar to put the map into Verteex Selection mode.

3. SSelect a verttex point on n the subcatcchment outliine by clicking on it (nnote how thee selected
vvertex is indiicated by a filled
f solid sqquare).

4. D
Drag the verrtex to its new
w position w
with the left mouse
m button
n held down.

5. IIf need be, vertices

v can be
b added to oor deleted fro
om the outlin
ne by right-cllicking the mouse
m and
sselecting thee appropriate option from
m the popup menu
m that apppears.

6. W
When finisheed, click the button tto return to Object
O Selecction mode.

me proceduree can also be used to re-shhape a link.

This sam

Saving aand openingg the projectt

Having ccompleted thhe initial dessign of our e xample project it is a go

ood idea to ggive it a title and save
our workk to a file at this
t point. To o do this:

1. SSelect the Title/Notes caategory from

m the Data Browser
B and
d click the button (seee Figure
99.17).

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 Figure 9.117: Title/No
otes Editor

2. In the Prroject Title/N

Notes dialogg that appears, enter "Pra
actical Exerccise E5" as th
he title of
k the OK buttton to close the
our projeect and click t dialog.

3. From thee File menu select the Saave As option

n.

4. In the Save
S As dialog that apppears (Figure 9.18), seleect a folder and file nam me under
which too save this project. We ssuggest namiing the file [Link]
E . (An eextension off .inp will
be addedd to the file name
n if one iis not supplieed.)

5. Click Sa
ave to save th
he project to file.

f in a readaable text form

The projject data is saaved to the file mat. You cann view whatt the file look
ks like by
selectingg Project | Details
D from
m the main m
menu. To op pen our projeect at some later time, we
w would
select the Open com mmand from the t File mennu.

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 Figure 9.118: Save As dialog box

G THE PRO PERTIES OF

SETTING O SWMM OBJECTS

Setting P
Properties

As visuaal objects aree added to ou

ur project, SW
WMM assign ns them a deefault set of pproperties. To
T change
the valuue of a speciific propertyy for an objeect we mustt select the object into tthe Property Editor
(shown iin Figure 9.19). There are several diifferent wayss to do this. If
I the Propeerty Editor is i already
visible thhen you can simply clickk on the objeect or select it from the Data
D page oof the Browsser. If the
Editor is not visible then you can n make it apppear by one of the follow
wing actions:

D
Double-clickk the object on
o the map.

R o the objectt and select P

Right-click on Properties frrom the pop--up menu thaat appears.

Select the obbject from the Data pagge of the Bro ow and thenn click the Browser's
owser windo B
button.

Whenever the Prop perty Editorr has the foccus you can press the F1
F key to obbtain a moree detailed
descriptiion of the prooperties listeed.

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 Figure 99.19: Properrty Editor

Setting S
Subcatchmeent Propertiies

Two keyy properties of our subcatchments thhat need to be b set are th

he rain gage that suppliees rainfall
data to the subcatcchment and the node oof the drain nage systemm that receivves runoff from the
subcatchhment. Since all of our su ubcatchmentts utilize the same rain gaage, Gage1, w
we can use a shortcut
method tto set this prooperty for all subcatchmeents at once:

From the maain menu seleect Edit | Sellect All.

1. F

Then select Edit

2. T E | Group
p Edit to maake a Group Editor dialo
og appear.

3. SSelect Subcaatchments asa the class oof object to edit, Rain Gage
G as the property to edit, and
ttype in Gagee1 as the new
w value (as shhown in Figu
ure 9.20).

Figure 9.200: Group Ed

ditor dialog

4. CClick OK too change the rain gage off all subcatchments to Gage1
G . A connfirmation diialog will
aappear notinng that 3 sub
bcatchments have chang ged (Figure 9.21). Selecct No when asked to
ccontinue editting.

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 Figure 9.211: Confirma
ation dialog

To set tthe outlet noode of our subcatchmentts we have to proceed one by one,, since thesee vary by
subcatchhment:

1. D hment S1 orr select it from the Data Browser annd click the Browser's
Double clickk on subcatch B
he Property Editor.
button too bring up th

2. TType J1 in the
t Outlet field
f and preess Enter. Note
N how a dotted
d line iss drawn between the
ssubcatchmennt and the node (Figure 99.22).

Figure 9.22: Linkiing subcatch

hment and junction

3. C S and enter JJ2 as its Outtlet.

Click on subbcatchment S2

4. C S and enter JJ3 as its Outtlet.

Click on subbcatchment S3

Finally, we wish to represent area

a S3 as bbeing less deeveloped thaan the otherss. Select S3 into the
Property Editor andd set its % Im
mperviousn
ness to 25 (Fiigure 9.23).

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 Fiigure 9.23: S
Setting %Im
mperviousneess

Setting N
Node/Link Properties
P

o have invert elevations assigned to them. As

The juncctions and ouutfall of our drainage syystem need to
we did w o the Properrty Editor and
with the subccatchments, select each jjunction indiividually into a set its
Invert E
Elevation to the value sho own in Tablle 9.2.

Table 99.2: Node prroperties

Node Invert
I (m)
J1 1129,3
J2 1127,4
J3 1128,3
J4 1126,8
Out1 1125,9

Only one of the condduits in our example sysstem has a no on-default prroperty valuee. This is con
nduit C4,
the outleet pipe, whosse diameter should
s be 0,445 m. instead
d of 0,3 m. To
T change itss diameter (m maximum
depth), sselect conduiit C4 into thee Property E
Editor and seet the Max. Depth
D value to 0,45.

Setting R
Rain Gage Properties
P

In order to provide a source of rainfall inpuut to our prooject we need to set the rain gage properties.
Select G
Gage1 into thhe Property Editor
E wing propertiies (see Figuure 9.24):
and sset the follow

Rain Forrmat: INTEENSITY

Rain Inteerval: 1:000
Data Souurce: TIM
MESERIES
Series N
Name: TS1

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 Figure 9.24: R
Rain Gage property
p editor

As menttioned earlierr, a simulatioon of the respponse of the study area to o a 75 mm, 66-hour design
n storm is
requiredd. A time seriies named TS1 will conttain the hourly rainfall in ntensities that
at make up thhis storm.
Thus a tiime series obbject is createed and popullate with datta. To do thiss:

From the Da
1. F ata Browser select the Tiime Series category
c of objects.

2. C
Click the he Browser w
button on th which will bring
b up a Time Series E
Editor form.

Enter TS1 inn the Time Seeries Name field.

3. E

4. E he Time andd Value colu

Enter the vaalues into th umns of thee data entry grid (leave the Date
ccolumn blankk) as shown in Figure 9..25.

Figure 9.225: Time Serries Editor

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 5. YYou can clicck the View button on thhe dialog to see a graph of the time sseries valuess (Figure
99.26). Clickk Close to retturn to the Tiime Series Editor
E .

Figure 9.226: Time Serries Viewer

Click the OK
6. C K button to accept
a the new
w time series.

RUN
NNING A SIINGLE EVE
ENT ANALYSIS

Before aanalysing thee performancce of our exxample drainage system we

w need to sset some opttions that
determinne how the annalysis will be
b carried ouut. To do thiss:

From the Da
1. F ata Browser, select the O
Options categ
gory and clicck the buutton.

2. OOn the Geneeral page off the Simulaation Optionns dialog that appears, seelect Kinema
atic Wave
aas the flow routing
r method. The Infiiltration model should already
a be sett to Green-A
Ampt. The
AAllow Ponding option sh hould be uncchecked (see Figure 9.27
7).

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 Figure 9.27: Sim
mulation op
ptions – Gen
neral

On the Dates page of thee dialog, set the End Analysis time to [Link] ( Figure 9.28
3. O 8) and the
Dates and Tiimes as indiccated on Figu
D ure 9.28.

Figure 9.28: S
Simulation options
o – Da
ates

On the Timee Steps page, set the Rou

4. O uting time steep to 60 sec (Figure 9.299).

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 Figurre 9.29: Sim
mulation optiions – Time Steps

Click OK to close the Simulation Op

5. C ptions dialog
g.

mulation. Too do so, selecct Project | Run Simulaation (or clicck the
We are nnow ready too run the sim
button). After the runn was completed the Run
n Status willl be indicatedd as shown inn Figure 9.3
30.

Figuree 9.30: Run Status

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 VIEWING
V SIIMULATIO
ON RESULT
TS

Viewingg Analysis Results

R

If there w ng the simulaation, a Statu

was a probleem in runnin us Report will
w appear ddescribing wh
hat errors
occurredd.

Upon suuccessfully completing

c a run, there are numerou
us ways in which
w to vieew the resullts of the
simulatioon. A few wiill be illustraated:

o V
Viewing the Status Repo ort
o V
Viewing resuults on the map
m
o V
Viewing a time series ploot
o V
Viewing a prrofile plot

Viewingg the Status Report

The Staatus Report contains useeful summarry information about thee results of a simulation
n run. To
view thee report, selecct Report | Status
S wn in Figure 9.31)
(show

Figure 9.31: Statuss report

For the ssystem we juust analysed the

t report inddicates the fo
ollowing:

1. TThe quality of the simulaation is quitee good, with

h negligible mass
m balancee continuity errors
e for
bboth runoff and
a routing (-0.23%
( and -0.02%, resp pectively, if all
a data weree entered correctly).

2. OOf the 75 mmm of rain th hat fell on tthe study areea, 43,75 mm
m infiltratedd into the gro
ound and
eessentially thhe remainderr became runnoff.

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 3. TThe Node Flooding
F Su
ummary tablle indicates there was in
nternal floodding in the system
s at
nnode J2.

The Conduiit Surchargee Summary table shows that Conduit C2, just dow
4. T ownstream off node J2,
w
was at full caapacity and therefore
t apppears to be sllightly underrsized.

Viewingg Results on the Map

Simulatiion results (as

( well as some desiggn parameterrs, such as subcatchmeent area, nod de invert
elevationn, link maxiimum depth)) can be view wed in colour-coded fasshion on thee study area map. To
view a pparticular varriable in this fashion:

Select the Map

1. S M page of the
t Browser panel.

2. SSelect the vaariables to view for Subccatchments, Nodes, and Links from the dropdow wn combo
bboxes in the Themes pan nel. Try for iinstance Run
noff, Depth and Flow resppectively as shown in
FFigure 9.32.

Figure 9.32: Themes panel

3. T
The colour coding
c used for a particuular variable is displayedd with a legeend on the sttudy area
map. To togggle the displaay of a legennd, select Vieew | Legendss (see Figuree 9.33).
m

Figu
ure 9.33: Leg
gends

4. T
To move a leegend to another locationn, drag it with
h the left mo
ouse button hheld down.

5. TTo change the

t colour co oding and thhe breakpoin nt values forr different coolours, selecct View |
LLegends | Modify
M and then
t the pert
rtinent class of object (orr if the legennd is alreadyy visible,
point values as indicatedd in Figure 9.33
ssimply right--click on it). Attempt to sset the breakp 9 .

6. TTo view num ng displayed on the mapp, select Too

merical valuees for the vaariables bein ols | Map
DDisplay Opttions and th hen select thee Annotatio on page of th
he Map Opttions dialog. Use the
ccheck boxess for Rain Gages
G , Subccatchments, Nodes, and d Links to sspecify what kind of
aannotation too add.

7. TThe Date / Time

T of Dayy / Elapsed Time contro ols on the Time Period panel Map Browser
ccan be used to
t move throough the sim S the Time of Day to [Link] to
mulation resullts in time. Set
oobtain the view as depictted in Figuree 9.34.

9-124 SStormwater analyses

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d
 Figure 9.34:
9 Viewin g results (ussing simulattion time)

8. YYou can usee the controlls in the An

nimator panel of the Map Browserr to animate the map
ddisplay throuugh time. Fo
or example, pressing thee button will
w run the aanimation fo
orward in
ttime.

Viewingg a Time Serries Plot

To generrate a time seeries plot of a simulationn result:

1. Select Report
R | Grap
ph | Time Seeries or simp
ply click on the Stanndard Toolb
bar.

2. A Time Series Plot dialog will appear. It is used to seleect the objectts and variab
bles to be
plotted.

For this example, thee Time Seriees Plot dialogg can be used
d to graph th
he flows in coonduits C1 and
a C2 as
follows ((shown in Fiigure 9.35):

9-125 SStormwater analyses

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d
 Figure 9 .35: Time Series Plot

1. Select Links
L as the Object
O Cate gory.

2. Select Flow as the Variable

V to pplot.

3. Click onn conduit C1 (either on thhe map or in n the Data Browser) andd then click in the
dialog too add it to thee list of linkss plotted. Do
o the same for conduit C22.

4. Press OK
K to create th
he plot as shhown in Figu
ure 9.36.

Figure 9.336: Graph – Link Flow

After a pplot is createdd you can:

o ccustomize itts appearancee by selectinng Report | Customize or right cliccking on the plot (see
F
Figure 9.37), )

9-126 SStormwater analyses

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d
 o n by selectinng Edit | Copy To or
ccopy it to thhe clipboard and paste it into anotherr application
cclicking on the Stan
ndard Toolb ar

o pprint it by selecting Filee | Print or File | Printt Preview (u

use File | Paage Setup fiirst to set
mmargins, orieentation, etc..).

Figure 99.37: Graph

h Options

Viewingg a Profile Plot

P

SWMM can generatee profile plots showing hhow water su urface depth varies acrosss a path of connected
c
nodes annd links. Creeate such a plot necting junction J1 to thhe outfall Ou
p for the cconduits conn ut1 of our
examplee drainage syystem. To do this:

Select Reporrt | Graph | Profile or siimply click

1. S on the Standard
S Tooolbar.

Either enter J1
2. E J in the Sta
art Node fielld of the Pro
ofile Plot dialog that appeears or selectt it on the
m
map or fromm the Data Brrowser and cclick the button next to
t the field.

Do the same for node Ou

3. D ut1 in the En
nd Node field
d of the dialo
og.

4. CClick the Finnd Path buttton. An ordeered list of thhe links whicch form a connnected path
h between
tthe specifiedd Start and End nodes w will be displlayed in the Links in Prrofile box seee Figure
99.38. You caan edit the en
ntries in this bbox if need be.
b

9-127 SStormwater analyses

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d
 Figuree 9.38: Profi
file plot

5. CClick the OK K button to create the pllot (Figure 9.39), showiing the waterr surface pro
ofile as it
eexists at the simulation tiime currentlyy selected in the Map Brrowser.

Figure
F 9.39: Profile – No
ode J1 – Out1

As you m move througgh time using the Map B

Browser or with the An
nimator conntrol, the waater depth
profile oon the plot will
w be updateed. Observe how node J2 becomes flooded
f betw
ween hours 2 and 3 of
m event as shhown in Figu
the storm ure 9.40.

9-128 SStormwater analyses

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d
 Figu
ure 9.40: Floooding show
wn at junctio
on J2

The apppearance of a profile plo ot can be cuustomized orr it can be copied

c or priinted using the same
procedurres as for a tiime series pllot.

Runningg a Dynamicc Wave Ana

alysis

In the annalysis just run we chosse to use thee Kinematic Wave meth hod of routinng flows thrrough our
drainagee system. Thiis is an efficient but simpplified appro
oach that can
nnot deal with
th such phenoomena as
backwatter effects, prressurized flow, flow revversal, and non-dendritic
n c layouts. SW
WMM also in ncludes a
Dynamicc Wave rouuting proced dure that cann represent these conditions. This procedure, however,
requires more compuutation time, due to the nneed for smalller time stepps to maintainn numerical stability.

Most of the effects mentioned

m ab
bove would not apply to o our examplle. Howeverr we had onee conduit,
C2, that flowed full and caused its upstream m junction too flood. It could be thatt this pipe iss actually
being prressurized annd could therrefore conveey more flow
w than was computed
c ussing Kinemaatic Wave
routing. We would now
n like to seee what woul uld happen if we apply Dy ynamic Wavve routing insstead.

To run thhe analysis with

w Dynamic Wave routting:

From the Da
1. F ata Browser, select the O
Options categ
gory and clicck the buttton.

2. OOn the Geneeral page of the Simulattion Optionss dialog that appears, seleect Dynamicc Wave as
tthe flow routting method (see Figure 9.41).

9-129 SStormwater analyses

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d
 Figure 9.441: Simulatiion options

3. CClick OK to close the forrm and selecct Project | Run

R Simulattion (or clickk the buttton) to re-
rrun the analyysis.

If you loook at the Status Reportt for this runn you will seee that there is
i no longer aany flooding
g and that
the peakk flow carriedd by conduitt C2 has beeen increased from 95,17 l/s to 112,566 l/s (the con nduit now
flows pressurized).

A profilee can be draawn again wh

hich will inddicate the preessurized flo
ow conditionns experienceed in link
C2, see F
Figure 9.42.

M's capabilitties. Some additional feaatures of the program

We havee only touchhed the surface of SWMM
that you will find useeful include:

o WWater qualitty analysis;

o rrunning a coontinuous simmulation;
o pperforming a frequency analysis;
a
o uutilizing addditional types of drainagge elements, such as storrage units, fl flow dividerss, pumps,
aand regulators, to model more compllex types of systems;
s
o uusing control rules to sim
mulate real-tiime operation n of pumps and
a regulatorrs ;
o eemploying different
d types of externnally-imposed d inflows at drainage syystem nodes, such as
ddirect time series inflowss, dry weatheer inflows, an nd rainfall-derived inflow
w/infiltration
n;
o mmodelling grroundwater interflow beetween aquife fers beneath subcatchmennt areas and drainage
ssystem nodees;
o mmodelling snnow fall accu umulation annd melting within
w subcatcchments;
o aadding calibbration data to
t a project sso that simulated results can be com mpared with measured
m
vvalues;
o m to assist in laying ouut a system's drainage
uutilizing a baackground sttreet, site plaan, or topo map
eelements andd to help relaate simulatedd results to reeal-world loccations.

9-130 SStormwater analyses

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d
 Figure 9.42:
9 Pressu
urized flow conditions
c in
n link C2

You cann find more information

i on these andd other featu
ures in the SWMM Userr's Manual. OnceO you
have reaached this staage of the ex
xercise you sshould be in a position to answer thee following questions
q
based onn the model that
t has been n set-up at thiis point.

1. W
What is the maximum
m deepth at junctiion J2 and when
w does this occur?

2. W
What is the determined
d system
s runofff coefficientt for this exerrcise? Hint: ssee Status Reeport

3. W
What is the maximum
m flo
ow at the sysstem outlet?

4. W
What is the peak
p runoff from
f catchm
ment S2 and when
w does it occur?

5. W
What is the head
h nce between junctions J1 and J2 at 02
differen 2:45?

6. WWhat is the velocity

v and
d Froude num
mber in link C4 at 04:00?? What woulld be the typ
pe of flow
aat this time step?
s

7. W
What capaciity is still avaailable in linkk C1?

8. D
Draw the floow versus tim
me graph for link C1.

9. WWhat happenns to the flow

w routing conntinuity if th
he Routing tim
me step is seet to 5 second
ds instead
oof 60 secondds?

9-131 SStormwater analyses

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d
10 ASSESSM
MENT OF
F HYDRAU
ULIC CAP
PACITY OF
O EXIST
TING DRA
AINAGE
STRUCTTURES

10.1 Example 10.1

1 – Level pool routin g

Problem
m description
n Example 10.1
1

You havve to determiine the atten

nuation and ttranslation th
hat results from the routiing of a giveen inflow
hydrograaph through a dam, see Figure
F 10.1 (The metho odology is thhe same as fo
for a culvert, using an
outflow equation from Table 7.1 or the contiinuity of enerrgy relationship). The folllowing is kn
nown:

Outflow
w stage relatiionship of th
he spillway oof the dam is
i given by:
Q  C d LH 1,55
w
where:
Q = discharge (m3/s)
Cd = discharge coefficient
L = length of the spillway ((m)
H = total energ
gy head (meaasured abovee the spillway
y level) (m)

In this ccase the outfflow can be determined by the follo onship: Q  110H 1,5
owing relatio

Area-voolume relatioonship of the storage voolume is giveen as indicated below:

vel = 7,5 km2

Suurface area att the spill lev
Suurface area att a level abov H km2
ve spill levell = 7,5 + 1,5H
H = reflects the difference between thee free surfacee level and th
he spill level,, i.e. total eneergy (m)

Figure 10
0.1: Section through thee spillway of the dam

i Figure 100.2.
The infloow hydrograaph is given in

10-132 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
 Figure 10..2: Inflow hydrograph

Solution
n Example 10.1
1

wn that the storage

It is know s relatiionship is:

H H
S   AddH  10 6  (7,,5 1,5H)dH
O O

S  10 6 (7,5 H  0,755 H 2  k)

It is know 0 when H = 0 and hencee the integrattion constant, k = 0.

wn that S = 0,

Assume that the timee step, Δt = 2 hours = 72000 seconds; then

t it follow
ws that in thee auxiliary fu
unction:

S O
N  :
Δt 2

I1  I 2
N 2  N1   O1 and by su ubstituting thee known valu ues, it follow
ws:
2
A distannce away froom the spill section
s wherre the velociity approachees zero in thhe dam the difference
d
between the water level and the spillway
s leveel reflects thee total energy
y, i.e. h = H
100 6
N (7,5 H  00,75 H 2 )  55
5 H1,5
7 200
N  10441,7H  104 ,17 H 2  55 H 1, 5

N  1044,17H(10  H  0,53 H )

on is shown in Table 10.1

The relaationship forr N and H to be used in the auxilliary functio 1 (and
graphicaally in Figuree 10.3).

10-133 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
 Table 10.1: Relationship
R of N versuss O, for diffeerent H-valuues
H O N
0,2 9,8 217,44
0,4 27,8 447,33
0,6 51,1 688,1
0,8 78,7 939,44
1,0 110,0 1200,,9
1,2 144,6 1472,,3
1,4 182,2 1753,,7
1,6 222,6 2044,,7
1,8 265,6 2345,,4
2,0 311,1 2655,,6

F
Figure 10.3: Graphical p
presentation
n of the auxiliary functioon

If the infflow and outtflow hydrographs are plootted (Figuree 10.4) it willl be observeed that:

 the interrsect of the hydrographs

h coincides wiith the maximmum storagee; and
 the maxximum outflo ow rate will bbe associated
d with the tim
me of the inteersect.

F
Figure 10.4: The inflow and calcula
ated outflow hydrographhs

Summarry of the ressults:

Attenuation = 360-180 = 180 m3/s

A Translation = 24-12 = 122 h

10-134 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
10.2 Example 10.2
1 – Level pool routin g trough a culvert
c (inlet controlled)
d)

Problem
m description
n Example 10.2
1

You havve to determiine the atten

nuation and ttranslation th
hat results from the routiing of a giveen inflow
hydrograaph through an existing culvert,
c Figu
ure 10.5. Thee culvert has a square inleet with dimeensions of
3,6 m hiigh and 3m wide.
w The level
l of the shoulder breeak point (SB BP) is 5 m aas measured from the
culvert’ss invert.

The metthodology foor applying leevel pool rouuting is the same

s for a cu
ulvert as bein d from 1st
ing described
principlees in Exampple 10.1 with
h the exceptiion of using the outflow characteristiics as given in Table
10.5. Inn this exampple, the Routiing Utility ggiven on the accompanying flash drivve is used to
o estimate
the effecct of upstreaam storages to calculatee the attenuation and trranslation foor an existing culvert
structuree.

Figure 110.5: Existin

ng culvert

The folloowing catchm

ment parameeters upstream
m of the culv wn and are giiven in Tablle 10.2.
vert are know

10-135 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
 T
Table 10.2: Catchment parameterss upstream of
o the culverrt
Loongest wateer Course - 6,65
6 km ment Area - 99,07 km2
Catchm

L
Longitudina
al profile forr longest wa
ater course in
i catchmennt

Calculattion of the tiime of conccentration forr flow in a defined wattercourse. (T

This calculation is by
default ddone by the Routing
R Utiliity and is als o given in Table
T 10.3.)

fined watercoourse, chann

In a defi nel flow occuurs. The recommended empirical
e forrmula for caalculating
the time of concentraation in naturral channels was develop
ped by the US
S Soil Conseervation Serv
vice.

0,385
 0,87L2 
ΤC   
 1 0000 S av  …(10.1)
…

W
Where: TC = timee of concentrration (hours))
L = hydrraulic length
h of the catchment, measuured along th he
flow
w path from the
t catchmen nt boundary tto the point
wheere the flood needs to be determined
d ((km)
Sav = averrage slope (m
m/m)

The userr may calculaate the averaage slope as ddefined in Fiigure 10.6.

10-136 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
 Figure 10..6: Slope deffinition for a defined wa
ater course

H 0,85LL  H 0,10L
S av 
1 00000,75L …(10.2)
…

W
Where: Sav = averrage slope off the catchmeent (m/m) (seee Figure 100.6)
H0,10L = elevvation height at 10% of thhe length of tthe watercou
urse (m)
H0,85L = elevvation height at 85% of the
t length off the waterco ourse (m)
L = lenggth of the wattercourse (km
m)

The catcchment parammeters requirred to determ

mine the averrage slope fo ment from Ta
or the catchm able 10.2
is given in Table 10..3.

Table 10.33: Catchmen

nt characterristics with respect
r to the defined waater course
Ca
atchment paarameter Value
Long
gest Water C
Course (km) 6,65
Start Elevatiion (m) 1439
End elevatioon (m) 1537
10% elevationn (m/m) 1443
85% elevationn (m/m) 1494
Average
A slopee (m/m) 0,0147
m2)
Area (km 9,07
Time of Concentraation, Tc (hr)) 1,45

m side of the culvert is giiven in Tablle 10.4. Theese values

The areaa-height relattionship for the upstream
can be eentered in thhe blue cells in the Routting Utility in
i the table titled
t “Area//Volume Rellationship
Upstream m of Culverrt”. From th his relationshhip, the Rou
uting Utility will automa
matically calcculate the
correspoonding volumme-height relationship (T Table 10.4, Figure
F 10.7).

10-137 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
 Table 10.4: Area-height relationship for the upstream side of the culvert
Elevation Depth measured
(Contour from culvert Area (m2)
intervals) (m) Invert (m)
1401 0 0
1402 1 1300
1403 2 27100
1404 3 47000
1405 4 85100
1406 5 127800
1407 6 139080

16 450000

14 400000

350000
12

300000
10

Volume (m3)
Area vs. Height Relationship
Height (m)

Area vs. Volume Relationship 250000

8
200000
6
150000

4
100000

2 50000

0 0
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000
Area (m2)
Figure 10.7: Area-Height and Area-Volume relationship for the upstream side of the culvert

The discharge capacity of culverts operating as inlet controlled systems and varying upstream water
levels, are reflected in Table 10.5. The outlet characteristics can be defined for a rectangular culvert
by the equations as given below in column 2 for the different ratios of H1/D

10-138 Assessment of existing drainage structures

 Table 10.5: The capacity of culverts

ROUND CULVERTS RECTANGULAR CULVERTS

D = inside diameter (m) D = height (inside) (m)

B = width (inside) (m)

For : For:
0 < H1/D < 0,8 0 < H1/D ≤ 1,2

0,05 1,9
Q S   H1  2 2
 0,48 0  D Q  C B BH1 gH1
D 2
gD  0,4    3 3

Where: CB = 1,0 for rounded inlets (r > 0,1B)

CB = 0,9 for square inlets

And for: 0,8 < H1/D ≤ 1,2 * And for: H1/D > 1,2

Q  C h BD 2gH 1  C h D 
0,05 1,5
Q S   H1 
 0,44  0  D
 0,4 
2
D gD  
Where: Ch = 0,8 for rounded inlets
Ch = 0,6 for square inlets
(S0 = slope of culvert bed with slight
effect on capacity)
Note:

* For H1/D > 1,2, the orifice formulae applies

 D
Q  C D A 2 g  H 1   with CD ≈ 0,6
 2

The estimated peak flow rate for the catchment was anticipated to be 76 m3/s for a return period of
Q2T. By assuming a triangular distribution of inflow, the inflow hydrograph is given in Figure 10.8.

10-139 Assessment of existing drainage structures

 80

70 Inflow (m³/s)

60

50
Flow rate (m3/s)

40

30

20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min)

Figure 10.8: Inflow hydrograph

Solution Example 10.2

Step 1: Open the Routing Utility by double clicking on the icon.

Step 2: Accept the user agreement.

Step 3: Enter the site specific catchment and culvert parameters as given in the problem statement
above in the allocate blue cells in the Routing Utility:

 Top width (## Times the Time of Concentration) = 0 ;

 Maximum inflow (Design Flow rate for normal routing or Q2T for the review of existing
culverts) = 76 m3/s;
 Number of Culverts = 1 unit;
 Culvert Height = 3,6 m;
 Culvert Width = 3,0 m;
 Culvert Shape Coefficient - CB = 0,9;
 Culvert Shape Coefficient - CH = 0,6;
 Maximum allowable damming depth measured from invert of culvert = 5 m;
 Longest Water Course 6,65 km;
 Average Slope 0,0147 m/m; and
 Area-Height relationship as given in Table 10.4.

10-140 Assessment of existing drainage structures

 After entering these parameters in the Variable and Area/Volume Relationship Upstream of
Culvert tables in the Routing Utility, the screen captures should look like that given in Table 10.6
and Table 10.7.

Table 10.6: Print screen of entered catchment and culvert parameters

Only fill in values where the cells are blue shaded

Variable Value Units

Top width (## Times the Time of Concentration) 0
Maximum outflow 45,18 m3/s
Volume of Inflow 594389 m3
Volume of Outflow 594389 m3
Routing volume difference 0,0%
Maximum flow depth 4,64 m
Volume of Storage at Maximum flow depth 185794 m3
Maximum inflow (Design Flow rate for normal routing or Q2T for the review of
76,00 m3/s
existing culverts)
% reduction in peak (Attenuation) 40,3%
Total Time H1/D > 1,2 102 min
Standing water that may cause piping 1,70 hours
Number of Culverts 1,00 units
Culvert Height 3,60 m
Culvert Width 3,00 m
Culvert Shape Coefficient - CB 0,9
Culvert Shape Coefficient - Ch 0,6
Maximum allowable damming depth measured from invert of culvert 5,0 m
H/D maximum Ratio 1,29
Longest Water Course 6,65 km
Average Slope 0,0147 m/m
Calculated Tc 1,45 hours
436 min
Time duration of Outflow (dV/dt≈0)
7,26 hours

10-141 Assessment of existing drainage structures

 Table 10.7: Print screen of entered Area-Height parameters
Area/Volume Relationship
Upstream of Culvert
Elevation (Contour intervals) Depth measured from Area Delta Volume
(m) culvert Invert (m) (m2) Volume (m³) (m3)
1401 0 0 0 0
1402 1 1300 650 650
1403 2 27100 14200 14850
1404 3 47000 37050 51900
1405 4 85100 66050 117950
1406 5 127800 106450 224400
1407 6 139080 133440 357840
1408 7 69540 427380
1409 8 0 427380
1410 9 0 427380
1411 10 0 427380
1412 11 0 427380
1413 12 0 427380
1414 13 0 427380
1415 14 0 427380
1416 15 0 427380

Step 4: View the auxiliary function.

The auxiliary function used to estimate the outflow from the culvert can be viewed under the
Auxiliary Function tab (Figure 10.9). Notice the vertical increase for outflows exceeding
63 m3/s. This was due to the Area-Height relationship that was not completed for all 16
available increments. However, this does not have any influence on the outcome of the results
since the maximum damming depth is only 4,64 m and that corresponds to an outflow of
45,18 m3/s which is lower than the allowable damming depth of 5 m to the SBP.

10-142 Assessment of existing drainage structures

 120

100

80
Outflow(m3/s)

60

40 Auxiliary Function

20

0
0.0 2000.0 4000.0 6000.0 8000.0 10000.0 12000.0 14000.0 16000.0
Auxiliary Function (m3/s)
Figure 10.9: Graphical presentation of the auxiliary function

Step 5: Interpret the inflow and outflow hydrographs.

Depicted on the inflow (blue line) and outflow (red line) hydrographs (Figure 10.10) are also
the change in volume with time (dV/dt) as well as the duration for which the upstream energy
head (H1) exceeds a ratio of 1,2D. These values are reflected by the dashed purple line and
green solid line respectively.

If the inflow and outflow hydrographs are plotted (Figure 10.10) it will be observed that:

 the intersect of the hydrographs coincides with the maximum storage; and
 the maximum outflow rate will be associated with the time of the intersect.

10-143 Assessment of existing drainage structures

 80 0.80

70 Inflow (m³/s) 0.60

Outflow (m³/s)
Total Time H/D>1.2
60 dV/dt (m³)
0.40

50
Flow rate (m3/s)

0.20

Change in Volume (m3/s)

40
0.00
30

-0.20
20

10 -0.40

0 -0.60
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)

Figure 10.10: Inflow and calculated outflow hydrographs

Step 6: The results are summarized under the Summary of Results tab and can be printed by clicking
on the Print Summary Sheet button in the upper right corner of the screen (Figure 10.11).
Included on the summary sheet is a table that depicts the outcome of the assessment for
existing culvert structures. In this case the culvert has not met the criteria as described in
Chapter 10 and thus Fails the hydraulic criteria for existing culverts.

Attenuation = 76 - 45,18 = 30,82 m3/s

Translation = 154 - 87= 67 min

10-144 Assessment of existing drainage structures

 Figure
F 10.11 : Summary of the resullts

Step 7: RRe-evaluatinng the system

m with an upggraded system m of 2 culveerts of the samme dimensioons, it can
3 3
bbe perceivedd that the maximum outtflow is incrreased from 45,18 m /s tto 60,52 m /s / for the
ssame infloww characterisstics. Howeever, upstream dammin ng is signifiicantly reducced from
44,64 m to 3,51 m. Now the structuree meets the hydraulic
h criiteria as giveen in Chapteer 10 and
tthus Pass thee hydraulic criteria
c for exxisting culveerts (Figure 10.12
1 ).

10-145 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
Figure 10.12: Summ
mary of the results for rre-assessed culvert with
h 2 units of tthe same dim
mensions

10-146 Assessmennt of existing drainage

d stru
uctures
11 FREE SU
URFACE FLOW DET
TERMINATION

HEC-RAAS is constantly being upgraded and the scrreen layoutss on newer versions ma
ay differ
from wh
hat is shown
n in this chap
pter.

11.1 Basic flood

d line determ
mination (H
HEC-RAS)

Goal: This is an n exercise to perform a b asic flow an

nalysis on a single
s river rreach. The water
w surfacee
profilee should be determined for
f this riverr section in order
o to obtaain the floodd line levels at a specificc
site. T
The specific site
s is earmarrked for the development of a shoppiing complex and is situatted along thee
Tsitsa River in thee Eastern Cap
pe. The 1:200, 1:50 and 1:100 year flo
ood line leveels should be determined.

STARTIN
NG A NEW PROJECT
P

To beginn this exerciise, start thee HEC-RAS program by y double cliccking the HE
EC-RAS ico
on on the
desktop. The main window
w shouuld appear ass shown in Fiigure 11.1.

Figure
F 11.1: HEC-RAS main windo
ow

The firstt step in deveeloping a HEEC-RAS appplication is to w project. Goo to File men
o start a new nu on the
main winndow and seelect New Project. Thee New Projecct window sh hould appearr as shown in i Figure
11.2. Set the drive and
a directory y you wouldd like to work k in. Enter the project ttitle and filee name as
shown inn Figure 11.2. Once yo ou have enterred the inforrmation, presss the OK bbutton to accepted the
title and file name annd create the new projectt.

Figure 11.22: New Project window

Once baack at the HEEC-RAS Maain window select from the menu baar Options, aand set the units u that
you wouuld like to work in to be metric unitss as well as be
b the defaullt setting for all new projjects (see
Figure 111.3 and Figu
ure 11.4).

11-147 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
In the rigght hand cornner of the maain screen it will now ind
dicate SI unitts.

Figure 11.3: Option

ns menu Figure 11.44: Unit systeems

ENTERING
G GEOMET
TRIC DATA
A

First a stteady state fllow model will

w be develooped:

metric Data. This is acco

The nextt step is to ennter the Geom omplished byy selecting G
Geometric Data
D from
the Editt menu on thhe HEC-RAS S Main winddow (Figuree 11.1) or cliicking the shhort cut butto
on on the
menu baar ow will be shhown (see Figure
. Oncee this option is selected, tthe geometriic data windo F 5).
This screeen can be maximized
m by
y clicking onn the maximize button in the rigght hand corn
ner of the
window..

Figure
F 11.5: Geometric Data window

11-148 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Drawingg the schematic of the river system

A plan vview of the riiver section with

w cross seections is sho n Figure 11.66.
own below in

Figure 11.6: P
Plan view of river sectio
on

The firstt step is to drraw the river system scheematically by

y performing g the followinng steps:
 A Although it is only a sch hematic draw wing one wo ould still likee to draw it m
more or less to scale.
T
To assist witth this HEC-RAS has an option to im mport a backg ground picturre.

 CClick on thee Add/Edit background

b d picture buttton on
n the menu bbar. The prog
gram will
ndow (Figuree 11.7).
sshow the Baackground Pictures on Schhematic win

11-149 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.7
7: Backgrou
und Picturess on Schema
atic window

 CClick on thhe Add buttton and seleect the back

kground piccture (Exerciise 1 – Bacckground
[Link])

 HHEC-RAS will
w indicate that the pictuure extents past
p the curreent schematiic boundaries and ask
yyou if you would
w o increase thee schematic extents (Figu
want to ure 11.8). SSelect Yes.

Figurre 11.8: Incrreasing the schematic

s ex
xtents

 Once the piccture has been selected cllick on the Close

O C button (Figure 11.77).

 UUse the Scheematic view selector boxx to drag the extents of th

he inserted ppicture over the
t entire
sscreen (Figu
ure 11.9).

 NNow the rivver section can

c be drawnn over the background
b picture.
p Cliick the Riveer Reach
bbutton on thee geometric data
d window
w.

 MMove the mouse

m pointerr over the drrawing area and
a place thee pointer at tthe location in which
yyou would liike to start drrawing the reeach.

11-150 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 SSchematic viiew
sselector box

Figurre 11.9: View

wing the bacckground piicture

 PPress the lefft mouse bu utton once too start drawiing the reachh. Move thhe mouse pointer and
ccontinue to press
p the lefft mouse butt
tton to add additional
a points to the liine segment.. To end
tthe drawing of the reach,, double clickk the left mo
ouse button and
a the last ppoint on the reach
r will
bbe placed at the current mouse pointter location (right
( click will
w remove tthe last poin nt drawn).
AAll reaches must be draw wn from thee upstream too downstream m (in the poositive flow direction)
d
ii.e. start at cross
c sectionn 12 down too cross sectiion 1 (Decreaasing numeriic values).

 OOnce the reaach is drawn face will prompt you to enter an ideentifier for the River
n, the interfa
nname and thhe Reach nam me. The Rivver identifieer can be up to 32 characcters, while the reach
w be called,, Tsitsa and the reach
nname is limiited to 12 characters. In this exercisee the river will
LLower reachh (see Figuree 10).

Figure
F 11.100: River and
d reach namees

OOnce you haave finished the

t drawing of the river system, theree are severall options avaailable for
eediting the schematic. The
T options include chaanging the name,n addinng points to a reach,
rremoving pooints from a reach, deletiing a reach, and deleting
g a junction.. The editing
g features
aare located under
u the Edit menu on thhe Geometriic Data window.

11-151 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Since the schhematic of th
he river has nnow been draawn there is no more neeed for the bacckground
ppicture. To switch off the backgrouund picture click
c on the Add/Edit bbackground d picture

bbutton u bar. Deseleect the picturre as shown in Figure 111.11.

on the menu

Figure 11.11: Deseelecting the background

b d picture

 WWhen you fiirst draw the schematic thhere will be no

n tic marks representingg the cross seections as
sshown in Fig
gure 11.12. The tic markks only show w up after you
u have entereed cross secttions.

11-152 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figu
ure 11.12: Geometric
G Daata window
w with Tsitsa
a river schem
matic

Enteringg cross sectiion data

The next step

s is to entter the cross section dataa. This is accomplished by clicking the cross
section button
b on thee Geometric window (Fig gure 11.12).. Once this button is clicked, the
Cross Secction Data ed wn in Figure 11.13.
ditor will apppear as show

11-153 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Fig
gure 11.13: Cross sectio
on Data Editor

To enterr cross section data follow

w these stepss:

 Select a River and a Rea

ach to work with. In thiss exercise there is only oone River (Tssitsa) and
oone Reach (LLower reach)).

 GGo to the Options menu u and select Add a new Cross Sectiion. An inpput box will appear to
pprompt you to
t enter a riv he new crosss section (seee Figure 11.14).
ver station ideentifier for th

Figure
F 11.14 : Add a new
w river statio
on

TThe identifieer does not have

h to be th
the actual riv
ver station, but
b it must bbe a numericcal value.
TThe numericc value descrribes where the cross secction is locatted in refereence to all otther cross
ssections withhin the reach
h. Cross secctions are loccated from upstream
u (higghest river station) to
For this cross section enteer a value of 12.
ddownstream (lowest riveer station). F

 F nter all the daata as shown in Figure 11

For this crosss section, en 1.15.

11-154 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.15: Crosss Section Da
ata Editor with
w data

 E
Enter the:
Description: Upstream boundary
D b of tthis river secction
D
Downstream m reach lengthhs: LOB = 1 00, Channel = 95 and RO OB = 90
Manning n-vvalues: LOB = 0,05, Chan
M annel = 0,035 5 and ROB = 0,05
Station and elevation
e dettails:
Nr S
Station Elevatioon
1 100 100,3
2 103 97,3
3 125 96,1
4 133 94,4
5 135 94,3
6 138 95,6
7 148 96,0
8 154 99,5
M L bank = 1 25 and Righ
Main channeel stations: Left ht bank = 138
8
C
Cont\Exp cooefficients: Contraction
C = 0,1 and Exp pansion = 0,3
3

 OOnce all thee data is enteered press thee Apply Da

ata button. This
T button iis used to instruct the
pprogram to accept
a the entered data into memory y. This buttton does nott save the daata to the
hhard disk. This
T is donee by clickingg on Save Geometry
G Data
D the File men
under th nu on the
GGeometric Data
D window (which will be explained d later).

 P g the Plot
Plot the crosss section to visually insspect the dataa. This is acccomplishedd by pressing
C
Cross Sectioon option un nder the Plott menu on the Cross Secttion Data Edditor or by cliicking on
tthe Expand XS editor to t include a XS plot . The cro
oss section sshould look similar
s to
tthat shown inn Figure 11..16 below.

11-155 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.16:
1 Crosss section plot for river station 12

NNote the maanning rough hness valuess at the top of the crosss section annd the speciffied bank
sstations (red dots) (Figurre 11.16).

In practiice the steps listed abovee would be reepeated for every

e cross section that iss entered. In
n order to
reduce thhe amount of data entry for this exerrcise, the currrent cross seection will bee copied and
d adjusted
to repressent other crooss sections within
w the rivver system.

Two op
ptions of coompleting cross
c sectioon data entrry:

Method d 1: # Novvice users: Enter the rrest of the 11

1 cross secctions one bby one as detailed
d in the
t
steps abbove. Data for each cross section is providedd in the follo
owing 11 figgures.

Method
d 2: # Expeert users: Skip
S the nexxt two pagess.

11-156 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 M
METHOD 1

Figure 11.17:: Cross sectiion 11 data Figure 11..18: Cross seection 10 da

ata

F
Figure 11.199: Cross secttion 9 data Figure 11
1.20: Cross ssection 8 datta

F
Figure 11.211: Cross secttion 7 data Figure 11
1.22: Cross ssection 6 datta

11-157 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
F
Figure 11.233: Cross secttion 5 data Figure 11
1.24: Cross ssection 4 datta

F
Figure 11.255: Cross secttion 3 data Figure 11
1.26: Cross ssection 2 datta

F
Figure 11.277: Cross secttion 1 data

11-158 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 t cross secction data as shown in Fiigure 11.17 to Figure 11.27 skip
If you haave completeed entering the
the next two pages.

M
METHOD 2

# Experrt users: Foollow the folllowing stepps to copy th

he current cross
c sectionns and adjust to look
similar to Figure 11..17 to Figuree 11.27.

 GGo to the Options

O menuu on the crooss Section Data
D Editor and select C Copy Current Cross
SSection. Ann input box will
w appear too prompt you u to select a river reach, and then entter a river
sstation for thhe new cross section, see Figure 11.228. For this exercise, keeep the river and
a reach
aas Tsitsa Rivver and Loweer reach, thenn enter a new
w river station of 11.

Figuree 11.28: Cop

pying and ex
xisting cross section

Press the OK
P K button and
d the new crooss section will
w appear in the editor.

 C
Change the cross
c n description to “Tsitsa River 11”.
section

 A ns of the crross sectionss by –0,2 meter.

Adjust all the elevation m This is accompllished by
sselecting thee Adjust Eleevations feaature from th
he Options menu on thee Cross Secttion Data
EEditor.

 A
Adjust the crross section stationing
s too reduce the overbanks
o by
y 10%.

 TThis is accommplished by selecting thhe Adjust Stations featurre from the O Options men nu on the
C or, then selecct Multiply by
Cross Sectioon Data Edito b a Factor. When the input box ap ppears for
tthis option, three data entry fieldss will be av vailable to adjust
a the sstationing off the left
ooverbank, chhannel, and the right overrbank separaately. Enter values
v of 0,99 for the righ
ht and left
ooverbanks, but
b leave thee main channnel field blaank. This willw reduce thhe stationing g of both
ooverbanks byy 10%, but leeave the maiin channel unnchanged.

 D m reach lengtths change too LOB = 48

Downstream 8, Channel = 42 and ROB
B = 40 for this
t cross
ssection.

 PPress the Appply Data bu hat shown inn Figure 11.17). Plot
utton (The daata should bee similar to th
tthe cross secction to visuaally inspect itt (see Figuree 11.29).

11-159 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.29: Crosss section plo
ot (cross secction 11)

These seeven steps abbove should be repeated to enter all the data for Tsitsa Riverr (Lower Reaach). The
d in Table 111.1. Perform
necessarry adjustmennts are listed m the cross section
s dupliications in order
o that
they are listed in thee table. Mak
ke sure to chhange the desscription of each
e cross seection, and also
a press
the Applly Data button after mak king the adjuustments for each
e cross seection.

Taable 11.1: Cross

C section
n adjustments for dupliccating sectioons
Cross
C section
n Adjusted stationing Dow
wnstream reeach lengthss
Adjusted
Rivver elev
vation L
Left Rig
ght Lefft Rightt
Description
D Cha
annel Chann
nel
stattion O
O.B. O.B
B. O.B
B. O.B.
Tsitsa
T River 111 11 -0
0,20 00,9 - 0,9 488 42 40
Tsitsa
T River 110 10 -0
0,10 1,2 1,0 1,1 955 90 85
Tsitsa
T River 9 9 -0
0,10 - 1,1 - 1000 102 105
Tsitsa
T River 8 8 -0
0,05 - 1,3 - 1000 110 120
Tsitsa
T River 7 7 -0
0,10 1,5 - - 1200 120 125
Tsitsa
T River 6 6 -0
0,15 - 2,0
2 2,0 800 82 85
Cross
C sectionn at
5 -0
0,05 22,0 - - 800 80 80
site
Tsitsa
T River 4 4 -0
0,05 00,5 1,0 1,0 1800 180 180
Tsitsa
T River 3 3 -0
0,12 - - 0,5 1155 105 100
Tsitsa
T River 2 2 -0
0,18 00,5 0,5
0 - 1555 155 150
Downstream
D
boundary
b of rriver 1 -0
0,10 00,8 - - 0 0 0
section

11-160 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Table 11.1 is simplyy a quick way
w to generaate varying cross
c section
ns for this exxercise. Thee method
howeverr is quite useful when wo
orking with a man-made structure succh as a channnel, which haas similar
cross secctions.

# Novice & Expert useers continu

ue

This com mpletes all thhe cross secttion data forr the Tsitsa River
R (Loweer reach) savve the data fiile before
continuinng. Saving thet data to a file is achieeved by exiting the Crosss Section Dat ata editor win
ndow and
selectingg the Save Geometry
G Data
D As optiion from thee File menu on the Geom metric Data window.
After sellecting this option
o you will
w be prom mpted to enteer a Title forr the geomettric data (Figgure 30).
Enter “N Natural Tsittsa River” forf this exeercise, and then t t OK butttton. A file name is
press the
automatiically assignned to the geeometry dataa based on whatw you enteered for the project file name i.e.
Exercisee1.g01.

Figure
F 11.30:: Save Geom
metry Data As
A

 RReturn to thee Cross Secttion Data ediitor window and from the Plot menuu select Plot Profile...
tto view the longitudinal
l profile
p of thee entered cro ( Figure 111.31).
oss sections (see

Fiigure 11.31: Longitudin

nal profile plot

11-161 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
When reeturning to the
t Geometrric Data winndow the useer will notice that the T Tsitsa River now also
shows thhe schematic layout with the position of the entereed cross sections, see Figgure 11.32.

Figure 11.32: Scheematic layou

ut of entered
d system

We havee completedd the required geometricc data and caan now conttinue and ennter the Steaady Flow
Data.

ENTERING
E STEADY FLOW
F DAT
TA

The nextt step in deveeloping the required

r dataa to perform steady flow water surfacce profile callculations
is to entter the steadyy flow data. To bring uup the steadyy flow data editor, selecct Steady Fllow Data
from thee Edit menu on the HEC-RAS main w window or click
c on the Steady
S Flow
w Data button
n on
the menuu bar. The stteady Flow Data n Figure 11..33.
D editor s hould appear as shown in

11-162 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Fig
gure 11.33: Steady Flow
w Data wind
dow

 TThe first sett of required

d data to entter is the nu umber of pro ofiles to be calculated. For this
eexercise enteer “3" as sho
own in Figurre 34 (and cllick on the Apply
A buttonn). The next step is to
eenter the flow data. Flo ow data are eentered from m upstream to o downstream m for each reach. At
lleast one floow rate must be entered ffor every reaach in the riv ver system. Once a flow w value is
eentered at thhe upstream end of a reeach, it is assumed that the flow reemains consttant until
aanother floww value is encountered w within the reaach. Additional flow vallues can be entered
e at
aany cross secction location within a reeach. In thiss exercise theere is only 1 reach and thhus it will
oonly be requuired to enterr 1 set of floow data. In this exercisee, flow data w will be enterred at the
uupstream endd of the reach i.e. at cros s section 12..

 PProfile labels will autom

matically defaault to “PF1"" and “PF2" etc. These llabels can bee changed
tto whatever is descriptivve of the floow. In this exercise
e o 1:20 yr,
thesse should bee changed to
1:50 yr and 1:100 yr. Under
U the O
Options menu u go to Edit Profile Naames and ch hange the
pprofile namees. Click on the OK buttton to accept the names.

 E
Enter the 1:220, 1:50 and 1:100 year fflood peak values of 35, 80 and 150 m
m³/s respectiively (see
F
Figure 34).

11-163 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 111.34: Steady
y flow data

 TThe next steep is to enteer any requirred boundaryy conditions. To enter bboundary coonditions,
ppress the Reeach Bounda ary Conditiions button at
a the top of the Steady FFlow Data ed
ditor (see
FFigure 11.344). The boun w appear as shown in Fiigure 11.35.
ndary conditiions editor will

Figure 11.35: Steaady Flow Boundary Con

nditions

 BBoundary coonditions aree necessary tto establish the

t starting water
w surfacee at the boun
ndaries of
tthe river system. A starrting water surface is necessary
n in order for thhe program to begin
ccalculations.. In a subcrritical flow regime, bou undary condditions are oonly requireed at the
ddownstream end of the riiver system.

IIf a mixed flow

f regime calculation iis going to be
b performed
d, then bounndary conditiions must
bbe entered att all open end
ds of the riveer system.

11-164 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 TThe boundarry conditionss editor conttains a table listing of ev
very river annd reach. Eaach reach
hhas an upsttream and a downstreaam boundary y condition. Connectioons to junctions are
cconsidered internal
i bouundary condiitions. Inteernal boundaary conditionns are automatically
llisted in the table, based
d on how thee river systeem is conneccted in the ggeometric daata editor.
TThe user is only
o required
d to enter thee necessary external boun
ndary conditiions.

IIn this exerccise it is assu

umed that thee flow is subcritical throu iver system (Verify if
ughout the riv
tthis is corrrect!!!). Th herefore, it iis only neceessary to en nter a bounddary conditioon at the
ddownstream end of the TsitsaT Riverr, Lower reacch. Boundarry conditionns are entered d by first
sselecting thee cell in whicch you wish tto enter a bo
oundary cond dition. Thenn the type of boundary
b
ccondition is selected fro om the four available ty ypes listed ab bove the tabble see Figuure 11.35
((Known Watter Surface, Critical
C Deptth, Normal Depth
D or a Raating Curve)).

IIn this exercise it is assumed

a th
hat there arre no contrrol points inn the riverr further
ddownstreamm and that cross
c sectionn 1 is far en
nough down
nstream andd can be asssumed to
fflow at norm
mal flow deppth.

 CClick in the cell in the Table

T (Figuree 11.35) und
der the Down
nstream coluumn and thenn click on
tthe Normall Depth buttton. In otther words the program m will start at this dowwnstream
bboundary, calculate the normal flow w depth and d work systeematically uupstream in the river
ssection.

A pop up boox will appeaar (see Figu re 11.36) reequesting you u to enter ann average slo
ope at the
ddownstream end of the riiver reach. E m/m) then clicck on the OK
Enter a valuee of 0,001 (m K button.

Figgure 11.36: Pop-up

P box (enter the average
a dow
wnstream sloope)

T
This completes all of thee necessary bboundary con ( Figure 111.37).
ndition data (see

 Click the OK
C K button on the Boundarry Condition
ns window to
o accept the ddata and retu
urn to the
Steady Flow
w Data screen
n.

11-165 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.37: Acceepted bound
dary condition data

 TThe last stepp is to save the data to a file. To save

s the dataa, select the Save Flow Data As
ooption from the File men nu on the Steeady Flow Data
D Editor. A pop-up boox will prom mpt you to
o the flow ddata (Figure 38). For this exercise ennter: Calcula
eenter a descrription/title of ated flood
ppeaks. A fille name is automatically
a y assigned to
t the steady flow dataa based on what
w you
eentered for thhe project fille name i.e. A
Assignment11.f01.

Figure 11.338: Save Flo

ow Data As

O
Once the datta has been saved, you caan close the Steady
S Flow Data Editor..

PERFORM
MING THE HYDRAUL
LIC CALCU
ULATIONS

Now thaat all of the data has beeen entered, we can callculate the steady
s waterr surface pro
ofiles. To
perform the simulations, go to th
he HEC-RAS S main window and selecct Steady Floow Analysis from the
Run meenu or click on the Stea ady Flow A Analysis buttton t menu baar. The Stea
on the ady Flow
Analysiss window shhould appear as shown in Figure 11.3
39, except yo
ours will not have any plaan title or
Short ID
D yet.

11-166 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.3
39: Steady F
Flow Analyssis Simulatio
on Window

 TThe first stepp is to put together a Pla n. The Plan

n defines whiich geometryy and flow data
d are to
bbe used, as well
w as proviiding a title aand short ideentifier for th
he run. To esstablish a plan, select
NNew Plan from
fr the Filee menu on thhe Steady Fllow Analysis window. E Enter the plaan title as
FFirst run andd then press thet OK buttoon (Figure 11.40
1 ).

Figure 11..40: Creatin

ng new plan

 You will be prompted to enter a shhort identifierr. Enter a tittle of Run1 in the Short ID box
Y
(Figure 11.4
41) and click
k on the OK bbutton.

Figure 111.41: Plan identifier

i

 TThe next sttep is to seelect the deesired flow regime for which the model will perform
ming Subcritical flow caalculations only
ccalculations.. For this exaample we wiill be perform o since
oonly a downnstream boun ndary condittion was speecified. Makee sure Subcrritical is thee selected
fflow regime..

11-167 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
  A j control features are available frrom the Op
Additional job ptions menu bar. Select Critical
DDepth Outp put Option… … from this menu. A pop-up p windo ow will appeear in which
h the user
ccan select thhe Critical Always
A Callculated opttion (Figure 11.42). Thhe program will then
aalways calcuulate the critiical flow deppth for every flow rate. Click
C on the O
OK button.

Figure 11.42: Criitical depth calculation option

 OOnce you have

h defined
d a plan andd set all the desired jo ob control innformation, the plan
iinformation should be saaved. Savingg the plan innformation iss accomplishhed by selectting Save
PPlan from thhe File menuu of the Steaddy Flow Anaalysis window
w.

Now thaat everythingg has been saved and sset, the steady flow commputations ccan be perfoormed by
pressing the Compuute button att the bottom of the Stead
dy Flow Simmulation winndow (Figurre 11.39).
Once thee computatioons have beeen completedd, the compu
utation wind
dow can be cclosed, as well as the
Steady F
Flow Simulattion windoww.

VIEW
WING RESU
ULTS

Once thee model has finished all of the compputations succcessfully, yo

ou can beginn viewing th
he results.
Several ooutput optionns are availaable from thee View menu
u bar on the HEC-RAS m main windoww. These
options iinclude:

Cross sectioon plots

Profile plotts

General proofile plot

Rating curvves

X-Y-Z persspective plotss

Detailed taabular outpu ut at a speecific

cross sectioon (cross secttion table)
Limited tabbular outputt at many cross
sections (prrofile table)

Cross seection plots

Begin byy plotting a cross

c n. Select Crooss Sectionss from the Viiew menu onn the HEC-R
section RAS main
window.. Any crosss section can n be plotted bby selecting the approprriate river, reeach and riveer station
(see Figure 11.43). Several plo otting featurees are availaable from thee Options m
menu bar on the cross
section pplot window w. These options includde: zoom in;; zoom out; selecting w which plans, profiles,
variabless to plot; andd control oveer lines, labells, symbols, scaling etc.

11-168 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figurre 11.43: Crooss section (all
( three profiles)

Select ddifferent crosss sections to

t plot and ppractice usin
ng some of the featuress available under
u the
options mmenu bar.

Profile p
plot

The secoond plot, whhich is of value, is the waater surface profile.

p Seleect Water SSurface Proffiles from
the View
w menu.

ot as shown in Figure 11
This shoould give youu a profile plo 1.44.

Try and obtain the profile

p t look exacttly like Figu
plot to ure 11.44 selecting varioous options under
u the
Optionss menu (grid,, labels, line types, text, pprofiles etc.).

11-169 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11
1.44: Water Surface Pro
ofile (for enttire reach)

Generall profile plotts

The thirdd plot optionn, which is of value, is thhe General Prrofile Plot. Select
S Generral Profile Plot
P from
the View
w menu. Thiss should givee you a profille plot as sho own in Figurre 11.45.

From thee Standard Plots menu various otheer useful plo b made succh as Froude numbers
ots can also be
(on left bbank, main channel
c and right
r bank), ssee Figure 11.46.

11-170 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figurre 11.45: Geeneral profille plot (veloccities)

Figure 11
1.46: Generral profile pllot (Froude numbers)
n

11-171 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
The dataa used to gennerate the pllots can also be viewed in i Table formmat by clickking on the Table
T tab
next to tthe Plot tab. The generatted plot or ddata can be co opied to the clipboard byy simply goiing to the
File mennu (for that sppecific tab), see Figure 111.47 and Fiigure 11.48.

Figurre 11.47: Gen

neral profilee plot (Copy
ying the plott to the clipbboard)

Figu
ure 11.48: Geeneral profiile plot (Wriiting data to
o a file (csv ttype))

This cop
pying of picttures/graphs/data can b
be done thro
oughout HEC-RAS.

Rating ccurve

Select R
Rating Curvees from the View
V menu pplot a compu uted rating cu
urve. A ratinng curve based on the
computeed water surfface profiles will appear as shown in Figure 11.4 49. You can look at the computed
c
rating cuurve for any location
l (cro
oss section) bby selecting the
t appropriaate river, reac
ach and river station.

11-172 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figu
ure 11.49: Raating Curvee (cross sectiion 5)

HEC-RA AS basically plots a curv

ve through thhe three flow ws used in the calculationn i.e. 35 m³/ss, 80 m³/s
and 150 m³/s. The more
m flows ussed in the caalculation thee more accuraate rating currve will be obtained.
o

X-Y-Z P
Perspective Plot
P

Select X
X-Y-Z Persp pective Plotss from the V
View menu to o plot a 3D view
v n (Figure
of the river section
11.50). S
Set the Rotattion Angle to –70 and thhe Asimuth Angle
A to 19 to obtain thee same view as shown
in Figurre 11.50. Thhis type of view
v gives a clear view of
o the wideniing of the rivver at cross section 5
and 6.

11-173 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure
F 11.500: X-Y-Z Perrspective Plo
ot

Tabularr output

Detailed
d tabular ou
utput

Now loook at some taabular outpu ut. Go to thee View menu u on the HEC C-RAS mainn window. There
T are
two typees of tables available, a detailed outtput table an nd a profile summary tab able. Select Detailed
Output Tables to geet the first tab i Figure
ble to appearr. The table should be siimilar to the one shown in
11.51 (nnotice the warning at the bottom off the table fo or river statiion number 3). This tab
ble shows
detailed hydraulic innformation at a single cross sectio on. Other cross sectionns can be viiewed by
selectingg the approprriate reach an
nd river from
m the table.

11-174 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.5 1: Detailed table output

Summarry Errors, Warnings,

W and Notes

The HE EC-RAS softtware has a system of Errors, Warrnings, and Notes that are passed from the
computaation program ms to the useer interface. During the computation
c s, the compuutation progrrams will
set flagss for at a paarticular node (nodes aree cross sections, bridgess, culverts, oor multiple openings)
o
wheneveer it is necesssary. These message flaags are writteen to the staandard outpuut file, along with the
computeed results forr that node. When the uuser interfacee reads the computed
c ressults from thhe output
file, if anny errors, waarnings, or no
otes exist, thhey are interp
preted and diisplayed in vvarious locatiions from
the interface.

The useer can requeest a summaary of all thhe errors, waarnings, and
d notes that occurred du
uring the
i accomplished by seleccting Summ
computaations. This is mary Errors,, Warnings,, and Notes from the
View meenu on the main
m HEC-RA
AS window oor clicking th
he short cut button
b .

Once thiis is selectedd, a window

w will pop uup displaying
g all of the messages. T
The user can
n select a
specific River and Reach,
R as well
w as whichh Profile and d Plan to view. The useer has the options of
expandinng the windoow; printing the
t messagess; or sendingg them to the windows cliipboard.

Besides the summaryy window, messages

m willl automatically appear on
n the cross seection speciffic tables.
When a cross sectionn or hydraulic structure iis being disp played, any errors,
e warniings, or notees for that
location and profile will
w show up p in the Errorrs, Warningss, and Notes message boxx at the botto om of the
table. Ann example off this table iss shown in Fiigure 11.51.

11-175 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
In generral, the errorss, warnings, and notes m
messages sho
ould be self-eexplanatory. The three categories
c
of messaages are the following:
f

ERROR RS: Error meessages are only sent wheen there are problems
p thaat prevent thee program fro
om being
able to ccomplete the run.

WARNIINGS: Warnning messagees provide innformation to o the user th

hat may or m may not requiire action
on the uuser’s part. In general, whenever a warning is set at a locaation, the usser should reeview the
hydraulic results at that
t location
n to ensure thhat the resullts are reason
nable. If the hydraulic reesults are
found too be reasonabble, then the message cann be ignored. However, in n many instaances, a warn
ning level
messagee may requiree the user to o take some action that will
w cause the message too disappear on future
runs. Maany of the warning
w messsages are ccaused by either inadequ uate or bad data. Some common
problem
ms that cause warning
w messsages to occcur are the fo
ollowing:

Cross seections spaceed to far apart. This cann cause severral warning messages
m to bbe set.

Cross seections startting and end ding station ns not high enough
e . If a computed w
water surface is higher
than eithher end pointt of the cross section, a w
warning messsage will appear.

Bad Staarting Waterr Surface Ellevation. If tthe user speccifies a bound dary conditioon that is nott possible
for the sppecified flow
w regime, thee program wiill take action and set an appropriate warning messsage.

Bad Crooss Section Data. This can cause seeveral problems, but mo ost often the program wiill not be
able to bbalance the ennergy equation and will ddefault to criitical depth.

NOTES S: Note levell messages are

a set to proovide inform
mation to thee user aboutt how the prrogram is
performiing the compputations.

Profile S
Summary Table
T

Go to thhe View mennu on the HEC-RAS

H m
main window. There are two types oof tables available, a
detailed output table and a profile summary ttable. Selectt Profile Sum mmary Tablle. This tablee shows a
limited nnumber of hyydraulic variiables for sevveral cross seections in thee selected rivver reach (seee Figure
11.52).

Figure 11.52: Profile S

Summary Table
T (Stand
dard Table)

There arre several typpes of profile tables listeed under the Std. Tabless menu (see Figure 11.5 53) of the
profile taable window
w. Each one of o these tablees shows typpical detail reelevant to thee specific structure.

11-176 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11 .53: Std. Ta
ables menu

A speciaal feature of the

t profile suummary tabl es is the abillity for users to define theeir own outp
put tables.
User deffined output tables are available by sselecting Deefine Table… … from the O Options menu of the
t option is selected, a window wiill appear, ass shown in F
profile taable. When this Figure 11.5 54. At the
top of thhe window is i a table for the user seelected variaable heading gs (Table Coolumn Headiings), the
units, annd the number of decimaal places to be displayed d for each variable. Beloow this tablee is a list
containinng all of the available vaariables that can be inclu uded in your user-definedd table. The variables
are listedd in alphabettical order. Below
B the lisst of variablees is a messaage box that is used to diisplay the
definitioon of the seleected variablee.

Figure 111.54: Defin

ne a table

11-177 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
To get a definition of a particular variable, simply click the left mouse button once while the mouse
pointer is over the desired variable. The description of the variable will show up at the bottom of the
window. To add variables to the column headings, simply double click the left mouse button while the
mouse pointer is over the desired variable. The variable will be placed in the active field of the table
column headings. To select a specific column to place a variable in, click the left mouse button once
while the mouse pointer is over the desired table column field. To delete a variable from the table
headings, double click the left mouse button while the mouse pointer is over the variable that you want
to delete. The number of decimal places for each variable can be changed by simply typing in a new
value.

User defined tables are limited to 15 variables. Once you have selected all of the variables that you
want, press the OK button at the bottom of the window. The profile table will automatically be
updated to display the new table

Once you have the table displayed in the profile table window, you can save the table headings for
future use. To save a table heading, select Save Table from the Options menu on the profile table
window. When this option is selected, a pop up window will appear, prompting you to enter a name
for the table. Once you enter the name, press the OK button at the bottom of the pop up window. The
table name will then be added to a list of tables included under the User Tables menu on the profile
table window.

Create a user defined table as detailed above with the following columns:
 Q Total (Total flow rate)
 W.S. Elev (Water surface elevation)
 Crit W.S. (Critical water surface elevation)
 Vel Chnl (Velocity in the main channel)
 Froude # Chl (Froude number in the main channel)

Save the table (Exercise 1 – Table) and view the summary table thereof with 1:50 and 1:100 year
profiles (selected from the Options menu) (Figure 11.55).

11-178 Free surface flow determination

 Figure 11..55: User deefined table

At the ennd of this exeercise the folllowing objeectives shoulld have been met:
 B
Be able to seet-up a HEC--RAS projectt
 K
Know how to
t enter geom
metric data
 U
Understand the
t setting off boundaries and controlss
 K
Know how to
t enter stead
dy flow data
 K
Know how to
t analyse a river
r system
 K
Know how to
t extract info
formation

11-179 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Questions
1. What is the normal flow depth for the 1:50 year flood at cross section 1?

2. Define the flow type in the river.

3. What is the kinetic energy component at cross section 11 for the 1:50 year flood?

4. What is the kinetic energy component at cross section 5 (the proposed site) for the 1:50 year
flood?

5. Why is there a difference between the kinetic energy component at cross section 5 and 11?

6. What are the flood levels (1:20, 1:50 and 1:100) at the proposed site (cross section 5)?

7. What will the water level be at cross section 5 if the flood peak is 100 m³/s?

8. What is the energy weighting coefficient (alpha) for cross section 5 for the 1:50 year flood?

9. How wide is the river flowing at cross section 5 during the 1:100 year flood?

10. What is the hydraulic depth in the main channel during the 1:100 year flood at cross section 5?

11. How would you know if cross section 5 or 6 was functioning as a control point in the river
section?

12. Are you in a position to draw in the 1:20, 1:50 and 1:100 year flood lines for the proposed
site?

11-180 Free surface flow determination

11.2 Setting-up
p a HEC-R RAS model (river secction, bridg
ge and weirr) and perrforming
unsteady flow
f analysiss

Goal: This is an exercise to perform m an unsteeady flow analysis

a onn a river sy
ystem. The
river system con
ntains a briidge structu
ure and an inline weirr.

STARTIN
NG A NEW PROJECT
P

To beginn this exerciise, start thee HEC-RAS program by y double cliccking the HE
EC-RAS ico
on on the
desktop. The main window
w shouuld appear ass shown in Fiigure 11.56.

Fiigure 11.56:: HEC-RAS main windo

ow

The firstt step in deveeloping a HE EC-RAS appplication is to w project. Goo to File men
o start a new nu on the
main winndow and seelect New Project. Thee New Projecct window sh i Figure
hould appearr as shown in
11.57. Set the drive and directorry you wouldd like to worrk in. Enter the project title and filee name as
typicallyy shown in Figure
F 11.57
7. Once yoou have entered the information, preess the OK button to
acceptedd the title andd file name and
a create thee new projecct.

Figure 11.557: New Projject window

w

Once baack at the HEEC-RAS Maain window select from the menu baar Options, aand set the units u that
you wouuld like to work
w in to be
b metric uniits as well asa be the default settingg for all new
w projects
(assignm
ments). In thee right hand corner of thee main screen it will now
w indicate SI units.

11-181 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 ENTERING
G GEOMET
TRIC DATA
A

The nextt step is to ennter the Geom

metric Data. This is acco y selecting G
omplished by Geometric Data
D from
the Editt menu on thhe HEC-RAS S Main winddow (Figure 11.56) or cliicking the shhort cut butto
on on the
menu baar . Oncce this option ndow will bee shown (seee Figure
n is selectedd, the geomeetric data win
11.58).

Fiigure 11.58:: Geometric Data windo

ow

Drawingg the schematic of the river system

A plan vview of the riiver section with

w cross seections is sho n Figure 11.559.
own below in

11-182 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Fiigure 11.59: Plan view of
o river sectiion

The firstt step is to drraw the river system scheematically by

y performing
g the followinng steps:

 Click the Riv

C ver Reach button
b on the geometric data
d window..

 MMove the mouse

m a place thee pointer at tthe location in which
pointerr over the drrawing area and
yyou would liike to start drrawing the reeach.

 PPress the lefft mouse bu utton once too start drawiing the reach h. Move thhe mouse pointer and
ccontinue to press
p the lefft mouse butt
tton to add additional
a points to the liine segment.. To end
tthe drawing of the reach,, double clickk the left mo
ouse button and
a the last ppoint on the reach
r will
bbe placed at the current mouse
m pointeer location (rright click wiill remove thhe last point drawn).
d

AAll reaches must be draw wn from thee upstream too downstream m (in the poositive flow direction)
d
ii.e. start at cross
c section 100 down too cross sectiion 70, 65 do
own to crosss section 40 and from
ccross sectionn 8 to 3 (see Figure
F 11.600).

 OOnce a reachh is drawn, the interface will prompt you to enterr an identifieer for the Rivver name
aand the Reacch name. Th he River ideentifier can be up to 32 chharacters, whhile the reach
h name is
vers will be called, Riet and Blesbokk and the
llimited to 122 characters.. In this exeercise the riv
rreaches Uppper and Loweer reach (see Figure 11.6 60).

11-183 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
  Once you ennter the identtifiers for Bllesbok River or for the lo
O ower reach oof the Riet River
R , you
w
will be prom nction, in thiss case Saharaa. Junctionss in HEC-
mpted to enterr an identifieer for the jun
R
RAS are locaations wheree two or moree reaches joiin together orr split apart.

 W
When you first
fi draw thee schematic tthere will bee no tic mark ks representinng the cross sections.
T
The tic markks only show
w up after youu have entereed cross sectiions.

Figure 11.60:
1 Geom
metric Data window (sch
hematic)

Enteringg cross sectiion data

The next step

s is to entter the cross section dataa. This is accomplished by clicking the cross
section button
b on thee Geometric window (Fig gure 11.60).. Once this button is clicked, the
Cross Secction Data ed wn in Figure 11.61.
ditor will apppear as show

11-184 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Fig
gure 11.61: Cross sectio
on Data Editor

To enterr cross section data follow

w these stepss:
 Select a Riveer and a Rea ach to work w with (from th
he drop down lists).

 GGo to the Options menu u and select Add a new Cross Sectiion. An inpput box will appear to
pprompt you to
t enter a riv he new crosss section (seee Figure 11.62).
ver station ideentifier for th

Figure
F 11.62 : Add a new
w river statio
on

TThe identifieer does not have

h to be th
the actual riv
ver station, but
b it must bbe a numericcal value.
TThe numericc value descrribes where the cross secction is locatted in refereence to all otther cross
ssections withhin the reach
h. Cross secctions are loccated from upstream
u (higghest river station) to
For this cross section enteer a value of 100.
ddownstream (lowest riveer station). F

 F nter all the daata as shown in Figure 11

For this crosss section, en 1.63.

11-185 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.63: Crosss Section Da
ata Editor with
w data

 E
Enter the:
Description: Upstream River
D R Station
D
Downstream m reach lengthhs: LOB = 225, Channel = 28 and ROB = 30,5
Manning n-vvalues: LOB = 0,035, Chhannel = 0,02
M 25 and ROB = 0,035
Station and elevation
e dettails:

Nr Statioon Elevation
1 0,00 26,82
2 3,05 25,60
3 4,57 24,69
4 8,53 23,77
5 9,75 22,25
6 10,67 21,03
7 12,19 20,42
8 15,24 19,51
9 18,29 19,45
10 19,81 20,73
11 21,34 22,25
12 22,56 24,23
13 24,08 24,38
14 25,30 25,91
15 26,21 28,04

M L bank = 8,
Main channeel stations: Left 8,53 and Righ
ht bank = 22,,56
C
Cont\Exp cooefficients: Contraction
C = 0,1 and Exp
pansion = 0,3
3

11-186 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 OOnce all thee data is enteered press thee Apply Daata button. This
T button iis used to instruct the
pprogram to accept
a the entered data into memory y. This buttton does nott save the daata to the
hhard disk (cllick on Exit on the Crosss Section Data editor window).
w Thiis is done by
y clicking
oon Save Geeometry Da ata under thhe File men nu on the Geometric
G D
Data window w. After
sselecting thiis option you u will be prrompted to enter
e a Titlee for the geoometric dataa (Figure
11.64). Enteer “Base Geo ometry” for this exercisee, and then press
p the OK
K button. A file
f name
iis automatically assigned d to the geommetry data based
b on whaat you entereed for the prroject file
nname i.e. Exxercise2.g01.

Figure
F 11.64:: Save Geom
metry Data As
A

 IInstead of reetyping all th

he cross secttion data, an Excel spreaadsheet contaaining all thee stations
aand elevatioon data is provided.
p T
To quickly enter
e all the cross sectioonal data fo ollow the
ffollowing 6 steps
o Stepp 1: Select a River
R and a Reach to wo
ork with (from the drop ddown lists).
o Stepp 2: Go to thee Options m
menu and seleect Add a new Cross Seection. An input i box
will appear to prrompt you too enter a riv
ver station identifier for tthe new crosss section
(see Figure 11.662).
o Stepp 3: Set the Horizontal
H Variation in n Values under the O
Options men
nu to true
(tickked) see Figu
ure 11.65.

Figgure 11.65: Horizontal V n n Values (O

Variation in Options mennu)

11-187 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
o Stepp 4: Go to thhe Excel sprreadsheet (E
Exercise 2 - Cross [Link]) and copy the
Statiion, Elevatio
on and n-vaalue data forr the specificc cross sectition/river staation (see
Figuure 11.66).

Figure 11.66: Copyi ng cross secction data frrom Excel

o Stepp 5: Return too HEC-RAS,, and select same s numberr (or more) nnumber of ro
ows in the
Cross Section Data
D editor wwindow (see Figure 11.6 67). From thhe Edit menuu click on
Pastte, to insert the data in thhe table.
o Stepp 6: Enter thee rest of the oother charactteristic data:
Desccription: “”
Dowwnstream reaach lengths: L LOB = 22,9, Channel = 29,0 2 and ROB B = 33,5
Mainn channel staations: Left bbank = 8,32 anda Right baank = 22,56
Cont\Exp coefficcients: Contrraction = 0,1 and Expansion = 0,3
All the
t other chaaracteristic daata is providded in Table 11.2.

The spreadsheet priintout of alll the cross section dataa is attachedd in Appendix A for
reference.

11-188 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Figure 11.67: Pastiing the crosss section datta from Exccel into the Cross
C Sectioon Data Edittor table

Figgure 11.68: Completed

C C
Cross Sectio
onal Data (C
Cross sectionn 95)

11-189 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Table 11..2: Cross secction data
Riveer Reach River Main channel
c Downsttream reach
h length
station bank stations
s
LOB ROB LOB Channel ROB
100 8,53 22,56 25,0 28,0 30,5
95 8,32 22,56 22,9 29,0 33,5
90 8,14 22,56 25,9 29,0 30,5

Upper
Riet
85 7,92 22,56 23,8 28,0 31,4
80 7,71 22,56 25,6 27,4 30,5
75 7,53 22,56 24,4 29,0 33,5
70 7,32 22,56 0,0 0,0 0,0
65 8,78 31,64 25,0 29,0 33,5
60 8,53 31,64 25,9 30,5 36,6
Lower

55 8,32 31,64 27,4 30,5 30,5

Riet

50 8,08 31,64 24,4 27,4 30,5

45 7,86 31,64 25,9 29,0 32,0
40 7,62 31,64 0,0 0,0 0,0
8 13,17 20,18 22,9 24,4 27,4
7 13,23 20,30 24,4 26,8 29,9
Blesbok

Lower

6 13,26 20,42 21,3 24,4 27,4

5 13,32 20,54 25,9 29,0 30,5
4 13,35 20,67 24,8 25,9 29,9
3 13,41 20,82 0,0 0,0 0,0

For the last cross section oof the river system

s (crosss section 400) you can enter the
ption: Downnstream Riverr Station
folloowing descrip

 RRemember to t save the Geometry

G datta at regular intervals in case of a poower failure or
o human
eerror. To asssist with thiss you could also go to th he main HEC C-RAS screeen and set thee Backup
ssaving functtion at a shorrt interval (O
Options menu u, Program Setup, Set T Time for Au utomatic
BBackup… anda enter 5 minutes).
m Maake sure the Automatica ally Backup Data is seleected (see
FFigure 11.699).

Figure 11.69: A
Automaticallly Backup Data
D

Entering junction data

E

The next step p is to enter the junction

n data. This is accompliished by cliccking the
Juunction buttton on the G Geometric window
w (Figu
ure 11.58). Once this button is
cllicked, the Ju
unction Dataa editor will appear
a own in Figurre 11.70.
as sho

11-190 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.700: Junction Data Editorr

 T
There is onlyy one junctio
on in the riveer system. For this junctiion add the ffollowing description:
D
Division of Upper Reacch and Loweer Reach at Confluence with Blesbook River (see Figure
11.70)

 RReach lengthhs across thee junction arre entered in n the junctioon editor, ratther than in the cross
ssection data.. This allows for the lenggths across very
v compliccated conflueences (i.e. floow splits)
tto be accomm modated. Th his is the reaason why the reach length hs in the crosss section daata for the
llast cross secction of each
h reach was lleft blank or set to zero. Enter the junnction length hs of 24,4
m and 21,3 m for the Rieet River – U Upper reach and
a Blesbok River – Low wer reach resspectively
((see Figure 11.70).

 IIn this exerccise the energ will be used to compute the

gy equation w t water surrface profiles through
tthe junction for steady flow compuutations i.e. select
s the En
nergy optionn. If the mo omentum
eequation waas selected, then an anglee can be enttered for onee or more off the reachess flowing
iinto or out of
o a junction n. The mom mentum equaation is set up to accountt for the ang
gle of the
fflow enteringg the junction.

 F putations the Force Equal WS Elevatiions option iss selected.

For Unsteadyy flow comp

 O
Once you haave entered all n the Apply button and close the
a the data ffor the juncttion, click on
w
window by pressing
p the OK
O button.

 R
Remember to king on Savee Geometryy Data from
t save the Geometry ddata by click m the File
m
menu.

 OOnce all thee data has beeen successffully entered

d your system
m should loook like the schematic
s
llayout shownn in Figure 11.60
1 .

11-191 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
ENT
TERING AN
ND EDITIN
NG UNSTEA
ADY FLOW
W DATA

Once all of the geometric

g daata are entereed, the modeeler can then enter the unnsteady flow data that
is reequired. To bring
b up the unsteady floow data editoor, select Un
nsteady Flow w Data fromm the Edit
mennu on the HE
EC-RAS maiin window oor clicking th he short cut button
b on thhe menu bar . The
Unstteady Flow data editor should appear n Figure 11..71, for this eexercise.
ar as shown in

Fig
gure 11.71: U
Unsteady Flow Data Ed
ditor

The user is requiired to enter boundary coonditions at all

a of the exteernal boundaaries of the system, as
welll as any desiired internal locations, aand set the in
nitial flow conditions at the beginnin ng of the
simuulation.

Bounndary condiitions are en ntered by ffirst selecting the Boun ndary Condditions tab from the
Unstteady Flow Data editorr. River, Reaach, and Riveer Station locations of thhe external bounds b of
the ssystem will automaticallly be shownn in the table. Boundarry conditionss are entered d by first
seleccting a cell inn the table fo
or a particulaar location, th
hen selecting
g the boundarary condition type that
is deesired at thatt location. Not
N all bounddary conditio on types are available foor use at all locations.
l
The program will automaticaally gray-outt the boundaary condition n types that aare not relev
vant when
the uuser highlighhts a particulaar location inn the table.

11-192 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Userrs can also add
a locationss for enterinng other interrnal boundarry conditionss. To add additional
a
n, select the ddesired Riveer, Reach, and
bounndary condittion location a River Sttation from the drop
dow
wn lists and press
p the Addd a Bound ary Conditiion Location n button. Inn this exerciise this is
how
wever not requuired.

Bou
undary Cond
ditions

TThere are several differeent types of bboundary conditions available to the user. The following
f
iis a short discussion of eaach type:

 FFlow Hydroograph (this is the type tthat you can n enter for this exercise))
A flow hydrrograph can be used ass either an upstreamu bouundary or do downstream boundary
b
ccondition, buut is most commonly ussed as an up pstream boun ndary condittion. When the flow
hhydrograph button
b is preessed, the winndow shown n in Figure 11.72
1 will apppear. As sh
hown, the
uuser can eithher read the data from a HEC-DSS (HEC ( Data Storage
S Systeem) file, or can enter
tthe hydrograaph ordinatess into a tablee (Since Riv ver station 8 was selectedd as shown in i Figure
111.71 the floow hydrograp ph detail for this stations is first requiired).

Figu
ure 11.72: Flow
F Hydroggraph (River station 8 – Blesbok Riiver)

 T
The user also has the opption of enterring a flow hydrograph directly intoo a table, as shown in
F
Figure 11.772. The firsst step is to select a Da ata time interval from m the drop down
d list.
C
Currently thee program on
nly supports regular interrval time seriies data.

11-193 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 A list of alloowable time intervals is shown in th
he drop down
n window off the data intterval list
bbox. For this exercise seelect 15 Minuute.

 T
To enter dataa into the tab o select eitheer Use Simullation Time or Fixed
ble, the user iis required to
S
Start Time. For this exeercise select Use Simulattion Time.

 IInstead of enntering the daata points off the flow hyddrographs on

ne-by-one byy hand open thet Excel
sspreadsheet entitled: Exeercise 2 - Fl Flow [Link]. Copy
C the floww rate valuees for the
BBlesbok Rivver flow hy ydrograph (oonly the flo ow rates). Return to tthe HEC-RA AS Flow
HHydrograph h data editorr, select at leeast 25 rowss in the hydrograph tablee and press Ctrl
C V on
tthe keyboardd to paste thee copied dataa (see Figuree 11.73).

Figu
ure 11.73: Flow
F Hydroggraph (River station 8 – Blesbok Riiver)

 AAn option liisted at the bottom of thhe flow hyd drograph bou undary conddition is to make
m this
bboundary a Critical Boundary Con ndition. When you seleect this optiion, the prog gram will
mmonitor the inflow
i hydro
ograph to seee if a changee in flow ratee from one tim
ime step to th
he next is
eexceeded.

IIf the changge in flow rate does exceed the user entereed maximum m, the program will
aautomaticallyy cut the tim
me step in haalf until the change in flow rate doess not exceed
d the user
sspecified maax.

11-194 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 TThe other opptions at the bottom of tthis editor arre Min Flow w and Multiiplier. Both
h of these
ooptions applly to user enntered hydro graphs or hy ydrographs read
r from H
HEC-DSS. The
T “Min
FFlow” optionn allows the user to speccify a minim mum flow to be used in tthe hydrograaph. This
ooption is verry useful wheen too low off a flow is caausing stabiliity problems .

 T
The flow hydrograph forr this exercisse can be plo king on the P
otted by click Plot Data bu
utton (see
F
Figure 11.744).

Figure 11.74: Flow hydrograph

h (Plot of Riiver station 8 flow hydrrograph)

T
The maximuum peak flow
w value is 31,,0 m³/s (timee 2:30)

 SSimilarly a flow hydrog or River stattion 100, whhich is the upstream

graph can b e entered fo
bboundary of the Riet Riv
ver – Upper rreach.

 T
The completted Flow Hy ydrograph edditor screen and plot screeen is shownn in Figure 11.75
1 and
F
Figure 11.766 respectively. The maxiimum peak flow
f value is 84,0 m³/s (ttime 2:00).

TThe spreadssheet (Exercise 2 - Flow w hydrograp

[Link]) containing the flow hydrog
graphs is
pprovided on the supportin
ng flash drivve.

11-195 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figgure 11.75: Flow
F Hydroograph (Riveer station 10
00 – Riet Rivver)

Figure 11.76: Flow hydrograph

h (Plot of Riv
ver station 100
1 flow hyddrograph)

11-196 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 NNormal Dep pth (this is th
he type thatt you can enter for this exercise)
e
TThe Normall Depth optio on can only bbe used as a downstream m boundary ccondition for an open-
eended reach. This optio on uses Mannning’s equaation to estimate a stagee for each computed
c
fflow. Selectt River station 40’s cell on the Unssteady Flow Data editorr window. Click the
NNormal Dep pth button. A pop-up w window will prompt you to enter thee downstream m friction
sslope, whichh should be used
u to calcuulate the flow
w depth at this downstreaam boundaryy for each
fflow (in the time series arriving at this river sttation), see Figure 11.777. Enter a slope of
00,001 m/m.

Fiigure 11.77:: Normal floow depth boundary (Riv

ver station 440)

O
Other bounddary types not used in thiss example:

SStage Hydroograph
A stage hyddrograph can n be used ass either an upstream
u or downstream boundary condition.
c
TThe editor foor a stage hyydrograph iss similar to the flow hydrograph edittor. The useer has the
cchoice of eitther attaching a HEC-DS SS file and path
p name orr entering thhe data directly into a
ttable.

11-197 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 RRating Curvve
TThe rating cuurve option can
c be used aas a downstrream boundaary conditionn. The user can c either
rread the ratiing curve fro
om HEC-DS SS or enter iti by hand into the editoor. The dow wnstream
rrating curve is a single valued relatiionship, and
d does not reeflect a loopp in the ratin
ng, which
mmay occur duuring an event.

EElevation Controlled Gate

G
TThis option allows
a the user to controol the openin ng of gates bbased on the elevation
ng and closin
oof the water surface upstream of thee structure. A gate begin ns to open wwhen a user specified
eelevation is exceeded.
e The gate openns at a rate sp
pecified by th
he user.

Inittial Conditioons

 IIn addition tot the bounddary conditioons, the user must estab blish the inittial conditionns of the
ssystem at thee beginning of
o the unsteaady flow sim mulation. Inittial conditionns consist off flow and
sstage inform
mation at eacch of the crooss sections,, as well as elevations ffor any storaage areas
ddefined in thhe system. In
nitial conditiions are estab m within the U
blished from Unsteady Fllow Data
eeditor by selecting the In
nitial Condittions tab. Affter the Initial Conditionns tab is seleected, the
UUnsteady Fllow editor will
w appear as shown in Fiigure 11.78.

Figure 11.78: Unstead

dy Flow Data (Initial Conditions)
C

 AAs shown inn Figure 11..78, the user has two opttions for estaablishing thee initial cond
ditions of
tthe system. The
T first optiion is to enteer flow data for each reacch and have the programm perform
a steady flow
w backwater run to compuute the correesponding staages at each cross section n.

11-198 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 TThis option also requires the user too enter a starting elevation for any sstorage areass that are
ppart of the syystem. This is the most ccommon method for estaablishing inittial condition
ns. Flow
ddata can be changed
c at any
a cross secction, but at a minimum the user muust enter a flo ow at the
uupper end off each reach.

T
The second option
o is to read
r in a file of stages and d flows that were writtenn from a prev
vious run,
w
which is callled a “Restarrt file”. The ffirst option iss used in thiss exercise.

EEnter the iniitial flows ass indicated inn Figure 11.78, 0,5 m³/ss, 1,0 m³/s aand 1,5 m³/s for cross
ssections 8, 100 and 65 reespectively.

Savving the Unssteady Flow Data

 TThe last stepp in developin ng the unsteaady flow datta is to save the
t informatition to a file. To save
tthe data, seleect the Save Unsteady F Flow Data AsA from the FileF menu onn the Unstea ady Flow
DData editor. A pop-up window wiill appear prrompting you to enter a title for thee data as
sshown in Fig gure 11.79. Enter “Base Unsteady Flow F ” for thiss exercise, annd then press the OK
bbutton. A fiile name is automatically
a y assigned to
o the Unstead dy Flow Datta based on what
w you
eentered for thhe project fille name i.e. E
Exercise1.u001.

Fig
gure 11.79: S
Saving Unsteeady Flow Data
D

Oth
her unsteadyy Flow Data
a Options

SSeveral optioons are availlable from thhe Unsteady

y Flow Data
a editor to asssist users in
n entering
aand viewingg data. Thesse features ccan be found under the Options meenu at the to op of the
wwindow. Thhe following options are aavailable:

DDelete Boun ndary Condiition

TThis option allows
a the user to delete a boundary condition frrom the tablee. To use this option,
ffirst select the
t row to beb deleted w with the mou use pointer. Then selecct Delete Boundary
B
CCondition from
fr the optiions menu. The row willl be deleted d and all rowws below it will
w move
uup one. Onlyy user inserted boundaryy conditions canc be deleteed from the ta table. If the boundary
b
ccondition is an open endd of the systeem, the systeem will not allow
a that booundary to bee deleted.
TThere must always
a be some type of bboundary con ndition at all the open endds of the systtem.

IInternal RS Initial Stag ges

TThis option allows the user
u to speciffy starting water
w surface elevations ffor any interrnal cross
ssection withiin the systemm. A commoon application n of this wou
uld be to speecify the starrting pool
eelevation forr the first cro
oss section uupstream of a dam (modeeled with thee inline weirr/spillway

11-199 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
ooption). Thee user speciffies locationns and waterr surface eleevations, whhich are then
n used to
eestablish the initial condiitions for thee system at th
he beginning of a run.

OObserved Data
D In DSS
TThis option allows the user to attaach observed
d data pathn
names from a HEC-DS
SS file to
sspecific riverr stations witthin the moddel.

WWhen an observed data pathp name iss attached too a specific river station llocation, thee user can
gget a plot of the observed
d flow or stagge hydrograp ph on the samme plot as thhe computed flow and
sstage hydroggraphs. Add ditionally, thee observed data
d will show w up on proofile and crosss section
n, the user seelects Obserrved Data In
pplots. To usse this option n DSS from the Optionss menu of
tthe Unsteady y Flow Data a editor.

MMinimum Flow
F and Floow Ratio Taable
TThis option brings up a global e ditor that willw show all a the locattions in wh hich flow
hhydrographs have been attached
a as bboundary connditions. The editor allow
ws the user to
t enter a
mminimum floow or a flow factor for eaach flow hyd
drograph bou
undary condittion.

UNSTEA
ADY FLOW
W ANALYSIIS

P
Performing Unsteady Flow
F Calculaations

OOnce all off the geomettry and unstteady flow data

d have been entered,, the user can
c begin
pperforming the
t unsteady
y flow calcullations. To run
r the simuulation, go too the HEC-R
RAS main
wwindow andd select Unstteady Flow Analysis froom the Runn menu or cllick on the Unsteady
U
FFlow Analyysis button menu bar. The Unstea
on the m ady Flow A
Analysis window will
aappear as shoown in Figure 11.80.

11-200 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure
F 11.80:: Unsteady Flow
F Analyssis

 TThe first stepp is to put together a Plan n. The Plan n defines whiich geometryy and flow data
d are to
bbe used, as well
w as provid ding a title an
and short iden
ntifier for thee run.

To establishh a plan, seleect New Plaan from the File menu on

T o the Unstteady Flow Analysis
w
window. Ennter the plan title
t as Base analysis and t OK buttoon (Figure 11.81
d then press the 1 ).

Figure 11..81: Creatin

ng new plan

 Y
You will be prompted to o enter a shoort identifierr. Enter a tiitle of Base in the Short ID box
(Figure 11.8
82) and click on the OK bbutton.

11-201 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 111.82: Plan identifier
i

 SSelecting Prrograms to RunR

TThere are thrree componeents used in performing an unsteady flow analyssis within HE
EC-RAS.
TThese components are: a geometric data pre-pro ocessor; the unsteady floow simulatorr; and an
ooutput post-pprocessor (seee Figure 111.80).

o Geomettric Pre-Pro ocessor

The pree-processor is used to process the geometric data into a series of hydraulic h
propertiies tables, raating curves,, and familyy of rating curves.
c Thiss is done in order to
speed up
u the unsteaady flow callculations. Instead
I of caalculating hyydraulic variiables for
each crooss-section, during
d each iteration, thee program in
nterpolates thhe hydraulic variables
from thee tables. The pre-processsor must be executed at least once, bbut then only y needs to
be re-exxecuted if sommething in thhe geometricc data has changed.

o Unstead dy Flow Sim mulation

The unssteady flow computationns within HE EC-RAS are performed bby a modified d version
of the UNET
U (Unsteady NETw work model)) program, developed
d byy Dr. Roberrt Barkau
(Barkauu, 1992) and modified byy HEC. The unsteady flo ow simulatioon is actually
y a three-
step proocess. First, a program caalled RDSS (Read DSS data)
d runs.

This software readss data from a HEC-DSS S file and th

hen convertss all of the boundary
b
conditioon time seriees data into tthe user specified compu utation interv
rval. Next, th
he UNET
program
m runs. This software reeads the hyd draulic propeerties table ccomputed by y the pre-
processoor, as well as
a the bounddary conditio ons and floww data from the interfacee and the
RDSS program.
p

The proogram then performs

p the unsteady flow calculations. The finnal step is a program
called TABLE.
T Th
his software takes the results from th
he UNET unnsteady flow w run and
writes thhem to a HE
EC-DSS file.

o Post-Prrocessor
The posst-processor is used to ccompute detailed hydrau ulic informattion for a seet of user
specifieed time lines during the uunsteady flow
w simulation periods. In general, the unsteady
flow computations only
o computte stage and flow at all ofo the compuutation nodess, as well
as stagee and flow hyydrographs aat user speciffied locationss. If the postt-processor is not run,
then thee user will only
o be ablee to view thhe stage and flow hydroographs and no other
output from
f HEC-R RAS. By ruunning the post-processo
p or, the user will have alla of the
availablle plots and tables
t for unnsteady flow that HEC-R RAS normallyy produces for f steady
flow.

 SSimulation time
t window w
TThe user is required
r to enter
e a time window thaat defines the start and eend of the siimulation
pperiod. The time window w requires a starting datee and time an
nd an ending date and tim
me.

11-202 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 w hydrographh shown in Figure
IIn this exerccise the flow F 11.73
3 and Figuree 11.75 startts at 0:00
aand has dataa until 06:00 0 and this iss used in thee simulation time windoow. The datte can be
aanything sinnce the optio on to Use S imulation Time
T on thee Flow Hydrrograph window was
sselected (seee Figure 11.773 and Figurre 11.75). Enter
E the Starting date aas 01JAN2013 and the
EEnding datee as 01JAN20 013. Enter thhe Starting time
t as 00000 and the Endding time ass 0600.

 CComputatioonal settings
T ngs area conntains the Co
The computaational Settin omputationa al Interval, H
Hydrograph h Output
IInterval, Deetailed Outpput Interval, the name an nd path of the output DSSS file, and whether
w or
nnot the proggram is run in
n a mixed fl
flow regime. The computtation intervval is probably one of
tthe most impportant param
meters entereed into the model.
m It shou
uld be small enough to accurately
a
ddescribe the rise and fall of the hyddrographs being routed but not smaall to take forever
f to
ccompute.

FFor this exerrcise set the Computatioonal Interva al at 5 minutees (from the drop down list). Set
tthe Hydrogrraph Outpu ut Interval tto 15 minutees and the Detailed
D Outtput Interva
al also at
115 minutes.

TThe DSS Ou utput filenam

me is the fil e that contaiins all the caalculated dataa in a formatt that can
bbe read by HEC-RAS
H an
nd used in ddisplaying alll the results (tables and ggraphs). Th he default
wwill be …..\[Link]
E s and does nnot have to bee changed fo or this exercis
ise.

Thee completed Unsteady

U Fllow Analysiis screen is sh
hown in Figu
ure 11.83.

Figure 11.83:
1 Unsteeady Flow Analysis
A (com
mpleted)

Clicck on the Co
ompute butto
on to run the Unsteady Flow
F Analysiis.

11-203 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 VIEW
WING THE RESULTS

Oncce the modeel has finisheed all of thee computatio ons successffully, you caan begin vieewing the
resuults. Severaal output opttions are avaailable from the View menum bar on the HEC-RRAS main
winndow. Thesee options incllude:
a) CCross sectionn plots
b) PProfile plots
c) GGeneral proffile plot
d) RRating curvees
e) XX-Y-Z persppective plots
f) DDetailed tabuular output at
a a specific ccross section (cross sectio
on table)
g) LLimited tabuular output att many cross sections (profile table)

 BBegin by plootting a crosss section. Sellect Cross Sections fromm the View m menu bar on the
t HEC-
RRAS main window.
w Anyy cross sectioon can be plo otted by seleecting the apppropriate riv
ver, reach
aand river staation (See Figure 11.84) . Several plo otting featurees are availabble from the Options
mmenu bar onn the cross section ploot window. These T optionns include: zoom in; zo oom out;
sselecting whhich plans, profiles,
p varriables to pllot; and con
ntrol over linnes, labels, symbols,
sscaling etc.

Figure 11.84: Crosss section (Riiet River: Upper

U reach – River stattion 100)

 SSelect different cross secctions to ploot and practicce using som

me of the feaatures availab ble under
tthe options menu
m bar. First
F try and vview the chaange in waterr level at thiis cross section. Click
oon the Play button,
b , on the Crosss Section window.
w An Animation
A CControl win ndow will
aappear (see Figure
F 11.855). Click on the Expand button, , to see the enntire control.

11-204 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.885: Animatiion Control

SSet the Zeroo Delay horizontal scrolll bar as indiccated (in Fig
gure 11.85) aand click on
n the play
bbutton, , to view the changing w water surfacee levels and energy gradde lines at this
t cross
ssection. Clicck the Stop button,
b , too stop the an
nimation.

 T vels with timee (Figure 11

Try and makke a movie cllip by viewinng the changee in flow lev 1.84), this
ccan be done by clicking on the Recoord button (red
( dot Figuure 11.84) tto start recorrding and
cclicking it again
a will sttop recordinng. You wiill be promp pted as show wn in Figurre 11.86,
w n you woulld like to reccord a moviee (AVI). Click on the Y
whether or not Yes button, remember
ding as soon as you click on the Yes button.
tthe program starts record b

Figgure 11.86: Confirmingg that a mov

vie clip should be recordded

CClick on thee Play buttonn, , to staart playing the

t animation n as explainned earlier. Once the
aanimation ennds click onn the Record d button (redd dot Figuree 11.84) agaain to stop recording.
TThe recordedd screen captures will bee shown as in ndicated in Figure
F 11.877. You now have the
ooption of savving the screeens after peerforming soome editorial work to an AVI file by y clicking
oon the Writee AVI button n.

11-205 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11 .87: Record
ded screens

 N
Next plot a water surfacce profile. S elect Waterr Surface Prrofiles from the View menu
m bar.
T g you a prrofile plot ass shown in Figure 11.88.
This should give

Figu
ure 11.88: Water
W Surfacce Profile (fo
or Riet Riveer: Upper reeach)

11-206 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
  AAlso have a look at a Geeneral Profiile Plot and the X-Y-Z Perspective
P Plot (Figurre 11.89).
AAlso look att some tabulaar output. GGo to the Vieew menu bar on the HEC C-RAS main window.
TThere are tw
wo types of tables
t availaable, a detailed output table and a prrofile summaary table.
SSelect Detaiiled Outputt Tables to get the first table to ap ppear. This table showss detailed
hhydraulic infformation at the cross secction. Other cross section
ns can be vieewed by seleecting the
aappropriate reach
r and riv
ver from the table. A tablle with all th
he errors, war
arnings and comments
c
ccan also be viewed,
v by selecting
s Summmary, Errr Warn, Nottes... from thhe View men nu on the
HHEC-RAS main
m window w.

Figure
F 11.899: X-Y-Z Perrspective plo
ot

You willl now be in a position

n to answerr some of the
t question
ns at the baack of this exercise
(Questioons 1 to 5).

BRIDGE
ES

In the neext section a bridge struucture will bee added dowwnstream of the confluennce of the twwo rivers.
HEC-RA AS computess energy losses caused bby structuress such as briidges and cuulverts in thrree parts.
One partt consists off losses that occur
o in the reach immeediately down nstream fromm the structu
ure where
an expannsion of flow w takes placce. The seconnd part is th
he losses at the
t structuree itself, whicch can be
modeledd with severral different methods. T The third parrt consists of
o losses thaat occur in the
t reach
immediaately upstream m of the stru
ucture where the flow is contracting
c to
o get throughh the opening
g.

Cross seection locatiions

The briddge routine utilizes

u four user
u defined cross sections in the com
mputation off energy lossses due to
the struccture.

11-207 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Cross seection 1 is loocated sufficciently downnstream from
m the structurre so that thee flow is nott affected
by the sttructure (i.e. the flow hass fully expandded)

Cross seection 2 is located imm mediately dow wnstream frrom the brid dge (i.e. withhin a short distance).
d
This cross section shhould represeent the naturaal ground jusst outside thee bridge.

Cross seection 3 shoould be locatted just upstrream of the bridge. The distance bettween cross section 3
and the bbridge shoulld be relativeely short. Thhis distance should
s only reflect the leength requireed for the
abrupt accceleration and
a contraction of the flow w that occurrs in the imm
mediate area oof the openin ng.

Cross seection 4 is ana upstream cross sectionn where the flow lines arre approxim
mately paralleel and the
cross secction is fully effective.

Enteringg bridge datta

 T
To enter briidge data thhe user pressses the Brid
dge/Culvert button on tthe Geomettric data
window (Fig
w gure 11.60). Once the B ridge/culverrt button is pressed,
p the B
Bridge/Culv
vert Data
E
Editor will appear
a own in Figurre 11.90.
as sho

11-208 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figu
ure 11.90: B
Bridge/Culveert Data win
ndow

To add a bridge to thhe model, tak

ke the follow
wing steps:

 SSelect the rivver and reach

h that you w
would like to place the briidge in (from
m the drop do
own lists)
ii.e. Riet riverr and Lower reach.

 F
From the Op ptions menuu, select Addd a Bridge and/or Culv vert from thhe list. An input
i box
w
will appear prompting
p yo
ou to enter a river station
n identifier fo
or the new brridge.
Enter 52 as shown
E s in Fig
gure 11.91.

F
Figure 11.91: Bridge rivver station (R
Riet River: Lower
L reachh)

 E
Enter the Deescription off the bridge: SStephnie brid
dge (see Figure 11.92)

11-209 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.92: Upstream and doownstream view of crosss sections aat bridge

 EEnter all of the

t required data
d for the nnew bridge. This includees:
aa. Bridge deckd
bb. Slopingg abutments (optional)
(
cc. Piers (optional)
dd. Bridge modeling
m approach inforrmation

 F
From the Bridge/Culv
B ert Data E Editor selectt the Deck//Roadway iicon to actiivate the
D
Deck/Roadw
way Data Ed wn in Figure 11.93.
ditor as show

 TThe first inpuut at the top of the editorr is the distan

nce from thee upstream siide of the briidge deck
tto the cross section
s immeediately upsttream from the bridge (i.e. river statioon 55). Thiss distance
iis 5 m.

 TThe bridge deck

d w have a wiidth of 7,5 m.
itself will m The weir flow coefficcient selected for this
aanalysis is 1,,44.

 TThe bridge deck will be 0,9 m higgh and will have a slop
pe across it of 0,05 m (for road
ddrainage).

11-210 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 F
Figure 11.93:: Bridge/Decck and Road
dway data editor
e windoow

 AAt every staation position

n the high cchord and loow chord of the bridge should be entered as
sshown in Figgure 11.93 too provide a bbridge shape as shown in Figure 11.994.

 TThe US and DS Embank kment SS (uupstream and d downstreamm embankmeent side slop pe) values
sshould be enntered as 2 (horizontal to 1 verticaal). These values
v are ussed for the graphical
rrepresentatioon on the pro
ofile plot.
 AAt the bottoom of the Deeck/Roadwaay Data Ediitor, there are a three addditional fieldds of data
fi is the Max
eentry. The first M Allowab ble Submerg gence. This input ratio oof downstreaam water
ddepth to upstream energy y, as measurred above thee minimum weir
w elevatioon. When th he ratio is
eexceeded, thhe program will
w no longerr consider th he bridge decck to act as a weir and will switch
tthe computattion mode to o energy (staandard step) method. For this exercisee the defaultt value of
00,95 (95%) should
s be sellected.

 TThe second field at the bottom of tthe editor is the Min Weir W Flow E Elevation. Th his is the
eelevation thaat determiness when weir flow will staart to occur over
o the briddge. If this field is left
bblank (as in this exercisee), the progrram will deffault to use th
he lowest hiigh cord valu ue on the
uupstream sidde of the bridge. The lasst field at th
he bottom of the editor iss the selectio on of the
WWeir Crest Shape. Thiis selection w will determinne the reducction of the w weir flow co oefficient
ddue to submeergence. Forr this exercisse, a Broad Crested
C weir shape shouuld be selecteed.

 Click the OK
C K button

11-211 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figu
ure 11.94: B
Bridge data (View
( of briidge)

 TThis bridge has three piiers that shoould be entered. From the Bridge/C Culvert Datta Editor
sselect the Pieer icon to activate the Pi er Data Edittor as shownn in Figure 111.95. The thhree piers
aare entered by specifyiing the Cen nterline staation at thee upstream side as welll as the
ddownstream side. The fiirst pier is poositioned at 151 m. It has a width of 00,5 m and it starts
s at a
llevel below the ground profile
p and eends at a lev ined cords [Link]. 20 and
vel inside thee bridge defin
223 m.

 C
Click on thee Add button d pier is at ceenterline 20 m, has a
n to add a piier (Pier #2).. The second
width of 0,5 m and startss at elevationn 19 m and en
w nds at elevatiion 23 m.

 C
Click on thee Add button n to add a ppier (Pier #3). The third pier is at ceenterline 25 m, has a
width of 0,5 m and startss at elevationn 19 m and en
w nds at elevatiion 23 m.

 CClick on the OK button to

t return to thhe Bridge Culvert
C Data
a editor to vieew the specified piers
((see Figure 11.96).

11-212 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 111.95: Pier Da
ata Editor

Figure 11
1.96: Bridgee data (View
w of bridge with
w piers)

11-213 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 AAnother crosss section within a shortt distance do ownstream off the bridge is also requiired. This
ccross sectionn should reprresent the naatural ground
d where the flow
f is not aaffected by th
he by the
sstructure (fuully expandeed). Return to the Geo ometric Data Editor byy exiting thee Bridge
CCulvert Datta window (Exit under tthe File men nu). Click onn the Cross Section buttton, ,
oon the Geommetric windo ow (Figure 111.60). Go to t cross secttion 55, just upstream off the new
bbridge (Riett River: Lowwer reach). UUnder the Options
O menu, click on Copy curreent cross
ssection. Enteer the new River
R station nname, 51, ass shown in Fiigure 11.97.

Figure 11.97: New cross sectio

on (River sta
ation 51)

TThis will poosition the neew cross secction downsttream of the newly addedd bridge (wh hich is at
ccross sectionn 52). The reach
r lengthss should alsoo be corrected. This new on is 8 m
w cross sectio
ddownstream of the bridg ge, thus the distance froom River station 55 to thhe bridge is 5 m, the
wwidth of the bridge is 7,5 m and thiss cross sectioon is a furtheer 8 m downnstream of thhe bridge.
TThe total disstance from River
R stationn 55 to Riverr station 51 is
i 20,5 m. G Go to River station
s 55
a the reach lengths to 200,5 m. Click
aand change all k on the App ply button to accept the ch
hanges.

NNow go to thhe newly creeated River sstation 51 and

d change thee reach lengthhs (by subtraacting the
220,5 m fromm the previouss lengths) to::
DDownstream m reach length hs: LOB = 66,9 Channel = 10,0 and ROB
R = 10,0
TThe total reaach lengths between
b Riveer station 55 and River sttation 50 willl thus still reemain the
ssame.

 TThe average slope betweeen River stattions 55 and 50 is 0,0006656 m/m. Thhe newly add ded River
sstation 51 cuurrently has the same eleevations as River
R station 55 (since itt is a copy of RS 55).
TTo adjust thhe elevation of this Riverr station (RS
S 51) with a value of thhe distance multiplied
m
wwith the aveerage slope i.e. 20,5 m x 0,000656 = ± 13 mm click on Adjuust Elevatio ons under
tthe Options menu. Enteer an adjustm ment of -0,01 13 m (as showwn in Figurre 11.98) and d click on
tthe OK buttoon.

Figure 11..98: Adjustin ation (River station 51)

ng the eleva

 T 1 will then haave the valuees as shown in Figure 111.99.

The new Rivver station 51

11-214 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.999: River sta
ation 51 data
a

 BBefore we continue
c T is done by clicking on Save
we need to savee the Geomeetric data. This
GGeometry Data
D As undeer the File m
menu on the Geometric
G Data
D window w. After selecting this
ooption you will
w be prom mpted to enteer a Title forr the geometric data (Fiigure 11.100
0). Enter
“Base Geom metry + bridg ge” for this exercise, an
nd then press the OK buutton. A filee name is
aautomatically assigned to
t the geomeetry data baased on whatt you entereed for the prroject file
nname i.e. Exxercise2.g02.

Fiigure 11.1000: Save Geom

metry Data As

 TThe next stepp is to enter the ineffectivve flow areas. Any inefffective flow aareas that ex
xist due to
tthe bridge shhould be enteered. At a bbridge ineffecctive flow arreas normallyy occur just upstream
aand downstrream of the road embannkment, awaay from the bridge openning. It wass for this
rreason that River
R station 51 was addeed just down nstream of thee bridge.

 AAt River staation 55 we need

n to enteer the ineffecctive flow arrea by selectiting Ineffective Flow
AAreas from the Option ns menu undder the Crosss Section Data D Editor window. An A initial
eestimate of the stationin
ng of the ineeffective flow areas, a ratio
r of 1:1 of distance from the
bbridge to thhe cross secttion was useed (as an ex xample). In this exercisee the upstream cross
ssection is 5 m upstreamm of the briddge. Thereffore, the left and right inneffective fllow areas
sshould be seet at 5 m leeft and rightt of the briddge opening. This howevver indicates that no
iineffective flow
fl area has to be speciffied since this will already y be within tthe natural prrofile.

11-215 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 AAs an exampple the ineffeective flow aareas for thiss exercise weere specifiedd at 1 m left and right
oof the bridge opening att the upstreaam river stattion (RS 55)), see Figuree 11.101. Th he bridge
oopening starrts at station 12,5 m and ends at 27,55 m. These will
w both be ppermanent in neffective
aareas up to thhe level of th
he bridge decck.

Figure 11.101: Ineffecctive flow arreas for riverr station 55

 NNo ineffectivve flow areaas were speccified for thee newly creaated downstrream river sttation 51.
TThe ineffective flow areas could alsoo be set by clicking
c t Boundinng XS’s 55 button
on the b on
tthe Bridge Culvert
C Data a Editor screeen (see Figu
ure 11.96).

 The entered bridge shoulld now look similar to that shown in Figure
T F 11.1002.

Figure 11.1102: Bridge data

d (View oof bridge wiith piers and
d ineffectivee flow areas))

11-216 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 TThe contracttion and expaansion coeffificients are ussed by the prrogram to det
etermine the transition
t
eenergy lossees between twwo adjacent cross sections. Typical bridgeb contra
raction and expansion
e
0 respectivvely. Select Contraction\
ccoefficients are 0,3 and 0,5 C \Expansion Coefficientss (Steady
FFlow) from m the Tabless menu on the Geomeetric Data Editor winddow and ch hange the
ccontraction and
a expansio on coefficiennts as indicateed in Figuree 11.103. Theese coefficieents could
king on the C
aalso be channged by click Cross Section n Data editoor and changging the crosss sections
ccoefficients individually there. Pleasse note thesee coefficientss shown in FFigure 11.10 03 are for
tthe Steady Flow
F analysiis only. Sim
milarly coeffiicients can beb entered foor an Unsteaady Flow
AAnalysis byy selecting Contraction n\Expansion n Coefficien nts (Unsteaady Flow) from f the
TTables menuu on the Geo ometric Dataa Editor window.

Figure 11.103: Contr action and Expansion

E coefficients
c

 B
Bridge Mod deling Appro oach
T
The bridge routines
r allow
w the modeller to analysee the bridge flows by usiing differentt methods
wwith the sam
me geometry y. The diffeerent methodds are: low flow,
f high fl
flow and com mbination
fflow.

FFrom the Geometric

G Data
D Editor,, select the Bridge/Cullvert icon aand then thee Bridge
MModeling Approach
A utton. This will activatee the Bridgee Modeling Approach Editor as
bu
sshown in Fig
gure 11.104.

 F
For this exerrcise select th
he energy, m
momentum an
nd Yarnell eq
quations.

TThe Energy equation meethod consideers the bridgge as just bein

ng part of the
he natural chaannel and
rrequires Mannning’s “n” values for tthe friction losses
l througgh the bridgge and coeffiicients of
ccontraction and
a expansio on.

TThe Momenntum Balancee method perrforms a mo omentum balance throughh the bridge area and
rrequires the selection off drag coeffi g coefficientt to 2,0 (Squ
ficient, Cd. Set the drag uare nose
ppiers).

YYarnell Class A flows exists wheen the waterr surface th hrough the bbridge is coompletely
ssubcritical (ii.e. above the critical deppth). The flow regime without
w the bbridge was su
ubcritical
aand thus Yarrnell should also be sele cted. Enter the Yarnell pier
p coefficieent K as 1,255 (Square
nnose and taill).

11-217 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Select the Highest
H Enerrgy Answer option. The program will show the rresults for th
he answer
ffor the methood with the greatest
g enerrgy loss as th
he final solutiion.

F ws Energy Only
For high flow O (Standaard Step) sh
hould be selected.

Figure 11.104: Brid

dge Modelin
ng Approach
h Editor

 Go to the Hy
G ydraulic Tab
ble Parametters Editor by o the HTabb Param icon
b clicking on n .

 Set the Head

d Water Ma
aximum Eleevation value to 24,5 m (see Figure 11.105) and
d click on
tthe OK buttoon.

Figure 11.105: Brid

dge Modelin
ng Approach
h Editor

 B
Before we continue
c we need to savve the Geommetric data. This
T is done by clicking on Save
G
Geometry Data
D he File menuu on the Geometric Data
under th a window.

11-218 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 UNST
TEADY FLO
OW ANALY
YSIS WITH
H BRIDGE

P
Performing Unsteady Flow
F Calculaations with the
t Bridge

OOnce all off the geomettry and unstteady flow data

d have been entered,, the user can
c begin
pperforming the
t unsteady
y flow calcullations. To run
r the simuulation, go too the HEC-R
RAS main
wwindow andd select Unstteady Flow Analysis froom the Runn menu or cllick on the Unsteady
U
FFlow Analyysis button T Unsteady Flow Annalysis window will
on the menu bar. The
aappear as shoown in Figure 11.106.

Fiigure 11.1066: Unsteady Flow Analy

ysis

 TThe first stepp is to put to w Plan. Thee Plan defines which geoometry and flow
ogether a new f data
aare to be useed, as well as providing a title and sho
ort identifier for the run.

TTo establishh a plan, seleect New Plaan from the File menu on o the Unstteady Flow Analysis
wwindow. Ennter the plan title as Basee analysis + bridge and then
t he OK button
press the n (Figure
111.107).

11-219 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.1107: Creatin
ng new plan

 Y
You will be prompted too enter a shoort identifier.. Enter a titlle of Bridge in the Shorrt ID box
(Figure 11.1
108) and click on the OKK button.

Figure 111.108: Plan identifier

 S
Select the coorrect Geomeetry file and U
Unsteady flo
ow file from the drop dow
wn list.

 SSelecting Prrograms to RunR

TThere are thrree componeents used in performing an unsteady flow analyssis within HE
EC-RAS.
TThese components are: a geometric data pre-pro ocessor; the unsteady floow simulatorr; and an
ooutput post-pprocessor (seee Figure 111.106).

 SSimulation time
t window w
TThe user is required
r to enter
e a time window thaat defines the start and eend of the siimulation
pperiod. The time window w requires a starting datee and time an
nd an ending date and tim
me.

w hydrographh shown in Figure

IIn this exerccise the flow F 11.733 and Figuree 11.75 startts at 0:00
aand has dataa until 06:00 0 and this iss used in thee simulation time windoow. The datte can be
aanything sinnce the optio on to Use S imulation Time
T on thee Flow Hydrrograph window was
sselected (seee Figure 11.773 and Figurre 11.75). Enter
E the Starting date aas 01JAN2013 and the
EEnding datee as 01JAN20 013. Enter thhe Starting time as 0000 0 and the Ennding time ass 0600.

 CComputatioonal settings
TThe computaational Settinngs area conntains the Co
omputationa al Interval, HHydrograph h Output
IInterval, Deetailed Outpput Interval, the name an nd path of the output DSSS file, and whether
w or
nnot the progrram is run in
n a mixed fllow regime. The compu utation intervval is probably one of
tthe most im mportant paraameters enteered into the model. This T should be small en nough to
aaccurately describe
d the rise and falll of the hyd
drographs being routed bbut not smalll to take
fforever to coompute.

11-220 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 FFor this exerrcise set the Computatioonal Interva
al at 5 minutees (from the drop down list). Set
tthe Hydrogrraph Output Interval too 15 minutess and the Dettailed Outpuut Interval also
a at 15
mminutes.

TThe DSS Ou utput filenam

me is the fil e that contaiins all the caalculated dataa in a formatt that can
bbe read by HEC-RAS
H an
nd used in ddisplaying alll the results (tables and ggraphs). Th he default
wwill be …..\[Link]
E s and does nnot have to bee changed for this exercisse.

Thee completed Unsteady

U Fllow Analysiis screen is sh
hown in Figu
ure 11.109.

Figure 11.109:
1 Unstteady Flow Analysis
A (completed)

 Click onn the Compu

ute button to run the Unstteady Flow Analysis
A .

11-221 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
VIEWIN
NG THE RE
ESULTS

Oncce the modeel has finisheed all of thee computatio ons successffully, you caan begin vieewing the
resuults. Severaal output optiions area avvailable fromm the View menu
m bar onn the HEC-R
RAS main
winndow. Thesee options incllude:
a) CCross sectionn plots
b) PProfile plots
c) GGeneral proffile plot
d) RRating curvees
e) XX-Y-Z persppective plots
f) DDetailed tabuular output at
a a specific ccross section (cross sectio
on table)
g) LLimited tabuular output att many cross sections (profile table)

 BBegin by plotting a cross section. Select Crosss Sections from the Viiew menu baar on the
HHEC-RAS main m window w. Any crosss section can n be plotted by
b selecting the appropriiate river,
rreach and rivver station (See Figure 11.110). Seeveral plottin ng features aare available from the
OOptions mennu bar on th he cross sectiion plot winndow. Thesee options incclude: zoom in; zoom
oout; selectingg which planns, profiles, variables to plot; and co
ontrol over liines, labels, symbols,
sscaling etc.

Figurre 11.110: Cross

C section
n view (Riet River: Lowwer reach – River
R stationn 52 (upstreeam of
bridge)

 N
Next plot a water surfacce profile. S elect Waterr Surface Prrofiles from the View menu
m bar.
C
Click on thee Play button
n, , to vieew the Anim
mation Contrrol window (see Figuree 11.111).
Click on the Expand buttton, , to ssee the entiree control.
C

11-222 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.1111: Animattion Controll

 SSet the Zeroo Delay horizzontal scroll bar as indiccated (in Figu
ure 11.111) and click on n the play
bbutton, , to t view the changing
c watter surface leevels and eneergy grade liines of the river reach
a shown in Figure 11.1112 for the maximum
pprofile plot. This should give you a pprofile plot as m
wwater surfacee.

F
Figure 11.112: Water Su
urface Profille (for Riet River:
R Loweer reach- M
Maximum WS)

 AAlso have a look at a Geeneral Profille Plot and the

t X-Y-Z Perspective
P PPlot (Figuree 11.113).
A Go to the Vieew menu bar on the HEC
Also look att some tabulaar output. G C-RAS main window.
TThere are twwo types of tables
t availaable, a detailed output table and a prrofile summaary table.
SSelect Detaiiled Outputt Tables to get the firstt table to appear. This table showss detailed
hhydraulic innformation att the bridge . Other cro oss sections can be view wed by seleecting the
aappropriate reach
r and riv
ver from the ttable. A table with all th
he errors, war
arnings and comments
c
ccan also be viewed,
v by selecting
s Summmary, Errr Warn, Nottes... from thhe View men nu on the
HHEC-RAS mainm window w.

11-223 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 F
Figure 11.1113: X-Y-Z Perspective
P p
plot (Riet river: Lower reach, seleccted stationss)

You nswer some more of th

u will now be in a position to an he questionss at the end
d of this
exercise (Questtions 6 to 10
0).

AD
DDING AN IINLINE STR
RUCTURE (WEIR)

In the neext section ann inline weir will be addeed in the Blesbok River – Lower reacch.

Enteringg weir data

 T
To enter inline weir dataa click on thee Inline stru
ucture button
n on the Geoometric data a window
(Figure 11.558). Once thhe Inline stru ucture button is pressed, the Inline sttructure Da
ata Editor
w a shown in Figure
will appear as F 11.1114.

To add the inlinne weir in thee model, takee the followin

ng steps:

 SSelect the rivver and reach that you w

would like to
o place the weir
w in (from
m the drop do
own lists)
ii.e. Blesbok River
R and Lo
ower reach.

 FFrom the Op ptions menuu, select Add d an Inline structure from f the listt. An input box will
aappear prommpting you to enter a riverr station iden
ntifier for thee inline structture.
EEnter 6.5 as shown in Fig
gure 11.115 .

11-224 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Fig
gure 11.114 : Inline weirr Data wind
dow

Figurre 11.115: In
nline weir rivver station (Blesbok
( Riv
ver: Lower rreach)

 E
Enter the Deescription off the inline sttructure: Mayya weir (see Figure 11.1 16).

 EEnter all of the d for the nnew bridge. This includees:

t required data
aa. Weir/Em mbankment details
d
bb. Gate deetail

 FFrom the Innline Structuure Data edditor select the

t Weir/Em mbankmentt icon to acttivate the
IInline Struccture Weir Station
S Elevaation Editorr as shown in
n Figure 11..117.

11-225 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 F
Figure 11.11
16: View of tthe cross secction at the weir
w (RS 6.55)

Figure 11.117: Inline weir (Inlin

ne Structuree Weir Statiion Elevationn Editor)

 TThe first inpput at the topp of the editoor is the distance from th
he upstream cross section
n and the
ddeck (i.e. rivver station 7). This distannce is 10 m.

11-226 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 T
The deck itseelf will have a width of 5 m.

 T
The weir flow nt selected forr this analysiis is 1,44.
w coefficien

 AAt every stattion position

n enter stationn and elevatiion of the top
p of the weirr embankmeent shown
iin Figure 11
1.117 to prov vide the weir as shown in n Figure 11.1 118.

 TThe US and DS Embank kment SS (uupstream and d downstream

m embankmeent side slop pe) values
sshould be enntered as 1 (1( horizontall to 1 vertical). These values
v are uused for the graphical
rrepresentatioon on the pro
ofile plot.

 T o the Weir Crest Shap

The last fielld at the botttom of the editor is thee selection of pe. This
sselection willl determine the reductioon of the weeir flow coeffficient due tto submergence. For
tthis exercise, a Broad Crested weir sshape should d be selected
d.

 Click the OK
C K button.

Figurre 11.118: In
nline weir (V
Viewing the weir)

 EEnter the Pilot flow off 50 l/s i.e. 0,05 m³/s (Pilot dischaarge for leak
akage or to keep the
ddownstream channel wett at low flow s) (see Figu
ure 11.118).

11-227 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Gatted Spillwayy Data

IIn addition to
t uncontrolled overflow weirs, the user u can add gated spillw ways (this is optional).
o
TTo add gatedd spillways to he Gate butto
t the structuure, press th on on the Innline Structuure Data
eeditor. Once this button n is pressed, the gated editor will apppear as show wn in Figurre 11.119
((except yourrs will be blaank until youu have enteredd some data)).

Figure
F 11.1199: Gated Sp
pillway Edito
or

TThe Gated Spillway ed ditor is simillar to the Cuulvert editorr in concept.. The user enters
e the
pphysical desscription of the
t gates, ass well as the required co oefficients, inn the Gated Spillway
eeditor. Thee functionality of the gaates is defin ned as part of o the Unsteeady Flow data.
d The
ffollowing is a list of the data
d containeed on this ed ditor:

 GGate Group p - The Gate Group is auutomatically y assigned to "Gate #1" thhe first time you open
tthe editor. The
T user can enter up to 10 different Gate Groupss at each part rticular river crossing,
aand each gatte group can have up to 25 identical gate openings. If all of tthe gate openings are
eexactly the same,
s then only one gatee group need ds to be enterred. If the usser has gate openings
tthat are diffeerent in shap
pe, size, elevvation, or hav
ve different coefficients, then additio onal Gate
GGroups mustt be added fo or each Gate type.

 HHeight - This field is ussed to enter tthe maximum

m possible height that thhe gate can be
b opened
iin meters (Ennter 1,2 m).

 W
Width - This field is used for enterinng the width of the gate in
n meters (Ennter 1,2 m).

11-228 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Invert - This field is used for entering the elevation of the gate invert (sill elevation of the
spillway inside of the gate) in meters. (Enter 20 m).

 Gate Type - This field is used for selecting the type of gate. A number of different gate types
are available. Select from the drop down list Sluice.

 Sluice Discharge Coefficient - This field is used for entering the coefficient of discharge for
the gate opening. This coefficient ranges from 0,5 to 0,7 for sluice gates. For this sluice gate
enter 0,6.

 Orifice Coefficient - This field is used to enter an orifice coefficient, which will be used for
the gate opening when the gate becomes more than 80 percent submerged. Between 67 percent
and 80 percent submerged, the program uses a transition between the fully submerged orifice
equation and the free flow equations. When the flow is less than 67 percent submerged, the
program uses the free flow gate equations. Enter an Orifice Coefficient of 0,8.

 Head Reference – This field is used to select the reference point for which the upstream
energy head will be computed from. The default is the gate sill (invert), which is normally
used when the flow through the gate goes out into a channel. If the gate causes the flow to jet
out freely into the atmosphere, then the head reference should be selected as the centerline
elevation of the gate opening. If the gate crest is an ogee spillway crest, then the center of the
gate opening should be used. Ogee spillway crests are normally designed to follow the shape
of water jetting freely into the atmosphere. For this exercise select from the drop down list Sill
(invert).

 Weir Shape - This parameter allows the user to select between a Broad Crested, Sharp
Crested shape weir and an Ogee shaped weir. Select Broad Crested.

 Weir Coefficient - This field is used for entering a weir coefficient that will be used for the
gate opening. This coefficient will only be used when the gate is opened to an elevation
higher than the upstream water surface elevation. When this occurs, the flow through the gate
is calculated as weir flow. Enter the Weir Coefficient of 1,67.

 Centerline Stations - This table is used for entering the centerline stationing of the identical
gate openings. The user should enter a different centerline stationing for each gate opening
that is part of the current gate group. All gate openings within the same gate group are exactly
identical in every way, except their centerline stationing. As a user adds new centerline
stationing values, the number of identical gates in the group is automatically incremented and
displayed in the field labelled "# Openings". Enter the Centerline Station as 16,25 m.

 Once all of the data for the gates has been entered (as shown in Figure 11.119), the user needs
to press the OK button for the data to be accepted. If the user presses the OK button, this does
not mean that the data is saved to the hard disk; it is only stored in memory and accepted as
being good data. This data is part of the geometry data, and is stored in the geometric data file.
The data can be stored to the hard disk by selecting from the File menu of the Geometric
Data window Save Geometry Data As.

 After selecting this option you will be prompted to enter a Title for the geometric data (Figure
11.120). Enter “Base Geometry + bridge + weir” for this exercise, and then press the OK
button. A file name is automatically assigned to the geometry data based on what you entered
for the project file name i.e. Exercise2.g03.

11-229 Free surface flow determination

 Fiigure 11.1200: Save Geom
metry Data As

Figure 11.121: Inlin

ne weir (View
wing the weiir + gate)

 T
The newly added
a weir will wn on the Geometric
w be show G Data
D editor w
window as shown
s in
F
Figure 11.1222.

11-230 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11
1.122: Layou
ut of river sy
ystem (Bridge + weir)

Enteringg the gate op

pening charracteristics

Once all of the geometric

g data are entereed, the modelller can then enter the unnsteady flow data that
is reequired for thhe gate. To bring up thee unsteady flow
f data ediitor, select U
Unsteady Fllow Data
m the Edit menu
from m on the HEC-RAS
H m
main window w or clicking the short cuut button on the
t menu
bar . The Un nsteady Flow w data editoor should ap ppear as shown in Figgure 11.123, for this
exerrcise.

11-231 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figu
ure 11.123: U
Unsteady Flow Data Ed
ditor

The boundary coonditions at all the exterrnal boundarries of the sy

ystem have aalready been
n entered.
The internal conttrol at the weeir will now also be enterred.

 IIf the River station

s 6.5 IS undary Condiitions click oon the Add RS
S is not in thee list of Bou R button
aand add this internal boundary.

 CClick in the Boundary Condition

C c olumn next to the River station 6.5 IIS. HEC-RA AS allows
tthe user to seelect the typee of boundarry required frrom the available buttonss: T.S. Gate Opening,
EElev Controllled Gates, Navigation
N D
Dams or Rules.

 FFor this exeercise the gaates will be controlled, opening and

d closing byy means of the
t water
ssurface elevation. With the Boundaary Condition n Type blocck highlighteed click on the Elev
CControlled Gates butto on. This wil l show the Elevation Controlled
C G
Gates data editor as
sshown in Figgure 11.124.

11-232 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11
1.124: Elevattion Contro
olled Gates data
d editor

 TThis option allows the user to controol the openinng and closin
ng of gates bbased on the elevation
oof the waterr surface upsstream of thee structure. A gate begin
ns to open w when a user specified
eelevation is exceeded inn this case 233,5 m (see Figure
F 11.12
25). The gatte will beginn to close
t water surrface elevatioon reaches 22,5 m.
aagain when the

 T
The gate opeens at a rate specified
s by the user (0,1
1 m/min).

 T
The closing of the gate iss at a user sppecified rate (also
( 0,1 m/m
min.).

 T
The user must
m also entter a maxim mum and miinimum gatee opening. FFor this exeercise the
M
Maximum Gate
G Openinng is set at 1,,1 m and the Minimum Gate
G Openinng is set at 0 m.

 TThe Initial gate

g openinng is closed and thus this value must be enteredd as 0. Figurre 11.125
sshows the coompleted datta for this gatte.

Figure 11
1.125: Elevattion Contro
olled Gates data
d editor

11-233 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Savving the Unssteady Flow Data

 TThe last stepp in developin

ng the unsteaady flow datta is to save the
t informatition to a file. To save
tthe data, seleect the Save Unsteady F Flow Data AsA from the File
F menu onn the Unstea ady Flow
DData editor. A pop-up window
w will aappear promppting you to enter a title for the data as shown
iin Figure 11 1.126. Enter “Base Unstteady Flow + gates” for this exercisse, and then press the
OOK button. A file name is automaticcally assigneed to the Un nsteady Flow w Data based d on what
yyou entered for the project file name i.e. Exercisee2.u02.

Figu
ure 11.126: S
Saving Unstteady Flow Data
D

TThe completted Unsteady y Flow Dataa screen shou ude the addittional boundary at the
uld now inclu
iinline structuure (RS 6.5) as shown in Figure 11.1
127.

Figure
F 11.1227: Unstead
dy Flow Data
a

 IInitial condditions. Theere is no neeed to add an ny initial flow conditionns at the new
w internal
ccontrol sincee the flow en
ntered at Rivver station 8 will
w also flow w over the w
weir at the sttart of the
aanalysis.

11-234 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 UNSTEA
ADY FLOW
W ANALYSIIS WITH IN
NLINE STRUCTURE A
AND BRIDG
GE

P
Performing Unsteady Flow
F Calculaations with the
t Inline Sttructure andd the Bridgee

OOnce all off the geomettry and unstteady flow data

d have been entered,, the user can
c begin
pperforming the
t unsteady
y flow calcullations. To run
r the simuulation, go too the HEC-R
RAS main
wwindow andd select Unstteady Flow Analysis froom the Runn menu or cllick on the Unsteady
U
FFlow Analyysis button menu bar. The Unstea
on the m ady Flow A
Analysis window will
aappear as shoown in Figure 11.128.

Fiigure 11.1288: Unsteady Flow Analy

ysis

 TThe first stepp is to put to w Plan. Thee Plan defines which geoometry and flow
ogether a new f data
aare to be useed, as well as providing a title and sho
ort identifier for the run.

To establishh a plan, seleect New Plaan from the File menu on

T o the Unstteady Flow Analysis
window. Ennter the plan title as Basee analysis + bridge + weeir and then press the OK
w O button
(Figure 11.1129).

11-235 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.1129: Creatin
ng new plan

 YYou will be prompted to o enter a shoort identifier.. Enter a title of Base+bb+w in the Short
S ID
bbox and clickk on the OK
K button.

 S metry file annd Unsteady flow file from the dropp down list i.e. Base
Select the coorrect Geom
G
Geometry + bridge + weeir and Base Unsteady Fllow + gates respectively.
r .

 SSelecting Prrograms to RunR

TThere are thrree componeents used in performing an unsteady flow analyssis within HE
EC-RAS.
TThese components are: a geometric data pre-pro ocessor; the unsteady floow simulatorr; and an
ooutput post-pprocessor (seee Figure 111.128).

 SSimulation time
t window w
TThe user is required
r to enter
e a time window thaat defines the start and eend of the siimulation
pperiod. The time window w requires a starting datee and time an
nd an ending date and tim
me.

w hydrographh shown in Figure

IIn this exerccise the flow F 11.733 and Figuree 11.75 startts at 0:00
aand has dataa until 06:00 0 and this iss used in thee simulation time windoow. The datte can be
aanything sinnce the optio on to Use S imulation Time
T on thee Flow Hydrrograph window was
sselected (seee Figures 18 and 20). Ennter the Starting date as 01JAN20133 and the End ding date
aas 01JAN201 13. Enter thee Starting tim
me as 0000 and
a the Endiing time as 00600.

 CComputatioonal settings
TThe computaational Settinngs area conntains the Co
omputationa al Interval, HHydrograph h Output
IInterval, Deetailed Outpput Interval, the name an nd path of the output DSSS file, and whether
w or
nnot the progrram is run in
n a mixed fllow regime. The compu utation intervval is probably one of
tthe most im mportant paraameters enteered into the model. This T should be small en nough to
aaccurately describe
d the rise and falll of the hyd
drographs being routed bbut not smalll to take
fforever to coompute.

IIn this exeercise the newly

n addedd gates cloose within 1 minute aand thus a smaller
CComputatioonal Intervaal of 1 minutte (from the drop down list) should be selected.. Set the
HHydrograph h Output Interval to 1 m
minute and th
he Detailed Output
O Inteerval also at 1 minute.

TThe DSS Ou utput filenam

me is the fil e that contaiins all the caalculated dataa in a formatt that can
bbe read by HEC-RAS
H an
nd used in ddisplaying alll the results (tables and graphs). Th he default
wwill be …..\[Link]
E s and does nnot have to bee changed for this exercisse.

 A
Also select thhe Mixed Fllow Regimee option sincee mixed flow
w might occuur at the flow
w over the
weir. The coompleted Un
w nsteady Floww Analysis screen is showwn in Figuree 11.130.

11-236 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.130:
1 Unstteady Flow Analysis
A (completed)

Clicck on the Co
ompute butto
on to run the Unsteady Flow
F Analysiis.

VIEW
WING THE RESULTS

Oncce the modeel has finisheed all of thee computatioons successffully, you caan begin vieewing the
resuults. Several output optiions are avaiilable from the View menu
m bar on the HEC-R RAS main
winndow. Thesee options incllude:

a) C
Cross sectionn plots
b) P
Profile plots
c) G
General proffile plot
d) R
Rating curvees
e) X
X-Y-Z persppective plots
f) D
Detailed tabuular output at
a a specific ccross section (cross sectio
on table)
g) L
Limited tabuular output att many cross sections (profile table)

 BBegin by plootting a crosss section. Sellect Cross Sections from

m the View m menu bar on the
t HEC-
RRAS main window.
w Anyy cross sectioon can be plootted by seleecting the apppropriate riv
ver, reach
aand river sttation (See Figure 11.1131 and Fig gure 11.132 2). Several pplotting features are
aavailable froom the Optioons menu barr on the cross section ploot window. T These optionss include:
zzoom in; zooom out; seleecting whichh plans, profiiles, variablees to plot; annd control ovver lines,
llabels, symbols, scaling etc.
e

11-237 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
Figu
ure 11.131: Cross sectio
on view (Ble sbok river: Lower reach – River sttation 6.5 (In
nline
structurre) at maxim
mum water surface
s (gattes open)

ure 11.132: Cross sectio

Figu on view (Ble sbok river: Lower reach – River sttation 6.5 (In
nline
structure) at time step
p when gatess just closed completely

 N
Next plot a water surfacce profile. S elect Waterr Surface Prrofiles from the View menu
m bar.
C
Click on thee Play button
n, , to vieew the Anim
mation Contrrol window (see Figuree 11.133).
Click on the Expand buttton, , to ssee the entiree control.
C

11-238 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figure 11.1133: Animattion Controll

 SSet the Zeroo Delay horizzontal scroll bar as indicated (in Figu ure 11.133) and click on n the play
bbutton, , to t view the changing
c watter surface leevels and eneergy grade liines of the river reach
a shown in Figure 11.1134 for the maximum
pprofile plot. This should give you a pprofile plot as m
wwater surfacee.

Figure 111.134: Watter Surface Profile

P (for Blesbok riv
ver: Lower reach-
r Maxim
mum Waterr surface
a nd gate open)

 AAlso have a look at the tabular

t outpuut at the inliine structure (RS 6.5). GGo to the View menu
bbar on the HEC-RAS maain window aand select Deetailed Outp put Tables. From the Ty ype menu
sselect Inlinee structurees. This tab le shows detailed
d hydrraulic inform
mation at thhe inline
sstructure. Other
O cross seections or strructures can be viewed by b selecting the appropriiate reach
aand river from the table and
a select thee type of datta to view.

11-239 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
 Figgure 11.135:: Detailed Ta
abular Outp
put (Blesbok
k river: Low
wer reach, Innline structu
ure)

At the ennd of this exeercise the folllowing objeectives shoulld have been met:

 B
Be able to a river system
m containing m
more than on
ne river reach
h

 K
Know how too enter unsteeady flow daata and definiing and enterring the bounndary controls

 B
Be able to annalyse the riv
ver system (uunsteady flow
w)

 K
Know how too define a brridge structurre and a weirr

 K
Know how too set the bou
undaries for uunsteady flow
w with openiing and closiing gates

 K
Know how too obtain resu
ults from an uunsteady flow
w analysis

Question
ns

1. D
Define the fllow type in th
he river.

2. D
Does the flow t cross secttion flow ontto the banks of the river ssystem?
w at any of the

3. A
At what tim
me does the maximum
m floow at cross section 40 occur
o and whhat is the peeak flow?
W
What is the normal
n flow depth duringg this peak fllow?

11-240 Free surfacce flow determ

mination
4. What will be the effect on the obtained water level at cross section 3 during maximum flow, if
the Junction was analysed using Momentum instead of energy with the Blesbok river joining
at an angle of 45°.

5. Describe the reason for the differences in the Rating curves (Flow rate versus Water Surface
Elevation) for cross section 40 and cross section 100.

6. What effect does the bridge have on the maximum water surface level at cross section 70?

7. What is the maximum damming upstream of the bridge?

8. Is the bridge function as a control?

9. What will happen if the flow hydrographs of the Upper reach of the Riet river is increased
with 100%?

10. What increase in flow velocity is experienced due to the bridge compared to the before
scenario?

11. What is the maximum flow through the gate at the inline structure and at what time step does
this occur?

12. What effect does the added inline structure have on the flow conditions at the bridge (flow
depth, velocity etc.)?

13. What will be the effect if the Computational Interval, Hydrograph Output Interval and
Detailed Output Interval are also set to 15 minutes and the rate of opening and closing of the
gates are set to 1,2 m/min.

11-241 Free surface flow determination

12 SUB-SUR
RFACE DR
RAINAGE

12.1 Example 12.1

1 - Herrin
ngbone draiinage system
m

Problem
m description
n Example 12.1:
1

Calculatte the maxim mum infiltrattion rate (mm m/day), whiich may be discharged
d vvia the depiccted sub-
surface hherringbone system to a main drainaage pipe. Th he diameter of
o the centrall pipe is 150 mm and
its slope 1:500. The diameter off the laterals is 100 mm and a their slop
pes 1: 100. TThe Manning g n-value
for the ppipes is 0,0111s/m1/3. Figure 12.1 refleects the layou
ut.

Figure 12.1: Layout off the herring

gbone drain
nage system

Solution
n Example 12.1:
1

For each
h lateral, floowing 70% full:
f

q 
26,922 x10 d S 0,7
6 8/3
0
1/2

nA
S
A  S (L  ) Refer
R to Figu
ure 12.2
2
L  152 152  21,21
1m

L
S   100,61m (V
Valid in thiss example since laterals are placed aat 45º and dim
mensions
2
are
a equal 15 m x 15 m)
 10,61 
 A  10,61  (221,21)  
 2 
 281,3 m 2

 q 
26,92 x 10 0,1 0,01
6 8/3
0  0,7  1312 mm/daay
1/2

0,011281,3

12-242 Su
ub-surface drrainage
 F
Figure 12.2: General vieew of a herringbone dra
ainage system
m

Flow ratte, Q, for 14 laterals:

Q = (1,312)(281,3))(14)

Q = 51167 m³/day

Hencce Q ≈ 0,06 m³/s

m

Capacitty of main piipe: (Manning Formulaa)

2/3 1/2
π
4

0,15 2  
 0,155 
4 

 1 
 
Q    500 
0,011

Q = 0,000805 m³/s

But thiss << 0,06 m³³/s !

Q ≈ 6955 m³/day

695
 q max 
281,314 
qmax = 1177 mm/day (<< 1312 mm
m/day)

12-243 Su
ub-surface drrainage
APPENDICES

A-244 Appendices
APPENDIX 3A
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

A-245 Appendices
 Single station direct statistical analysis

The following frequency distributions are discussed for untransformed and log10-transformed data:
 Untransformed data
Normal, Extreme Value Type 1 and General Extreme Value
 Log10-transformed data
Log-Normal, Log-Gumbel and Log-Pearson Type III

Step 1: Determine the mean, standard deviation and skewness coefficient of the raw data and the log10
transformed data as follows:

Mean x
x …(3A.1)
N
  
0,5
 x x

2

Standard deviation s …(3A.2)

 N 1 
 

Skewness coefficient 
g  
N

 
  x  x 
3
…(3A.3)
 N  1N  2   s3 

s
Coefficient of variation cV  …(3A.4)
x
where:
x = observed value (or of the logarithm of the observed value for the log
distributions)
x = mean of observed values (or of the logarithm of the observed value for the
log distributions)
N = the total number of observations
s = the standard deviation of the observed values (or of the logarithm of the
observed values)
g = skewness coefficient
cV = coefficient of variation

Step 2: The peak value for the desired return period and assumed distribution function can be derived
for each of the frequency distributions as follows:

 Normal distribution

The normal distribution is applicable where the observed values represent the effects of a large
number of independent processes. The distribution is symmetrical about the mean and is
therefore only suitable for data where the skewness coefficient (g) is equal to, or close to zero.
The spread about the mean is a function of the coefficient of variation. For high coefficient of
variation values, the bottom tail may extend below zero and may result in negative flows
being generated when the distribution is applied to untransformed data.

The standarized normal distribution has a cumulative distribution function:

e 0,5y dy
1
G y   
y 2
…(3A.5)

2
where y is the standarized variable and is related to x by:

y
x  x …(3A.6)
s

A-246 Appendices
 The value of y for a given value of G(y) cannot be solved directly from Equation 3A.4, and
hence published tables have to be used. Based on the return period, read from Table 3A.1b
the value of G(y) and obtain y from Table 3A.1a.

Q T  x  sy …(3A.7)

 Extreme Value Type 1 (EV1/MM) distribution

From Table 3A.4 (g = 1,14) read the value of WT for the required return period. Calculate QT
directly using:

Q T  x  s0,780W T  0,450  …(3A.8)

 General Extreme Value (GEV/MM) distribution

For the known value of the skewness coefficient (g) read off the value WT from Table 3A.4
and the values of k, E(y) and var(y) from Table 3A.2 by using linear interpolation.

For EV2 distribution:

s2
QT  x  1  E(y)  kWT  …(3A.9)
var(y)

For EV3 distribution:

s2
QT  x  - 1  E(y)  kWT  …(3A.10)
var(y)

 Log-normal (LN/MM) distribution

For this distribution, the logarithms of the data are assumed to be normally distributed. Based
on the skewness coefficient (g), obtain the value WT for the required return period from
Table 3A.3.


Q T  antilog log(x)  s log WT  …(3A.11)

where:
slog = the standard deviation of the logarithms of the observed values as shown in
equation 3A.11
 
0,5

 logx   logx  
2

s log   …(3A.12)
 N 1 
 
and
log x  = the logarithm of the mean of the observed values

Confidence bands
The confidence, with which the values of the magnitude-return period relationships are
estimated, depends on the number of observations contained in the data set. The greater the
number of observations, the greater the degree of assurance, and subsequently the narrower
the confidence band.

A-247 Appendices
 The displacement of the two-sided 95% confidence band about the estimated value can be
read from Table 3A.3 where N is the number of observations. The 95% confidence limits are:

Q T(95%)  antilog log(x)  s log WT  Wα   …(3A.13)

where:

Wα = displacement of the confidence band (column 5 in Table 3A.3)

 Log-Gumbel (Log-Extreme Value Type 1) (LEV1/MM) distribution

From Table 3A.4 (g = 1,14) read the value of WT for the required return period. Calculate QT
directly using:


Q T  antilog log(x)  s log 0,780WT  0,450  …(3A.14)

 Log-Pearson Type III (LP3/MM) distribution

From Table 3A.3 determine the value of WT for the known skewness coefficient (g) of the
log-transformed data by linear interpolation.


Q T  antilog log(x)  s log WT  …(3A.15)

Based on an example from Flood Risk Reduction Measures by WJR Alexander the incorporation of
the influence of historical information, missing data and outliers is required to determine the
confidence of the results. It is thus required to calculate the historically weighted mean ( x h ), standard
deviation ( s h ) and skewness coefficient ( g h ).

WT   x b   x a 
xh  …(3A.16)
YT  WT LW 
 WT   d 2b   d a2  
0,5

sh   …(3A.17)
 YT  WT LW   1 
 YT  WTLWWT  d 3b   d 3a 

 3 
gh   s  …(3A.18)
 YT  LWWT  1YT  WTLW  2
 
where:
YT = total time span (= NA + NB + NC)
WT = weight applied to data = (YT – NA) / NB
NA = floods equal to or above the high threshold
NB = floods between high and low thresholds
NC = missing data
LW = low outliers including zero flows
ZR = zero flows
and where: xa = is the value of a peak equal to or above the high threshold
xb = is the value of a peak below the high threshold
da and db = are deviations of xa + xb from x h
All values being the logarithms of the data.

A-248 Appendices
These historically weighted values of the mean, standard deviation and the skewness coefficient are
then used in the equations for the LN/MM, LP3/MM, EV1/MM and GEV/MM distribution in the
usual way (3.1).

For a detailed description of the adjustment required when:

 low outliers are removed from the data;

 gauged zero flows exist; or

 how to handle missing data;

see Flood Risk Reduction Measures by WJR Alexander.

Evaluating Example 3.2 for the Tsitsa River, utilizing Equations 3A.1 to 3A.15 (if the missing data is
not included in the statistical analysis) will provide the following results:

Table 3A.5a: Summary of parameters - Example 3.2

(missing data excluded)
Variable Untransformed data Transformed data
x 484,550 2,5463
YT 40 40
NC 0 0
s 390,677 0,366
g 1,344 -0,1462
cV 0,8063 0,1437

Table 3A.5b: Summary of results – Example 3.2 (missing data excluded)

Return period N/MM EV1/MM GEV/MM LN/MM LEV1/MM LP3/MM
2 485 421 414 352 307 358
5 813 766 758 714 645 719
10 985 994 991 1035 1057 1022
20 1127 1214 1221 1401 1696 1359
50 1287 1497 1527 1980 3126 1850
100 1394 1710 1764 2507 4953 2286

The next set of results is based on the historically weighted mean ( x h ), standard deviation ( s h ) and
skewness coefficient ( g h ) (Table 3A.6a and b) which incorporates the missing data.

Table 3A.6a: Summary of parameters - Example 3.2

(missing data included)
Variable Untransformed data Transformed data
xh 476,912 2,542
YT 53 53
NC 13 13
sh 378,305 0,362
gh 1,304 -0,157
cV 0,793 0,142

Table 3A.6b: Summary of results - Example 3.2 (missing data included)

A-249 Appendices
 Return period N/MM EV1/MM GEV/MM LN/MM LEV1/MM LP3/MM
2 477 416 418 348 304 355
5 795 749 726 702 635 706
10 962 971 934 1012 1034 999
20 1099 1183 1137 1367 1651 1323
50 1254 1457 1407 1924 3022 1790
100 1357 1664 1615 2429 4764 2202

Step 3: Graphical representation of historical data

Arrange the observed data in descending order of magnitude and assign to each value a rank
number starting from one. Determine the plotting position (return period) for each value using
the Weibull formula. The general equation is given below and the values for the constants a
and b are provided in Table 3A.7.

nl  a
Τ … (3A.19)
m-b

where:
T = return period in years
nl = length of record in years
m = number, in descending order, of the ranked annual peak floods
a = constant (see Table 3A.7)
b = constant (see Table 3A.7)

If the horizontal axis has a probability classification, the probability (P) is calculated as:

1
 … (3A.20)


Some of the commonly used plotting positions recommended for use in hydrological analyses
are given in Table 3A.7. If several distributions are plotted on a single graph, then the general
purpose Cunane plotting position should be used.

Table 3A.7: Commonly used plotting positions

Type Plotting position Distribution
Weibull (1939) a=1&b=0 Normal, Pearson 3
Blom (1958) a = 0,25 & b = 0,375 Normal
Gringorten (1963) a = 0,12 & b = 0,44 Exponential, EV1 & GEV
Cunane (1978) average of
a = 0,2 & b = 0,4 General purpose
above two
Beard (1962) a = 0,4 & b = 0,3 Pearson 3
Greenwood (1979) a = 0 & b = 0,35 Wakeby, GEV

Plot the values against their estimated return periods on log-probability paper; draw the best
fitting straight line through the plotted points and extrapolate to determine the estimated
maximum value for the required return period. Alternatively utilize software such as Utility
Programs for Drainage or HEC-SSP included on the supporting flash drive.

A-250 Appendices
 Table 3A.1: Properties of the standardized normal distribution
Table 3A.1a Table 3A.1b
Standardized normal distribution Standardized normal distribution
y G(y)% y G(y)% T G(y)% WT
0,00 50,00 -0,00 50,00 1000 0,1 -3,09
0,05 51,99 -0,05 48,01 500 0,2 -2,88
0,10 53,98 -0,10 46,02
0,15 55,96 -0,15 44,04
200 0,5 -2,58
0,20 57,93 -0,20 42,07 100 1,0 -2,33
0,25 59,87 -0,25 40,13 50 2,0 -2,05
0,30 61,79 -0,30 38,21 20 5,0 -1,64
0,35 63,68 -0,35 36,32
0,40 65,54 -0,40 34,46 10 10,0 -1,28
0,45 67,36 -0,45 32,64 5 20,0 -0,84
0,50 69,14 -0,50 30,86 2 50,0 0,00
0,55 70,88 -0,55 29,12
0,60 72,57 -0,60 27,43
5 80,0 0,84
0,65 74,22 -0,65 25,78 10 90,0 1,28
0,70 75,81 -0,70 24,19 20 95,0 1,64
0,75 77,34 -0,75 22,66 50 98,0 2,05
0,80 78,81 -0,80 21,19
0,85 80,24 -0,85 19,76 100 99,0 2,33
0,90 81,59 -0,90 18,41 200 99,5 2,58
0,95 82,89 -0,95 17,11 500 99,8 2,88
1,00 84,13 -1,00 15,87
1,05 85,31 -1,05 14,69
1000 99,9 3,09
1,10 86,43 -1,10 13,57 5000 99,98 3,55
1,15 87,49 -1,15 12,51 10000 99,99 3,72
1,20 88,49 -1,20 11,51
1,25 89,44 -1,25 10,56
1,30 90,32 -1,30 9,68
1,35 91,15 -1,35 8,85
1,40 91,26 -1,40 8,08
1,45 92,65 -1,45 7,35
1,50 93,32 -1,50 6,68
1,55 93,94 -1,55 6,06
1,60 94,52 -1,60 5,48
1,65 95,05 -1,65 4,95
1,70 95,54 -1,70 4,46
1,75 95,99 -1,75 4,01
1,80 96,41 -1,80 3,59
1,85 96,78 -1,85 3,22
1,90 97,13 -1,90 2,87
1,95 97,44 -1,95 2,56
2,00 97,72 -2,00 2,28
2,05 97,98 -2,05 2,02
2,10 98,21 -2,10 1,79
2,15 98,43 -2,15 1,57
2,20 98,61 -2,20 1,39
2,25 98,78 -2,25 1,22
2,30 98,93 -2,30 1,07
2,35 99,06 -2,35 0,94
2,40 99,18 -2,40 0,82
2,45 99,29 -2,45 0,71
2,50 99,38 -2,50 0,62
2,55 99,46 -2,55 0,54
2,60 99,53 -2,60 0,47
2,65 99,60 -2,65 0,40
2,70 99,65 -2,70 0,35
2,75 99,70 -2,75 0,30
2,80 99,74 -2,80 0,26
2,85 99,78 -2,85 0,22
2,90 99,81 -2,90 0,19
2,95 99,84 -2,95 0,16
3,00 99,86 -3,00 0,14
3,05 99,88 -3,05 0,16
3,10 99,90 -3,10 0,10
3,15 99,92 -3,15 0,08
3,20 99,93 -3,20 0,07
3,25 99,94 -3,25 0,06
3,30 99,95 -3,30 0,05
3,35 99,96 -3,35 0,04
3,40 99,97 -3,40 0,03
3,45 99,97 --3,45 0,03
3,50 99,98 --3,50 0,02
3,55 99,98 --3,55 0,02
3,60 99,98 --3,60 0,02
3,65 99,99 --3,65 0,01
3,70 99,99 --3,70 0,01
3,75 99,99 --3,75 0,01

A-251 Appendices
Table 3A.2: Parameters of the standardized general extreme value distribution
Standardized general extreme value distribution
g k E(y) var(y)
-2,000 1,406 -1,247 3,204
-1,900 1,321 -1,182 2,505
-1,800 1,240 -1,127 1,984
-1,700 1,163 -1,080 1,590
-1,600 1,089 -1,041 1,287
-1,500 1,018 -1,008 1,052
-1,400 0,950 -0,980 0,868
-1,300 0,885 -0,957 0,721
-1,200 0,824 -0,938 0,602
-1,100 0,765 -0,922 0,507
-1,000 0,708 -0,910 0,428
-0,900 0,655 -0,901 0,362
-0,800 0,604 -0,894 0,307
-0,700 0,555 -0,889 0,261
-0,600 0,509 -0,887 0,222
-0,500 0,465 -0,886 0,188
-0,400 0,424 -0,886 0,159
-0,300 0,384 -0,888 0,134
-0,200 0,346 -0,892 0,112
-0,100 0,311 -0,896 0,094
0,000 0,277 -0,901 0,077
0,100 0,245 -0,907 0,063
0,200 0,215 -0,914 0,050
0,300 0,187 -0,922 0,039
0,400 0,160 -0,930 0,030
0,500 0,134 -0,938 0,022
0,600 0,110 -0,947 0,016
0,700 0,088 -0,956 0,010
0,800 0,067 -0,966 0,006
0,900 0,047 -0,975 0,003
1,000 0,028 -0,985 0,001
1,100 0,010 -0,994 0,000
1,200 -0,006 1,004 0,000
1,300 -0,022 1,013 0,001
1,400 -0,037 1,023 0,002
1,500 -0,050 1,032 0,005
1,600 -0,063 1,041 0,008
1,700 -0,075 1,049 0,011
1,800 -0,086 1,058 0,016
1,900 -0,097 1,066 0,021
2,000 -0,107 1,074 0,026
2,100 -0,116 1,082 0,032
2,200 -0,125 1,089 0,038
2,300 -0,133 1,097 0,044
2,400 -0,140 1,104 0,051
2,500 -0,148 1,110 0,058
2,600 -0,154 1,116 0,065
2,700 -0,160 1,123 0,072
2,800 -0,166 1,128 0,080
2,900 -0,172 1,134 0,087
3,000 -0,177 1,139 0,094
3,100 -0,182 1,145 0,102
3,200 -0,187 1,150 0,110
3,300 -0,191 1,154 0,117
3,400 -0,195 1,159 0,125
3,500 -0,199 1,163 0,132
3,600 -0,203 1,168 0,140
3,700 -0,207 1,172 0,148
3,800 -0,210 1,176 0,155
3,900 -0,213 1,180 0,163
4,000 -0,217 1,183 0,170
4,100 -0,220 1,187 0,178
4,200 -0,223 1,191 0,186
4,300 -0,225 1,194 0,193
4,400 -0,228 1,197 0,201
4,500 -0,231 1,201 0,208
4,600 -0,233 1,204 0,215
4,700 -0,236 1,207 0,223
4,800 -0,238 1,210 0,230
4,900 -0,240 1,213 0,237
5,000 -0,242 1,215 0,244

A-252 Appendices
 Table 3A.3a: Values of the standardized variate WT for the normal and exponential
distributions
Return Non- Normal distribution
Exponential
period exceedance Confidence limits Wα
WT distribution
(years) probability 75% 95%
2 0,50 0,00 1,63 2N 2,77 2N 0,69
5 0,80 0,84 1,89 2N 3,23 2N 1,61
10 0,90 1,28 2,20 2N 3,74 2N 2,30
20 0,95 1,64 2,49 2N 4,25 2N 3,00
50 0,98 2,05 2,87 2N 4,89 2N 3,91
100 0,99 2,33 3,13 2N 5,34 2N 4,61
200 0,995 2,58 3,38 2N 5,76 2N 5,30
500 0,998 2,88 3,69 2N 6,27 2N 6,21
1000 0,999 3,09 3,91 2N 6,66 2N 6,91
10000 0,9999 3,72 4,58 2N 7,80 2N 9,21

Table 3A.3b: Values of the standardized variate WT for the Pearson Type III distribution
Return Pearson Type III distribution (Values of WT)
period g
(years) -1,0 -0,8 -0,6 -0,4 -0,2 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
2 0,16 0,13 0,10 0,07 0,03 0,00 -0,03 -0,70 -0,10 -0,13 -0,16
5 0,85 0,87 0,86 0,86 0,85 0,84 0,83 0,82 0,80 0,78 0,76
10 1,13 1,17 1,20 1,23 1,26 1,28 1,30 1,32 1,33 1,34 1,34
20 1,32 1,39 1,46 1,52 1,59 1,64 1,70 1,75 1,80 1,84 1,88
50 1,49 1,61 1,72 1,83 1,94 2,05 2,16 2,26 2,36 2,45 2,54
100 1,59 1,73 1,88 2,03 2,18 2,33 2,47 2,62 2,76 2,89 3,02
200 1,66 1,84 2,02 2,20 2,39 2,58 2,76 2,95 3,13 3,31 3,49
500 2,88
1000 1,79 2,02 2,27 2,53 2,81 3,09 3,38 3,67 3,96 4,24 4,53
10000 1,88 2,18 2,53 2,90 3,30 3,72 4,15 4,60 5,05 5,50 5,96

Table 3A.4a: Values of the standardized variate WT for the general extreme value distribution
(EV1 & EV2)
General extreme value (Values of WT)
Return
g
period
(years) 1,14 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0 4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0
EV1 EV2

2 0,37 0,37 0,37 0,37 0,37 0,37 0,38 0,38 0,38 0,38 0,38 0,38 0,38 0,38

5 1,50 1,51 1,55 1,58 1,60 1,63 1,68 1,72 1,75 1,77 1,79 1,80 1,82 1,83

10 2,25 2,28 2,35 2,43 2,49 2,55 2,67 2,76 2,84 2,90 2,94 2,98 3,01 3,04

20 2,97 3,01 3,15 3,28 3,40 3,50 3,73 3,91 4,05 4,16 4,25 4,33 4,39 4,45

50 3,90 3,97 4,22 4,45 4,66 4,86 5,28 5,62 5,89 6,12 6,30 6,46 6,59 6,70

100 4,60 4,71 5,05 5,38 5,68 5,97 6,59 7,10 7,52 7,86 8,15 8,39 8,59 8,77

200 5,30 5,44 5,90 6,34 6,76 7,16 8,04 8,77 9,38 9,89 10,31 10,67 10,97 11,24

500 6,21 6,41 7,05 7,68 8,29 8,87 10,19 11,32 12,26 13,06 13,74 14,32 14,81 15,24

1000 6,91 7,15 7,95 8,75 9,53 10,29 12,02 13,53 14,82 15,92 16,86 17,66 18,36 18,96

10000 9,21 9,64 11,13 12,68 14,25 15,82 19,65 23,19 26,34 29,13 31,58 33,73 35,63 37,31

A-253 Appendices
Table 3A.4b: Values of the standardized variate WT for the general extreme value distribution
(EV3)
General extreme value (Values of WT)
Return
g
period
(years) -1,0 -0,8 -0,6 -0,4 -0,2 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
EV3

2 0,33 0,34 0,34 0,34 0,35 0,35 0,36 0,36 0,36 0,37

5 1,01 1,06 1,12 1,17 1,23 1,28 1,33 1,38 1,43 1,47

10 1,28 1,37 1,46 1,57 1,67 1,78 1,89 2,00 2,10 2,19

20 1,44 1,57 1,71 1,86 2,02 2,19 2,37 2,54 2,71 2,86

50 1,58 1,74 1,93 2,15 2,38 2,64 2,90 3,18 3,45 3,72

100 1,64 1,83 2,05 2,31 2,60 2,92 3,26 3,62 3,99 4,35

200 1,68 1,89 2,14 2,44 2,77 3,16 3,58 4,02 4,49 4,97

500 1,72 1,95 2,23 2,56 2,96 3,42 3,94 4,51 5,13 5,76

1000 1,74 1,98 2,27 2,64 3,07 3,59 4,19 4,86 5,58 6,35

10000 1,76 2,02 2,36 2,78 3,32 4,00 4,83 5,81 6,96 8,24

A-254 Appendices
APPENDIX 3B
STANDARD DESIGN FLOOD METHOD

A-255 Appendices
 Table 3B.1: Information required for the calculation of the SDF
SAWS M R C100 MAP MAE
C2
Basin station SAWS site
(mm) (days) (%) (%) (mm) (mm)
number
1 546 204 Struan 56 30 10 40 550 1800
2 675 125 Autoriteit 62 44 5 30 450 1900
3 760 324 Siloam 64 28 5 40 470 1700
4 553 351 Waterval 58 20 10 50 630 1600
5 680 059 Leydsdorp 78 10 15 70 620 1700
6 369 030 Siloam 51 54 15 60 670 1500
7 328 726 Olivine 49 39 15 60 510 1700
8 322 071 Danielskuil 47 39 5 20 380 2100
9 258 452 Jacobsdal 43 47 15 60 380 1800
10 233 049 Wonderboom 54 55 10 50 560 1600
11 236 521 Mashai 39 66 40 80 430 1400
12 143 258 Scheurfontein 39 52 5 30 290 2100
13 284 361 Wilgenhoutsdrif 40 55 5 15 70 2600
14 110 385 Middelpos 25 13 10 30 140 2400
15 157 874 Garies 22 11 5 20 130 2100
16 160 807 Loeriesfontein 28 11 10 40 210 1900
17 84 558 Elandspoort 45 1 40 80 500 1500
18 22 113 La Motte 59 4 30 60 810 1400
19 69 483 Letjiesbos 34 16 10 35 160 2200
20 34 762 Uitenhage 53 12 15 60 480 1600
21 76 884 Albertvale 45 23 10 35 460 1700
22 80 569 Umzoniana 84 26 15 60 820 1200
23 180 439 Insizwa 60 45 10 80 890 1200
24 240 269 Newlands 76 15 15 80 910 1200
25 239 138 Whitson 55 9 10 80 830 1200
26 336 283 Nqutu 61 17 15 50 760 1500
27 339 415 Hill Farm 85 17 30 80 890 1400
28 483 193 Maliba Ranch 75 54 15 60 740 1400
29 556 088 Mayfern 66 11 15 50 740 1600

A-256 Appendices
Table 3B.2: D
Daily rainfalll from TR102

A-257 Appendices
Table 3B
B.2: Daily rrainfall from
m TR102 (continued)

A-258 Appendices
Table 3B
B.2: Daily rrainfall from
m TR102 (continued)

A-259 Appendices
APPENDIX 3C
STANDARD FLOOD CALCULATION FORMS

A-260 Appendices
 RAT
TIONAL ME
ETHOD (AL
LTERNATIIVE 1)

Description oof catchmentt

River detail
Calculated b
by Date
Physicaal characteristics
Size of catchm
ment (A) kkm² Rain
nfall region
Longest wateercourse (L) kkm Areea distributionn factors
Average sloppe (Sav) mm/m Rural
R (α) Urban (β)) Lak
kes (γ)
Dolomite area (D%) %
Mean annual precipitation (MAP)# mmm
R
Rural Urban 
Surface slope % Factor Cs Desccription % Factor C2
Vleis and panns Lawn ns
Flat areas Sanddy, flat (<2%)
Hilly Sanddy, steep (>7% %)
Steep areas Heavvy soil, flat (<2
2%)
Total 100 - Heavvy soil, steep (>7%)
(
Permeabilityy % Factor Cp Resid dential areas
Very permeabble Housses
Permeable Flats
Semi-permeaable Induustry
Impermeablee Lightt industry
Total 100 - Heavvy industry
Vegetation % Factor Cv Busin ness
Thick bush annd plantation City centre
Light bush annd farm-lands Subuurban
Grasslands Streeets
No vegetationn Maxiimum flood
Total 100 - Totall (C2) 1000 -
T
Time of conceentration (TC) Notes:
Overlandd flow Defined watercourse
w
0,467 0,385
 rL   0,87L2 
TC  0,604   TC   
 S  000Sav 
 10
 av 
hours hours
Runn-off coefficien
nt
Return periood (years), T 2 5 10 20 500 100 Max
Run-off coeffficient, C1
(C1 = CS + CP + CV)
Adjusted for dolomitic areaas, C1D
(= C1(1 - D%))+C1D%(∑(Dfaactor x CS%))
Adjustment ffactor for initiaal saturation, Ft
Adjusted run--off coefficiennt, C1T
(= C1D x Ft)
Combined run un-off coefficieent CT
(= αC1T + βCC2 + γC3)
Rainfall
Return periood (years), T 2 5 10 20 500 100 Max
Point precipittation (mm), PT
Point intensitty (mm/hour), PiT (= PT/TC)
Area reductioon factor (%), ARFT
Average intennsity (mm/houur), IT
(= PiT x ARFT)
Return periood (years), T 2 5 10 20 500 100 Max
C I A
m³/s), Q T  T T
Peak flow (m
3,6
Note: # Referrence to the apppropriate fig
gures and tablees is made in the legend tab
ble of this metthod. 1 - Page1/2
R1

A-261 Appendices
 RAT
TIONAL ME
ETHOD (AL
LTERNATIIVE 1)

LEGE END TABLE E Table 3C.1

3
Rationaal method (Allt 1) Rural (C
( 1)
ID Referencee
Com
mponent Classificatio
on Mean annnual precipittation (mm)
F
Figure 3.5 or SA
S
 600 600 - 900 900
W
Weather Serviices
 T
Table 3C.1 Vleis and pan ns (<3%) 0,01 0,03 0,05
 T
Table 3C.2 Surrface slope Flat areas (3 to 10%) 0,06 0,08 0,11
 T
Table 3C.3 (CS) Hilly (10 to 30%)
3 0,12 0,16 0,20
 T
Table 3C.4 Steep areas (>>30%) 0,22 0,26 0,30
 T
Table 3C.5
Very permeaable 0,03 0,04 0,05
 F
Figure 3.7
F
Figure 3.8 (or Perrmeability Permeable 0,06 0,08 0,10
 (CP)
F
Figure 3.26 DM M) Semi-permeaable 0,12 0,16 0,20
Impermeablee 0,21 0,26 0,30
Thick bush and
a plantation 0,03 0,04 0,05
Veg
getation Light bush an nd farm-lands 0,07 0,11 0,15
(CV) Grasslands 0,17 0,21 0,25
No vegetation n 0,26 0,28 0,30

Table 3CC.2 Table 3C.3

Urban (C
( 2) Surrface description Recomm mended
value of r
Use Factor
Paved areas 0,0
02
Lawns Clean compacted soil, no stones 0,1
Sandy, flaat (< 2%) 0,05 - 0,10 Sparse grasss over fairly ro
ough surface 0,3
Sandy, stteep (>7%) 0,15 - 0,20 Medium graass cover 0,4
Heavy sooil, flat (< 2%)) 0,13 - 0,17 Thick grass cover 0,8
Heavy sooil, steep (>7%%) 0,25 - 0,35
Residenttial areas
Houses 0,30 - 0,50
Flats 0,50 - 0,70 Table 3CC.4
Industryy Addjustment facctor to Cs
Light inddustry 0,50 - 0,80 Surface slop pe classificatio
on D factor
Heavy industry 0,60 - 0,90 Stteep areas (sloopes >30%) 00,50
Business H
Hilly (10 to 30% %) 00,35
City centrre 0,70 - 0,95 Fllat areas (3 to 10%) 00,20
Suburbann 0,50 - 0,70 V
Vleis and pans (slopes <3%) 00,10
Streets 0,70 - 0,95
Maximum m flood 1,00

Table 3C.55
Return p period (years)) 2 5 10 20 50
0 100
Adjustmeent factor (Ft) for
steep andd impermeablee 0,7
75 0,80 0,85 0,90 0,9
95 1,00
catchmennts
Adjustmeent factor (Ft) for
flat and ppermeable 0,5
50 0,55 0,60 0,67 0,8
83 1,00
catchmennts

R1 - Page 2/2

A-262 Appendices
 RAT
TIONAL ME
ETHOD (AL
LTERNATIIVE 2)

Description oof catchmentt

River detail
Calculated b
by Date
Physicaal characteristics
Size of catchm
ment (A) kkm² Days of thunder peer year (R) days/year
d
Longest wateercourse (L) kkm Weatther Service sttation
Average sloppe (Sav) mm/m Weatther Service nu umber
Dolomite area (D%) % Areea distributionn factors
Mean annual precipitation (MAP)# mmm Rural
R (α) Urban (β)) Lak
kes (γ)
2-year return period rainfalll (M)  mmm
R
Rural Urban 
Surface slope % Factor Cs Description % Factor C2
Vleis and panns Lawn ns
Flat areas Sandy y, flat (<2%)
Hilly Sandy y, steep (>7%%)
Steep areas Heavvy soil, flat (<2
2%)
Total 100 - Heavvy soil, steep (>7%)
Permeabilityy % Factor Cp Residdential areas
Very permeabble Housses
Permeable Flats
Semi-permeaable Industry
Impermeablee Lightt industry
Total 100 - Heavvy industry
Vegetation % Factor Cv Businness
Thick bush annd plantation City centre
c
Light bush annd farm-lands Subuurban
Grasslands Streets
No vegetationn Maxiimum flood
Total 100 - Totall (C2) 1000 -
T
Time of conceentration (TC) Notes:
Overlandd flow Defined watercourse
w
0,467 0,385
 rL   0,,87L2 
TC  0,604   TC   
 S  000Sav 
 10
 av 
hours hours
Runn-off coefficien
nt
Return periood (years), T 2 5 10 20 500 100 Max
Run-off coeffficient, C1
(C1 = CS + CP + CV)
Adjusted for dolomitic areaas, C1D
(= C1(1 - D%))+C1D%(∑(Dfaactor x CS%))
Adjustment ffactor for initiaal saturation, Ft
Adjusted run--off coefficiennt, C1T
(= C1D x Ft)
Combined run un-off coefficieent CT
(= αC1T + βCC2 + γC3)
Rainfall
Return periood (years), T 2 5 10 20 500 100 Max
Point precipittation (mm), PT
Point intensitty (mm/hour), PiT (= PT/TC)
Area reductioon factor (%), ARFT
Average intennsity (mm/houur), IT
(= PiT x ARFT)
CT IT A
m³/s) Q T 
Peak flow (m
3
3,6
Note: # Referrence to the apppropriate fig
gures and tablees is made in the legend tab
ble of this metthod. R2 - Page 1/2

A-263 Appendices
 RATIONAL M
METHOD (A
ALTERNAT
TIVE 2)

n-dday rainfall data

d
Weatherr Service station
Weatherr Service station number
Mean annnual precipitaation (MAP) mm
Coordinnates &
Duratiion Return perriod (years), T
(dayss) 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
1 dayy
2 dayys
3 dayys
7 dayys

LEGGEND TABL LE
Ration
nal method (A Alt 2)
ID Referen nce
F
Figure 3.5 or SA
S

W
Weather Serviices
 T
TR102 or otheer
 F
Figure 3.9
 T
Table 3C.1
 T
Table 3C.2
 T
Table 3C.3
 T
Table 3C.4
 T
Table 3C.5
 T
Table 3C.6
 F
Figure 3.10
 T
TR102

Table 3C.6
Sellection criteriia Calculation
C method
m
Modiified Hershfield equation
TC < 6 hours Pt, T  11,130,41  0,6 
64lnT   0,11  0,27lnt  0,779M 0,69 R 0,20 
Linear interpolation between calcu ulated modifieed Hershfield
6 hours ≤ TC < 24 hours
equatioon point rainfaall and 1-day point
p rainfall from TR102

TC ≥ 24 hours Linear interrpolation betw

ween n-day point rainfall vaalues from TR
R102

R2 - Page 2/2

A-264 Appendices
 RAT
TIONAL ME
ETHOD (AL
LTERNATIIVE 3)

Description oof catchmentt

River detail
Calculated b
by Date
Physicaal characteristics
Size of catchm
ment (A) kkm² Weatther Service sttation
Longest wateercourse (L) kkm Weatther Service nu umber 
Average sloppe (Sav) mm/m Areea distributionn factors
Dolomite area (D%) % Rural
R (α) Urban (ββ) Laakes (γ)
Mean annual precipitation (MAP)# mmm
R
Rural Urban 
Surface slope % Factor Cs Descrription % Factor C2
Vleis and panns Lawn ns
Flat areas Sandy y, flat (<2%)
Hilly Sandy y, steep (>7%%)
Steep areas Heavvy soil, flat (<2
2%)
Total 100 - Heavvy soil, steep (>7%)
Permeabilityy % Factor Cp Residdential areas
Very permeabble Housses
Permeable Flats
Semi-permeaable Industry
Impermeablee Lightt industry
Total 100 - Heavvy industry
Vegetation % Factor Cv Businness
Thick bush annd plantation City centre
c
Light bush annd farm-lands Suburban
Grasslands Streets
No vegetationn Maxiimum flood
Total 100 - Totall (C2) 1000 -
T
Time of conceentration (TC) Notes:
Overlandd flow  Defined watercourse
w
0,467 0,385
 rL   0,,87L2 
TC  0,604   TC   
 S  000Sav 
 10
 av 
hours hours
Runn-off coefficien
nt
Return periood (years), T 2 5 10 20 500 100 Max
Run-off coeffficient, C1
(C1 = CS + CP + CV)
Adjusted for dolomitic areaas, C1D
(= C1(1 - D%))+C1D%(∑(Dfaactor x CS%))
Adjustment ffactor for initiaal saturation, Ft
Adjusted run--off coefficiennt, C1T
(= C1D x Ft)
Combined run un-off coefficieent CT
(= αC1T + βCC2 + γC3)
Rainfall
Return periood (years), T 2 5 10 20 500 100 Max
Point precipittation (mm), PT 
Point intensitty (mm/hour), PiT (= PT/TC)
Area reductioon factor (%), ARFT 
Average intennsity (mm/houur), IT
(= PiT x ARFT)
CT IT A
m³/s) Q T 
Peak flow (m
3
3,6
Note: # Referrence to the apppropriate fig
gures and tablees is made in the legend tab
ble of this metthod. R3 - Page 1/2

A-265 Appendices
 RAT
TIONAL ME
ETHOD (AL
LTERNATIVE 3)

Table
T 3C.7
LEEGEND TABLE Rural
R (C1)
Ratioonal method (Alt
( 3) Componeent Classification Mean annua
al rainfall (mm
m)
ID Referen nce 600 600
0 - 900 9000
 FFigure 3.5 or SA
S Wetlaands and pans (<3%) 0,01 0,03
0 0,05
WWeather Serviices
Surface sslope Flat arreas (3 to 10%
%) 0,06 0,08
0 0,11
 TTable 3C.7
 TTable 3C.8 (CS) Hilly (10 to 30%) 0,12 0,16
0 0,220
 TTable 3C.9 Steep areas (>30%)) 0,22 0,26
0 0,30
 TTable 3C.10 Very permeable
p 0,03 0,04
0 0,05
 TTable 3C.11 Permeeable 0,06 0,08
0 0,10
Permeabiility
# FFigure 3.12 annd Figure (CP) Semi--permeable 0,12 0,16
0 0,220
33.13
 FFigure 3.8 (oor Figure Imperrmeable 0,21 0,26
0 0,30
33.26 DM) Thickk bush and planntation 0,03 0,04
0 0,05
 FFigure 3.10, Figure Vegetatioon Light bush and farm m-lands 0,07 0,11
0 0,15
33.13 or other (CV) Grasslands 0,17 0,21
0 0,225
No veegetation 0,26 0,28
0 0,30

Table 3CC.8 Table 3C.9

Urban (C
( 2) Surrface description Recomm mended
value of r
Use Factor
Paved areas 0,0
02
Lawns Clean compacted soil, no stones 0,1
Sandy, flaat (< 2%) 0,05 - 0,10 Sparse grasss over fairly ro
ough surface 0,3
Sandy, stteep (>7%) 0,15 - 0,20 Medium graass cover 0,4
Heavy sooil, flat (< 2%)) 0,13 - 0,17 Thick grass cover 0,8
Heavy sooil, steep (>7%%) 0,25 - 0,35
Residenttial areas
Houses 0,30 - 0,50
Flats 0,50 - 0,70 Taable 3C.10
Industryy Adjustm
ment factor too Cs
Light inddustry 0,50 - 0,80 Surfaace slope classsification Dfactor
Heavy industry 0,60 - 0,90 Steep arreas (slopes >3
30%) 0,50
Business Hilly (100 to 30%) 0,35
Flat areaas (3 to 10%) 0,20
City centrre 0,70 - 0,95
Wetland ds and pans (sllopes <3%) 0,10
Suburbann 0,50 - 0,70
Streets 0,70 - 0,95
Maximum m flood 1,00

Table 3C.111
Return p period (years)) 2 5 10 20 50
0 100
Adjustmeent factor (Ft) for
steep andd impermeablee 0,7
75 0,80 0,85 0,90 0,9
95 1,00
catchmennts
Adjustmeent factor (Ft) for
flat and ppermeable 0,5
50 0,55 0,60 0,67 0,8
83 1,00
catchmennts

Note: # CCalculate the point intensity making use off the provided Design Rainffall estimation
y rainfall by m n software.
The exacct point intenssity can be caalculated by mmeans of lineear interpolatiion between ttwo consecutiive values
considering the time off concentration.
R3 - Page 2/2

A-266 Appendices
 UNIT HY
YDROGRAP
PH METHO
OD

Description
n of catchmen
nt
River detaiil
Calculated
d by Date
Physsical characteeristics
Size of catcchment (A) kkm² Veldd type
Longest waatercourse (L) kkm Lagg (TL)
Average sloope (Sav) mm/m Coeefficient (KU) 
Length to catchment centtroid (LC) kkm Peakk discharge K A m³/s
Mean annuaal precipitatioon(MAP)# mmm of unit
u Qp  U
TL
Catchment L LC hydrograph (QP)
IC 
index S av

Return perriod (years), T T=

Storm durattion (hours), TSD
Point precippitation (mm), PT
Point intenssity (mm/hourr), PiT (= PT/TSD)
Area reducttion factor, AR RFiT
Average raiinfall (mm), PAvgiT (= PT x ARFA iT)
Flood run-ooff factor (%),, fiT
Effective raain (mm), heiTT (= fiT x PAvgiTT)
TSD = 1 ho our T SD = hourrs TSD = hours
Time t 
Q  S-curve, Laggged S- S1 - S 2T Laggedd S- S1 - S 2T
(hours), t TL S1 – S2T S1 – S2T
2
Qp S 1 curv
rve, S2T TSD curve, S2T TSD

Return perriod (years) T=

Storm durattion (hours), TSD
Unit Hydroograph peak (m m³/s), QPiT
Peak dischaarge (m³/s), QiT (= QPiT x heeiT)
Adjusted peeak for QPiT/Q
Qp < 1 (m³/s)

LEGEEND TABLE
Unit Hydrrograph method
ID Reference ID Referencee
 F
Figure 3.5 or SA
S Weather Services
S  Figure 3.8 (or Figure
F 3.26 D
DM for large arreas)
 F
Figure 3.15  Figure 3.17
 F
Figure 3.16  Table
T 3.9
 T
Table 3.6  Paragraph [Link] in DM
 D
Design rainfalll Database or Figure 3.7  QPiT = Qp x [(S1 – S2T)/TSD]mmax
U - Page 1/1

A-267 Appendices
 ST
TANDARD DESIGN FLOOD MET
THOD

Description
n of catchmen
nt
River detaiil
Calculated
d by Date
Physiical characteristics
Size of catcchment (A) km
m² Time of 00,385
 0,87L2 
Longest waatercourse (L) km
m concentration TC    hours
Average sloope (Sav) m//m (TC)  1000Sav 
SDF basin# Time of
o concentratio
on, t (= 60TC) minutes
2-year returrn period rainffall (M) mmm Days of
o thunder per year (R) days/year
TR1022 n-day rainfa
all data
Weather Seervice station Mean annual precipitation (MA AP) mm
Weather Seervice station no.
n Cooordinates &
Return period
p (yearss)
Duration (d
days)
2 5 10 20 550 100 200
1 day
2 days
3 days
7 days
Rainfall
Return perriod (years), T 2 5 10 20 550 100 200
Point precippitation depth (mm), Pt,T
Area reducttion factor (%
%), ARF
  90000  12800lnA  99830lnt
0,4

Average inttensity (mm/hhour), IT
(= Pt,T x AR
RF / TC)
Run n-off coefficients
Calibration factors C2 (2-year retu
urn period) (%
%) C100 (100-year return pperiod) (%)
Return perriod (years) 2 5 10 20 550 100 200
Return period factors (YT) 0 0,84 1,28 1,64 2, 05 2,33 2,58
Run-off coeefficient (CT),
C  Y  C C 
C T  2   T  100  2 
100  2,33  100 100 
CT IT A
Peak flow ((m³/s), Q T 
3,6

L
LEGEND TAABLE
Standaard Design Flo
ood method
ID Referencce ID
D R
Reference
 Figure 3.211  Table 3C.12
 Table 3B.11

Tablee 3C.12
Criteria Calculaation method
Modified Heershfield equaation
TC < 6 houurs 
Pt, T  1,130,441  0,64lnT   0,11  0,27llnt  0,79M 0,69 R 0,20 
Linear
L interpoolation betweeen calculated modified
m Hersshfield
6 hours ≤ TC < 24 hourss
equation poinnt rainfall and 1-day point raainfall from T
TR102

TC ≥ 24 hoours Linear interpolatioon between n-day point rain

nfall values froom TR102

Note: # Refference to the appropriate figures

f and tabbles is made in the legend table
t of this m
method. S - Page 1/1

A-268 Appendices
 SC S-SA METH
HOD

Description oof catchmentt

River detail
Calculated b
by Date
Phyysical charactteristics
Time of Conncentration (TC)
Size oof catchment (A)
( km² Defined watercourse
w
0,385
 0,87L
L2 
TC   
Longesst watercoursee (L) km Sav 
 1000S
Overland flow hoours
Averrage slope (Savv) m/m 0,467
 rL 
L  0,6T c TC  0,604 
Lag estimaation hours  S 
 av 
Return
n period (yeaars) 1:2 1:5 1:10 1:20 1:50 1:1000
Daily rainfalll depth (one-dday design
rainffall, P) (mm) 
Area reductioon facture (only applied
for large catchments, ARF F) (%) 
Catchment design rainfall
(P x A
ARF/100) (mmm)
SOIL LA
AND COVE
ER
Area Storm-
HRU (Ai) Typicall Depth SCS Land
L Covver Practtice/
Flow
w
(%) Foorm Seriees Texturall (m) Group- Cover
C Cateegory Treat-
Poten
ntial
Class ing Class
C (S/II/D) ment

1
2
3
4
5
HRU 1 HRU 2 HR
RU 3 HRU 4 HRU 5
Initial Currve Number (C CN) 
Final CCurve Numberr 
Potential m maximum soill water
retenttion (S, mm) 
Initial lossess (mm) Ia = 0,12S
Return n period (yeaars) 1:2 1:5 1:10 1:20 1:50 1:1000
HRU Design Stormfflow depth (Q
Qi) 
1
2
3
4
5
mflow depth (∑
Total storm )
(mm)
Total runoff vvolume (V, m3x106) 
Peak disccharge (qp, m3/s) 
Note: # RReference to thhe appropriatee figures and tables is madee in the legend
d table of this method.

C - Page 1/2

A-269 Appendices
 SC
CS-SA MET
THOD

LE
EGEND TABL LE
SC
CS-SA methood
ID Reference
Figure 3.122 or Figure

3E.1 to Figgure 3E.6
 Figure 3.255 or 3.26
 Table 3E.1 or 3E.2
 Table 3E.33
 Table 3E.33
 Table 3C.88
 Table 3C.99
 Table 3C.110
 Table 3C.111
 Table 3C.112

Table
T 3C.8
Adjustmentt of Curve Nu
umbers
1100
CN f 
C
Median Coondition Methhod 00
110 ΔS

CN  II 25,4
C  II
CN
Wet/saturaated Conditioons CN w 
0,4036  0,0059CN  II

Table 3C.9
254400
Potential m
maximum soill water retentiion S  254
CNN

T
Table 3C.10
(P  Ia) 2
Stormflow
w depth Q for P > Ia
P  Ia  S

Table 3C.11
QA
Stormflow
w volume V=
1000

Tablee 3C.12
0,2083AQ
0
Peak disccharge estimaation qp =
1,83L

C - Page 2/2

A-270 Appendices
 EMP
PIRICAL METHODS
M

Description
n of catchmen
nt
River detaiil
Calculated
d by Date
Physiical characteristics
Size of catcchment (A) km² Veld tyype
Longest waatercourse (L) km Catchmment parameteer (C) Α S
C
Length to catchment centtroid (LC) km with reegard to reactio
on time L LC
Average sloope (Sav) m/m
m Kovácss region
Mean annuaal precipitatioon (P) mm
Return perriod (years), T 10 20 50 100
Constant vaalue for KT 
Peak flow ((m³/s), QT based
Q T  0,0377K
0 0,66 0,2
T PA C
on Midgleyy & Pitman
Peak flow ((m³/s), QRMF based
b on Kováács
Return perriod (years), T 50 100 200
QT/QRMF rattios
Peak flow ((m³/s), based on
o QT/QRMF raatios

LEGEN ND TABLE
Empiriccal methods
ID Refereence ID Referencee ID
D R
Reference
Figure 3.5 or SA
  Fiigure 3.26  Tablee 3C.14
Weather Seervices
 Figure 3.155  Taable 3C.13  Tablee 3D.1 or 3D.2
2

Table 3C.133
Con stant values of
o KT
Return Veld type (Figure
( 3.15)
period T 2 4& 6
1 All
A 3 5 All 7 8 9
in yearss Winter
yeear
5A Winter
year
10 0,17 0,42 0,83 0,29 0,59 0,5
59 0,33 0,67 0,67 0,42
2 0,50
20 0,23 0,52 1,04 0,40 0,68 0,8
80 0,45 0,91 0,91 0,57
7 0,68
50 0,32 0,68 1,36 0,55 0,95 1,11 0,63 1,26 1,26 0,79
9 0,95
100 0,40 0,80 1,60 0,70 1,20 1,4
40 0,80 1,60 1,60 1,00
0 1,20

Tabble 3C.14
RMF reegion classificcation in soutthern Africa
Kovács K* N
Number of Trannsition zone Flood zzone
region floods # Area rangee QRMMF Arrea range QRMF
(km²) (m³/s) (km²) (m³/s)
K1 2,8 6 1 – 500 30A0,262
0
500
0 – 500 000 1,74A0,72
0,265
0
K2 3,4 12 1 – 300 50A 300
0 – 500 000 5,25A0,66
0,34
K3 4,0 26 1 – 300 70AA 300
0 – 300 000 15,9A0,60
K4 4,6 55 1 – 100 100AA0,38 100
0 – 100 000 47,9A0,54
0,50
K5 5,0 155 1 – 100 100AA 100
0 – 100 000 100A0,50
0,56
K6 5,2 61 1 – 100 100AA 100 – 30 000 145A0,48
K7 5,4 34 1 – 100 100AA0,62 100 – 20 000 209A0,46
0,68
K8 5,6 25 1 – 100 100AA 100 – 10 000 302A0,44
Notes:
* RMF
MF K value as used
u in Equation 3.32
# Recoorded flood data
d are refleccted in the DW
WAF report TR105
T – Maximum flood peeak discharges
in SSouth Africa: An
A empirical approach
a
E -Page 1/1

A-271 Appendices
APPENDIX 3D
QT/QRMF RATIOS FOR DIFFERENT CATCHMENT AREAS

A-272 Appendices
 Table 3D.1: QT/QRMF ratios for different catchment areas in South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland (3.13)
Return Effective catchment area - Ae (km2)
Region period KT
(years)  10* 30* 100 300 1 000 3 000 10 000 30 000 100 000 300 000
50 5,06 0,537 0,508 0,474 0,503 0,537 0,570 0,607
K8
100 5,25 0,668 0,645 0,617 0,640 0,668 0,695 0,724
(5,6)
200 5,41 0,803 0,788 0,769 0,784 0,803 0,821 0,838
50 4,70 0,447 0,416 0,380 0,411 0,447 0,482 0,523
K7
100 4,89 0,556 0,525 0,492 0,523 0,556 0,588 0,623
(5,4)
200 5,04 0,661 0,635 0,607 0,633 0,661 0,687 0,716
50 4,50 0,447 0,416 0,380 0,411 0,447 0,482 0,526 0,566
K6
100 4,69 0,556 0,528 0,494 0,524 0,556 0,588 0,626 0,660
(5,2)
200 4,86 0,676 0,650 0,624 0,650 0,676 0,701 0,733 0,758
K5 50 4,30 0,447 0,416 0,380 0,411 0,447 0,482 0,525 0,567 0,617
(5 - except in 100 4,48 0,550 0,521 0,488 0,517 0,550 0,582 0,619 0,657 0,699
SW Cape) 200 4,64 0,661 0,636 0,608 0,633 0,661 0,687 0,718 0,748 0,780
K5 50 4,45 0,531 0,502 0,468 0,497 0,531 0,564
(5 - G, H in 100 4,63 0,654 0,629 0,600 0,625 0,654 0,680
SW Cape) 200 4,78 0,777 0,758 0,738 0,757 0,777 0,795
50 3,84 0,416 0,385 0,350 0,381 0,416 0,453 0,496 0,541 0,591
K4
100 4,04 0,524 0,495 0,462 0,491 0,524 0,558 0,597 0,636 0,679
(4,6)
200 4,20 0,629 0,603 0,576 0,602 0,629 0,660 0,692 0,724 0,758
50 3,26 0,426 0,426 0,426 0,390 0,426 0,463 0,506 0,548 0,602 0,651
K3
100 3,50 0,562 0,562 0,562 0,529 0,562 0,595 0,631 0,666 0,710 0,749
(4)
200 3,68 0,692 0,692 0,692 0,665 0,692 0,718 0,745 0,771 0,804 0,831
50 2,40 0,317 0,317 0,317 0,281 0,317 0,353 0,398 0,444 0,500 0,560
K2
100 2,66 0,428 0,428 0,428 0,391 0,428 0,463 0,506 0,549 0,598 0,651
(3,4)**
200 2,91 0,570 0,570 0,570 0,536 0,570 0,600 0,638 0,672 0,710 0,753
Note: * Estimated ratios
** Ratios of this region may also be used in region K1 (2,8)

Table 3D.2: QT/QRMF ratios for different catchment areas in Namibia and Zimbabwe (3.13)
Return Effective catchment area - Ae (km2)
Region period KT
(years)  10* 30* 100 300 1 000 3 000 10 000 30 000 100 000 300 000

Namibia
K5 50 4,50 0,562 0,534 0,501 0,529 0,562 0,594 0,631
(5) 100 4,70 0,708 0,686 0,661 0,683 0,708 0,732 0,759
200 4,85 0,841 0,828 0,813 0,826 0,841 0,855 0,871
K4 50 4,14 0,589 0,561 0,530 0,558 0,589 0,620 0,654 0,690 0,727
(4,6) 100 4,34 0,741 0,721 0,699 0,719 0,741 0,763 0,787 0,811 0,835
200 4,48 0,871 0,860 0,848 0,860 0,871 0,883 0,895 0,909 0,920
K3 50 3,50 0,562 0,562 0,562 0,529 0,562 0,595 0,631 0,666 0,710
(4) 100 3,66 0,676 0,676 0,676 0,648 0,676 0,703 0,731 0,759 0,793
200 3,77 0,767 0,767 0,767 0,746 0,767 0,788 0,809 0,829 0,856
K2 50 2,88 0,550 0,550 0,550 0,517 0,550 0,585 0,619 0,656 0,696
(3,4) 100 3,01 0,639 0,639 0,639 0,610 0,639 0,669 0,698 0,729 0,762
200 3,13 0,733 0,733 0,733 0,711 0,733 0,758 0,779 0,803 0,828
Zimbabwe
K6 50 4,65 0,531 0,502 0,468 0,497 0,531 0,564 0,603 0,640
(5,2)** 100 4,86 0,676 0,652 0,625 0,649 0,676 0,702 0,731 0,759
200 5,03 0,822 0,807 0,791 0,806 0,822 0,838 0,855 0,871
Note: * Estimated ratios
** In region K5 use the same ratios as those applicable to South Africa

A-273 Appendices
APPENDIX 3E
SCS-SA ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

A-274 Appendices
 Table 3E.1: Example of classification of soils in southern Africa into hydrological soil
groups by soil form, family and textural class (taxonomic classification)
Typical Typical
Soil SCS SCS
Code Soil Family Textural Soil Form Code Soil Family Textural
Form Grouping Grouping
Class Class
ADDO Ad 1111 Glenconnor LmSa A/B ARCADIA Ar 1100 Lonehill Cl C/D
B Ad 1111 Glenconnor SaLm B C/D Ar 1100 Lonehill Cl C/D
Ad 1111 Glenconnor SaClLm B Ar 1200 Rustenburg Cl C/D
Ad 1111 Glenconnor SaCl B/C Ar 1200 Rustenburg Cl C/D
Ad 1112 Dalby LmSa A/B Ar 2100 Minerva Cl C/D
Ad 1112 Dalby SaLm B Ar 2100 Minerva Cl C/D
Ad 1112 Dalby SaClLm B Ar 2200 Diepsloot Cl C/D
Ad 1112 Dalby SaCl B/C Ar 2200 Diepsloot Cl C/D
Ad 1121 Centlivres LmSa B Ar 3100 Bospoort Cl C/D
Ad 1121 Centlivres SaLm B/C Ar 3100 Bospoort Cl C/D
Ad 1121 Centlivres SaClLm B/C Ar 3200 Deercroft Cl C/D
Ad 1121 Centlivres SaCl C Ar 3200 Deercroft Cl C/D
Ad 1122 Kentvale LmSa B ASKHAM Ak 1000 Aroab LmSa A/B
Ad 1122 Kentvale SaLm B/C B Ak 1000 Aroab SaLm B
Ad 1122 Kentvale SaClLm B/C Ak 1000 Aroab SaClLm B
Ad 1122 Kentvale SaCl C Ak 1000 Aroab SaCl B/C
Ad 1211 Spekboom LmSa A/B Ak 2000 Noenieput LmSa B
Ad 1211 Spekboom SaLm B Ak 2000 Noenieput SaLm B/C
Ad 1211 Spekboom SaClLm B Ak 2000 Noenieput SaClLm B/C
Ad 1211 Spekboom SaCl B/C Ak 2000 Noenieput SaCl B/C
Ad 1212 Gorah LmSa A/B AUGRABIE Ag 1110 Hefnaar LmSa A/B
Ad 1212 Gorah SaLm B B Ag 1110 Hefnaar SaLm B
Ad 1212 Gorah SaClLm B Ag 1110 Hefnaar SaClLm B
Ad 1212 Gorah SaCl B/C Ag 1110 Hefnaar SaCl B/C
Ad 1221 Walkraal LmSa B Ag 1120 Giyani LmSa B
ADDO Ad 1221 Walkraal SaClLm B/C Ag 1120 Giyani SaLm B/C
B Ad 1221 Walkraal SaCl C Ag 1120 Giyani SaClLm B/C
Ad 1222 Sylvania LmSa B Ag 1120 Giyani SaCl C
Ad 1222 Sylvania SaLm B/C Ag 1210 Khubus LmSa A/B
Ad 1222 Sylvania SaClLm B/C Ag 1210 Khubus SaLm B
Ad 1222 Sylvania SaCl C Ag 1210 Khubus SaClLm B
Ad 2111 Maurmond LmSa A/B Ag 1210 Khubus SaCl B/C
Ad 2111 Maurmond SaLm B Ag 1220 Shilowa LmSa B
Ad 2111 Maurmond SaClLm B LEGEND
Ad 2111 Maurmond SaCl B/C A - low runoff potential
Ad 2112 Airedale LmSa A/B B - moderately low potential
Ad 2112 Airedale SaLm B C - moderately high potential
Ad 2112 Airedale SaClLm B D - high runoff potential
Ad 2112 Airedale SaCl B/C Sa - sand
Ad 2121 Felsenheim LmSa B Cl - clay
Ad 2121 Felsenheim SaLm B/C Lm - loam
Ad 2121 Felsenheim SaClLm B/C
Ad 2121 Felsenheim SaCl C
Ad 2122 Longhill LmSa B
Ad 2122 Longhill SaLm B/C
Ad 2122 Longhill SaClLm B/C
Ad 2122 Longhill SaCl C
Ad 2211 Mimosa LmSa A/B
Ad 2211 Mimosa SaLm B
Ad 2211 Mimosa SaClLm B
Ad 2211 Mimosa SaCl B/C
Ad 2212 Peperboom LmSa A/B
Ad 2212 Peperboom SaLm B
Ad 2212 Peperboom SaClLm B
Ad 2212 Peperboom SaCl B/C
Ad 2221 Suttondale LmSa B
Ad 2221 Suttondale SaLm B/C
Ad 2221 Suttondale SaClLm B/C
Ad 2221 Suttondale SaCl C
Ad 2222 Tregaron LmSa B
Ad 2222 Tregaron SaClLm B/C
Ad 2222 Tregaron SaCl C

A-275 Appendices
 Table 3E.2: Example of classification of soils in southern Africa into hydrological
soil groups by soil form and series (binomial classification)
Typical Typical
SCS SCS
Soil Form Code Soil Series Textural Soil Form Code Soil Series Textural
Grouping Grouping
Class Class
ARCADIA Ar 40 Arcadia Cl C/D BAINSVLEI Bv 14 Wykeham SaLm A/B
C/D Ar 11 Bloukrans Cl C/D BONHEIM Bo 41 Bonheim LmSa C/D
Ar 21 Clerkness Cl C/D C Bo 20 Bushman SaClLm C
Ar 41 Eenzaam Cl C/D Bo 30 Dumasi SaClLm C
Ar 20 Gelykvlakte Cl C/D Bo 31 Glengazi SaCl C/D
Ar 10 Mngazi Cl C/D Bo 10 Kiora SaClLm C
Ar 32 Nagana Cl C/D Bo 21 Rasheni SaCl C/D
Ar 12 Noukloof Cl C/D Bo 11 Stanger SaCl C/D
Ar 31 Rooidraai Cl C/D Bo 40 Weenen SaClLm C
Ar 30 Rydalvale Cl C/D CARTREF Cf 10 Amabele LmSa B/C
Ar 42 Wanstead Cl C/D C Cf 12 Arrochar SaClLm C
Ar 22 Zwaarkrygen Cl C/D Cf 13 Byrne SaCl C/D
AVALON Av 13 Ashton SaLm A/B Cf 21 Cartref SaLm C
B Av 26 Avalon SaClLm B Cf 22 Cranbrook SaClLm C
Av 12 Banchory Sa A Cf 30 Grovedale Sa B/C
Av 27 Bergville SaCl B/C Cf 31 Kusasa SaLm B/C
Av 37 Bezuidenhout SaCl C Cf 32 Noodhulp SaClLm C
Av 33 Bleeksand SaLm B/C Cf 11 Rutherglen SaLm C
Av 34 Heidelberg SaLm B/C Cf 20 Waterridge LmSa B/C
Av 20 Hobeni LmSa A/B CHAMPAGNE Ch 11 Champagne SaLm D
Av 14 Kanhym SaLm A/B D Ch 21 Ivanhoe SaClLm D
Av 24 Leksand SaLm B Ch 10 Mposa SaLm D
Av 10 Mastaba LmSa A Ch 20 Stratford SaClLm D
AVALON Av 32 Middelpos Sa B CLOVELLY Cv 33 Annandale SaLm B
B Av 31 Mooiveld LmSa B A/B Cv 18 Balgowan Cl B
Av 25 Newcastle SaLm A/B Cv 40 Bleskop LmSa A
Av 17 Normandien SaCl B Cv 36 Blinkklip SaClLm B
Av 22 Rossdale Sa A/B Cv 17 Clovelly SaCl B
Av 16 Ruston SaClLm B Cv 28 Clydebank Cl B
Av 36 Soetmelk SaClLm B/C Cv 35 Denhere SaLm A/B
Av 21 Uithoek LmSa A/B Cv 46 Dudfield SaClLm A/B
Av 30 Viljoenskroon LmSa B Cv 11 Geelhout LmSa A
Av 23 Villiers SaLm B Cv 25 Gutu SaLm A
Av 11 Welverdien LmSa A Cv 47 Klippan SaCl B
Av 35 Windmeul SaLm B Cv 38 Klipputs Cl B/C
Av 15 Wolweberg SaLm A Cv 10 Lismore LmSa A
BAINSVLEI Bv 23 Ashkelon SaLm A/B LEGEND
A/B Bv 36 Bainsvlei SaClLm B A - low stormflow potential
Bv 12 Camelot Sa A B - moderately low potential
Bv 20 Chelsea LmSa A C - moderately high potential
Bv 30 Delwery LmSa A/B D - high stormflow potential
Bv 13 Dunkeld SaLm A/B Sa - sand
Bv 16 Elysium SaClLm A/B Cl - clay
Bv 10 Hlatini LmSa A Lm - loam
Bv 34 Kareekuil SaLm B
Bv 31 Kingston LmSa A/B
Bv 26 Lonetree SaClLm A/B
Bv 25 Maanhaar SaLm A
Bv 11 Makong LmSa A
Bv 27 Metz SaCl B
Bv 22 Oosterbeek Sa A
Bv 37 Ottosdal SaCl B/C
Bv 24 Redhill SaLm A/B
Bv 32 Trekboer Sa A/B
Bv 15 Tygerkloof SaLm A
Bv 33 Vermaas SaLm B
Bv 21 Vungama LmSa A
Bv 35 Wedgewood SaLm A/B
Bv 17 Wilgenhof SaCl B

A-276 Appendices
 Table 3E.3 Initial Curve Numbers for selected land cover and treatment classes,
stormflow potentials and hydrological soil groups (various sources)
Land Cover Land Treatment/ Practice/Description Stormflow Hydrological Soil Group
Class Potential A A/B B B/C C C/D D
1 = Straight row 77 82 86 89 91 93 94
Fallow 2 = Straight row + conservation tillage High 75 80 84 87 89 91 92
3 = Straight row + conservation tillage Low 74 79 83 85 87 89 90
1 = Straight row High 72 77 81 85 88 90 91
2 = Straight row Low 67 73 78 82 85 87 89
3 = Straight row + conservation tillage High 71 75 79 83 86 88 89
4 = Straight row + conservation tillage Low 64 70 75 79 82 84 85
5 = Planted on contour High 70 75 79 82 84 86 88
Row Crops 6 = Planted on contour Low 65 69 75 79 82 84 86
7 = Planted on contour + conservation tillage High 69 74 78 81 83 85 87
8 = Planted on contour + conservation tillage Low 64 70 74 78 80 82 84
9 = Conservation structures High 66 70 74 77 80 82 82
10 = Conservation structures Low 62 67 71 75 78 80 81
11 = Conservation structures + conservation tillage High 65 70 73 76 79 80 81
12 = Conservation structures + conservation tillage Low 61 66 70 73 76 78 79
1 = Straight row Low 45 56 66 72 77 80 83
Garden Crops
2 = Straight row High 68 71 75 79 81 83 84
1 = Straight row High 65 71 76 80 84 86 88
2 = Straight row Low 63 69 75 79 83 85 87
3 = Straight row + conservation tillage High 64 70 74 78 82 84 86
4 = Straight row + conservation tillage Low 60 67 72 76 80 82 84
5 = Planted on contour High 63 69 74 79 82 84 85
6 = Planted on contour Low 61 67 73 78 81 83 84
Small Grain
7 = Planted on contour + conservation tillage High 62 68 73 77 81 83 84
8 = Planted on contour + conservation tillage Low 60 66 72 76 79 81 82
9 = Planted on contour - winter rainfall region Low 63 66 70 75 78 80 81
10 = Conservation structures High 61 67 72 76 79 81 82
11 = Conservation structures Low 59 65 70 75 78 80 81
12 = Conservation structures + conservation tillage High 60 67 71 75 78 80 81
13 = Conservation structures + conservation tillage Low 58 64 69 73 76 78 79
1 = Straight Row High 66 72 77 81 85 87 89
Close Seeded 2 = Straight Row Low 58 65 72 75 81 84 85
Legumes or 3 = Planted on contour High 64 70 75 80 83 84 85
Rotational 4 = Planted on contour Low 55 63 69 74 78 81 83
Meadow 5 = Conservation structures High 63 68 73 77 80 82 83
6 = Conservation structures Low 51 60 67 72 76 78 80
1 = Straight row: trash burnt 43 55 65 72 77 80 82
2 = Straight row: trash mulch 45 56 66 72 77 80 83
3 = Straight row: limited cover 67 73 78 82 85 87 89
Sugarcane 4 = Straight row: partial cover 49 60 69 73 79 82 84
5 = Straight row: complete cover 39 50 61 68 74 78 80
6 = Conservation structures: limited cover 65 70 75 79 82 84 86
7 = Conservation structures: partial cover 25 46 59 67 75 80 83
8 = Conservation structures: complete cover 6 14 35 59 70 75 79

A-277 Appendices
 Table 3E.3 Initial Curve Numbers for selected land cover and treatment classes,
stormflow potentials and hydrological soil groups (various sources) (continued)
Land Cover Land Treatment/ Practice/Description Stormflow Hydrological Soil Group
Class Potential A A/B B B/C C C/D D
1 = Veld/pasture in poor condition High 68 74 79 83 86 88 89
2 = Veld/pasture in fair condition Moderate 49 61 69 75 79 82 84
Veld (range) 3 = Veld/pasture in good condition Low 39 51 61 68 74 78 80
and Pasture 4 = Pasture planted on contour High 47 57 67 75 81 85 88
5 = Pasture planted on contour Moderate 25 46 59 67 75 80 83
6 = Pasture planted on contour Low 6 14 35 59 70 75 79

Irrigated Pasture Low 35 41 48 57 65 68 70

Meadow Low 30 45 58 65 71 75 81
1 = Woods High 45 56 66 72 77 80 83
2 = Woods Moderate 36 49 60 68 73 77 79
Woods and Scrub
3 = Woods Low 25 47 55 64 70 74 77
4 = Brush - Winter rainfall region Low 28 36 44 53 60 64 66
Orchards 1 = Winter rainfall region, understory of crop cover 39 44 53 61 66 69 71
1 = Humus depth 25mm; Compactness: compact 52 62 72 77 82 85 87
2= " " " moderate 48 58 68 73 78 82 85
3= " " " loose/friable 37 49 60 66 71 74 77
4 = Humus depth 50mm; Compactness: compact 48 58 68 73 78 82 85
5= " " " moderate 42 54 65 70 75 78 81
Forests & 6= " " " loose/friable 32 45 57 62 67 71 74
Plantations
7 = Humus depth 100mm; Compactness: compact 41 53 64 69 74 77 80
8= " " " moderate 34 47 59 64 69 72 75
9= " " " loose/friable 23 37 50 56 61 64 67
10 = Humus depth 150mm; Compactness: compact 37 49 60 66 71 74 77
11 = " " " moderate 30 43 56 61 66 69 72
12 = " " " loose/friable 18 33 47 52 57 61 65
1 = Open spaces, parks, cemeteries 75% grass cover 39 51 61 68 74 78 80
2 = Open spaces, parks, cemeteries 75% grass cover 49 61 69 75 79 82 84
3 = Commercial/business areas 85% grass cover 89 91 92 93 94 95 95
4 = Industrial districts 72% impervious 81 85 88 90 91 92 93
5 = Residential: lot size 500m2 65% impervious 77 81 85 88 90 91 92
6= " " 1000m2 38% impervious 61 69 75 80 83 85 87
Urban/Sub- 7= " " 1350m2 30% impervious 57 65 72 77 81 84 86
urban Land Uses
8= " " 2000m2 25% impervious 54 63 70 76 80 83 85
9= " " 4000m2 20% impervious 51 61 68 75 78 82 84
10 = Paved parking lots, roofs, etc. 98 98 98 98 98 98 98
11 = Streets/roads: tarred, with storm sewers, curbs 98 98 98 98 98 98 98
12 = " gravel 76 81 85 88 89 90 91
13 = " dirt 72 77 82 85 87 88 89
14 = " dirt-hard surface 74 79 84 88 90 91 92

A-278 Appendices
Figu
ure 3E.1: One-day desig
gn rainfall d
distribution over southeern Africa foor 2 year return
period

Figu
ure 3E.2: One-day desig
gn rainfall d
distribution over southeern Africa foor 5 year return
period

A-279 Appendices
Figuree 3E.3: One--day design rainfall disttribution over southernn Africa
for 10 year returnn period

Figuree 3E.4: One--day design rainfall disttribution over southernn Africa

for 20 year returnn period

A-280 Appendices
Figuree 3E.5: One--day design rainfall disttribution over southernn Africa
for 50 year returnn period

Figuree 3E.6: One--day design rainfall disttribution over southernn Africa

for 1000 year return
n period

A-281 Appendices