1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

As the world moves further into the digital age, devices, appliances and several machines

have been very important items in our society. However, as the component size reduces as a

result of smaller designs and lean manufacturing there is a dramatic increment in the heat flux

per unit area, due to which the working temperature of the electronic components may exceed

the desired temperature level as all electronic and power devices dissipate heat during their

operation. As a result, there is the need to cool these devices and components to maintain

high efficiency and prevent damages. By providing sufficient heat dissipation through

extended surfaces which provide low thermal resistance, a heat sink prevents overheating and

eventual damage of the component or the machine.

Electronic components and assemblies are usually small in size and cooled by natural

convection (air flowing at moderate velocities). The combination of small dimensions, the

use of air as the cooling fluid and low velocities normally results in laminar convection and

hence correspondingly low values for heat transfer coefficients. On the other hand, forced

convection with cooling fans is a process that has been adopted to tackle this issue. Airflow

speed is actively increased which improves heat transfer.

Also, with these new developments and as components keep getting smaller, it is clear to note

that even more heat would be dissipated from electronic components and cooling techniques

must continually be improved (Wong et al., 2009). Due to its geometric freedom and the

capability to build complex internal structures and with high total area to volume ratio,

additive manufacturing can be a useful way to produce heat sinks that match or outperform

the thermal performance of traditional aluminium heat sinks. (Chinthavali and Wang, 2018)
1.2 Statement of Problem

Power inverter involves the conversion of electric power from direct voltage and current

levels to alternating voltage and current levels. With over 25% of all generated power

passing through some type of an electronic system, it is clear that power electronic is an

important part of power production and engineering. An out of the inversion process of a

power inverter is the dissipation of thermal energy in the form of heat. This generated heat, if

not controlled, managed or prevented proves to be a real threat to the functionality,

efficiency, reliability and durability of the device.

As such, there is the need to design and improve cooling methods for power inverters. An

example is the use of heat sinks which conducts heat from the device into the environment.

The heat sink can be optimized by variations to its geometry and material. Being one of the

more flexible options, there is need to optimize the heat sink geometry so that estimated

junction temperature of switch is not greater than the prescribed junction temperature.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

To evaluate and optimization the thermal efficiency of three different heat sink fin

configurations under forced convection in the cooling off a 3.5KVA inverter.

1.3.2 Objectives

1. To fabricate several heat sink fin configuration (Straight, Zig-zag, sinusoidal) models.

2. Evaluate the heat dissipation ability of the several heat sink fin configuration

3. Use CFD software to design and analyse the several heat sink fin configurations

4. Compare the results and select the most appropriate heat sink fin configuration for the

forced convection cooling of a 3.5KVA inverter

1.4 Scope

This project would look to improve the working conditions of a 3.5KVA inverter used in a

photovoltaic system for power generation. The study would utilize practical and CFD

software analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of three different heat sink fin configurations

on thermal dissipation of the heat sink to maintain safe working thermal conditions. After

this, the study would propose a optimal heat sink fin design for a 3.5KVA power inverter

used in a photovoltaic system.

 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Past Literature

In one of the earlier studies conducted on the optimal design and selection of heat sinks, Lee

(1995) concluded that the cooling performance of a heat sink depends on a number of

parameters including thermal conduction resistance, dimensions, location and concentration

of heat sources as well as the airflow bypass conditions. The research involved the

development of a predictive analytical simulation model for the optimization of thermal

performance of bidirectional heat sinks in a partially confined configuration. Also in this

study, Lee (1995) reported the adverse effects of excessive fins. He reported that having

excessive fins induce a higher pressure drop across the heat sink, which subsequently results

in a significant decrease in flow velocity and/or a significant increase in flow bypass over the

heat sink. Rather, he introduced a simple method of fin flow velocity determination. 

Jonsson & Moshfegh (2001) investigated the different configurations of fins: plate fins, strip

fins, square pin, and circular pin, in in-line and staggered arrays, all of which influence the

Nusselt number and pressure drop. It is identified that Nusselt number and pressure drop

depend on the height and thickness (diameter) of the pins and the distance between them, as

well as the height and width of the wind tunnel. In addition, the lowest pressure drop is

observed at the plate fins due to their fin length. Furthermore, the circular PHSs have a lower

pressure drop than that of the square PHSs. 

Yaghoubi and Velayati (2005) studied the convection heat transfer in turbulent flow through

a set of cubes mounted on a flat surface and provided relationships for average Nusselt

number and the efficiency of the fins. The use of longitudinal and transverse perforates in fins

has also been addressed in the field’s literature in order to reduce the weight and increase the

heat transfer rate.

Arularasan and Velraj (2008) conducted research work aimed at selecting an optimal heat

sink design. Their research considered several parameters such as fin height, fin thickness,

base height and fin pitch with a constant length and width of a heat sink using computational

fluid dynamics study for analysis. The study also concluded that the thermal efficiency and

overall cooling performance of a heat sink is dependent on a number of parameters which

include thermal conduction resistance, dimensions, location and concentration of heat sources

as well as the airflow bypass conditions.

Ramesha & Madhusudan (2012) investigated the effect of pin heat sink profile on the laminar

forced convection heat transfer. These pin fins, which are useful for electronic cooling

applications, are square twisted with various attack angles of airflow direction. The outcomes

indicate that the twisted pins enhance the heat transfer rate of the heat sink especially at 30 ,
o

45 , and 60 twisted angles by comparing the performance of a straight pin fin heat sink at 0o
o o

twisted. In addition, the pressure drop of the twisted pins at 30 and 45 improves and is nearly
o o

similar to the straight pins. 

Kabeel et al. (2019) carried out a study based on CFD software analysis. A CFD model was

created for forced cooling conjugate heat transfer analyses in heat generating electronic

systems and compared between a collection of actual commercial heat sinks different from in

geometry, material, and number of fins. A complete computer chassis model with heat sinks

and fans inside was created and analyses were carried out to compare the effects of different

turbulence models, mesh resolutions, and radiative heat transfer. Two commercially available

CFD software packages were used, ANSYS Icepak for preprocessing and FLUENT for

solution and post processing. The road map was applied to five different heat sinks and

another three heat sinks as a validation which was modeled into the full chassis. Numerical

results were compared with the available experimental data and they were in good agreement.
In their study, Shadlaghani et al. (2016) looked to determine a suitable pattern for the better

design of the fins used in heat sinks under forced convection to achieve a higher heat transfer

rate. Maintaining a constant fin volume, the shape of fin cross section and its dimensions

were optimized to maximize the heat transfer rate. Navier-Stokes and energy equations were

discretized through the finite volume method using Ansys CFX commercial package. The

convection term of the equations was solved using the high resolution scheme. In order to

achieve the acceptable results, the convergence criteria were set at 10-5 for steady momentum

and energy equations.  Numerical results showed that at a constant fin base area, heat transfer

rate was higher in a fin with a triangular cross section compared to the fins with rectangular

or trapezoidal cross sections. Also, on further investigation for the optimum dimensional ratio

in triangular fins, it was reported that an increased height/thickness ratio enhanced the heat

transfer rate. Results also showed that perforation enhanced the thermal performance of the

fins with perforations with square and circular cross sections having almost identical thermal

performances and more heat dissipation compared to those with triangular perforations. 

Jaffal (2017) used a mixture of experimental and computational studies to conduct the

analysis and thermal evaluation of different fin heat sink geometries and specific heat flux

range (from  3954  to  38357 W/m ) and air Reynolds number (from  23597  to  3848.9). This
2

study revealed that with an increasing value of free stream velocity there was a similar

increase in heat transfer coefficient and a resultant decrease in thermal resistance. The study

also found that heat transfer   coefficient and thermal resistance are dependent on heat flux

and that Reynolds number has a significant effect on the overall thermal performance of the

system. Also, from the comparative analysis of various geometries of heat sinks, the

perforated-cut heat sink showed the best thermal performance.

In a similar study, Ibrahim et al. (2018) used CFD software to investigate the effect of

perforation geometry (circular, rectangular, and triangular) on the heat transfer of perforated
fin heat sinks, under different boundary conditions. The fluid and heat transfer properties of

plate fins or normally heat sink were studied experimentally and numerically using CFD to

determine the best perforation shape for the plate heat sink. The difference between

experimental and numerical results was reported to be about 8% and 9% for temperature

distributions when the power supplied are 150 W and 100 W respectively. The highest

temperature different of the fin are with the circular perforation shape which is 51.29% when

compared the temperature at the tip of the fins with the temperature at the heat collector

followed by the rectangular perforation shape with 45.57% then followed by the triangular

perforation shape by 42.28% then lastly the non-perforated fins by 35.82%. The perforations

of the fines show a significant effect on the performance of forced convection heat transfer.

In all cases, these perforations increased the heat transfer coefficient and decreased heat sink

temperature, regardless of perforation geometry. Tijani and Jaffri (2018) also studied the

effect of circular perforations on pins or fins in heat sinks under forced convection. Inlet

velocity and heat flux were constant and perforated pins or fins had the highest heat transfer

coefficients, improving thermal efficiency up to 4% compared to solid pins or fins.

More studies have been carried out to show the advantages of perforated fins over solid fins

under forced convection. 

Salam et al. (2017) carried out an experimental analysis to compare the performance of solid

fins and perforation fins under forced convection. In an experimental setup designed for

specific fin length, thermal performance, effectiveness and pressure drop reduction was

evaluated. Subsequently, pressure drop reduction was reported as a result of increasing

surface area (increase in convective area heat transfer rate) and resultant increase in Nusselt

Number. The large impact is that higher reduction in weight of fin is achieved by producing

perforation which is the major requirement in heat transfer equipment. The results showed
that the perforated fin had a higher Nusselt number (Nu) with a lower pressure drop and more

weight reduction than the solid fin. 

Similarly, Yadav et al. (2017) used the COMSOL program to evaluate fin heat sinks with

different perforation configurations and study their effects on heat transfer rate under forced

convection. In agreement with related studies, the results showed that the perforation fins

dissipate 3.5 – 5.5 % more heat than the solid fin with 34 – 40 % reduction in the wetted

area. 

Al-Sallami et al. (2017) studied numerically the optimal design of a finned heat sink under

forced convection using a conjugate heat transfer model for the turbulent airflow over the

heat sinks. The research explored and compared the effect of longitudinal circular, notch and

slot perforation on the heat transfer rate and pressure drop with corresponding solid fin. Also,

the result showed that the fins with notch perforation exhibit a significant advantage

compared to the other perforations in terms of heat transfer and pressure drop. The notch

perforation fin reduced the temperature of the heat sink base below its critical temperature

with less fan power and less material.

Kulkarni and Dotihal (2015) carried out CFD and conjugate heat transfer analysis for various

fin geometries with Zigzag, Fluted, Slanted mirror, Custom pin fin and staggered array

configurations under constant and similar conditions for low thermal resistance and minimum

pressure drop. In their study, some of the constant and common parameters included:  base

plate thickness of 2 mm, fin height of 28 mm and fin thickness of 1 mm for three different

heat loads namely 50 W, 75 W and 100 W with air flow of 3.933 m/s (15 ft3/min or 15 CFM)

and air inlet temperature of 25 C. On comparison of the results to ascertain heat sink thermal
o

performance for the various geometries, the study observed that the fin with Slanted Mirror

geometry gives the best performance among all the other geometries for minimum Pressure

drop. 
In a more recent study using computational fluid dynamics simulation, Silva, Sampaio and

Pontes (2021) evaluated the performance of heat sinks with different designs under forced

convection, varying geometric and boundary parameters. The study revealed that for fin heat

sinks, the preferred combination was the use of radial fins with an inverted trapezoidal shape

and larger holes. For Pin heat sinks, the best option contemplated circular pins in combination

with frontal holes in their structure. Also, for lattice heat sinks, only possible to be produced

by additive manufacturing, was also studied. Lower temperatures were obtained with a

hexagon unit cell. Finally, a comparison between the best heat sinks in each category was

carried out with lattice heat sinks showing the lowest thermal resistance. Despite the increase

of at least 38% in pressure drop, a consequence of its frontal area, the temperature was 26%

and 56% lower when compared to conventional pins and fins HS, respectively, and 9% and

28% lower when compared to the best pins and best fins in the study.

Nilpueng et al. (2021) investigated the flow behaviour and heat transfer characteristics of air

flow inside the plate pin fin heat sinks (PPFHS). They also investigated the effects of pin fin

shape, pin fin orientation, and ratio of distance between pin and plate fin center to pin fin size

(S/Dp or S/Wp) on the flow pattern, heat transfer coefficient (HTC), pressure drop (ΔP) and

thermal performance. Three types of pin fin shape, including a circular pin, square pin, and

45° square pin with pin fin sizes of 2.5, 3.0, and 3.5 mm, were used. The flow visualization

used smoke to study the air flow behavior inside the PPFHS. The test runs were done at a

heat flux of 14.81 kW/m2 and Reynolds number (Re) ranging between 1700 and 5200. Under

the same pin fin frontal area, the HTC and ΔP of air inside the plate square pin fin heat sink

(PSPFHS) was higher than that from the plate circular pin fin heat sink (PCPFHS) by an

average of 12.52 and 15.05%, respectively. The decrease of the S/Dp or S/Wp from 2.25 to

1.61 caused the augmentation of the HTC and ΔP of air flow inside the PPFHS by about

11.77%–17.17% and 46.61%–50.52%, respectively. The average thermal performance factors

(TPF) were 1.32, 1.44, and 1.42 for PCPFHS, PSPFHS, and the plate 45° square pin fin heat

sink (P45oSPFHS), respectively. They also proposed correlations for Nusselt number (Nu)

and friction factor (f). 

In this project, an evaluation of the thermal performance of several heat sink fin

configurations (straight, zig-zag and sinusoidal) for the forced convection cooling of a

3.5KVA Inverter would be carried out. This would be done through experimental models and

CFD software analysis. This process would be used to optimise and select the most suitable

heat sink fin configuration.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

A heat sink is a tool used to transfer thermal energy from a higher temperature device to a

lower temperature fluid medium. Practical heat sinks for electronic devices must have a

temperature higher than the surroundings to transfer heat by convection, radiation, and

conduction. The power supplies of electronics are not 100% efficient, so extra heat is

produced that may be detrimental to the function of the device. As such, a heat sink is

included in the design to disperse heat. To reject the generated heat from electronic

components or devices, a heat sink can be used to remove the heat either passively using

natural convection (no fan is required) or actively using forced convection (fan is required)
 Fig 2.1: A Typical Heat Sink (Kumar et al., 2017)

2.2.1 Categories of Heat Sinks

According to their cooling mechanism, Heat sinks may be categorized into five main groups

namely (Lee 1995):

1. Passive heat sinks which are used generally in natural convection systems.

2. Semi-active heat sinks which leverage off existing fans in the system

3. Active heat sinks employing designated fans for forced convection system

4. Liquid cooled cold plates employing tubes in block design or milled passages in

brazed assemblies for the use of pumped water, oil or other liquids

5. Phase change recirculating systems including two-phase systems that employ a set of

boiler and condenser in a passive, self-driven mechanism

2.2.2 Heat Sink Design

The design parameters include the heat sink material, the number and geometry of the fins

and their alignment and the base plate thickness as shown in Fig. 2.2. In order to obtain the

minimum thermal resistance and pressure drop, each of these parameters must be designed

well.
 Fig. 2.2: Typical Heat sink design parameters. (Ojha, 2009)

1. Heat Sink Material 

Heat sinks are made from a good thermal conductor such as copper or aluminum

alloy. Copper (401 W/m-K at 300 K) is significantly more expensive than aluminum

(237 W/m-K at 300 K) but is roughly twice as efficient as thermal conductor.

Aluminum has the significant advantage that it can be easily formed by extraction,

thus making complex cross-sections possible. Aluminum is also much lighter than

copper, offering less mechanical stress on delicate electronic components. Some heat

sinks made from aluminum have a copper core as shown in Fig. 2.3. Although the

thermal conductivity of zinc is lower compared to that of aluminum and copper, it

may also be a good material for electronic cooling purposes. When zinc added to an

alloy, it eliminates porosity in the casting process, which is an advantage over

aluminum and copper since they are not pore free after the casting.

Fig. 2.3: Aluminum fins with copper base heat sink. (Ojha, 2009)

2. The Number of Fins 

A heat sink usually consists of a base with one or more flat surfaces and an array of

comb or finlike protrusions to increase the heat sink's surface area contacting the air,
 and thus increasing the heat dissipation rate. It is one of the most important factors for

heat sink performance. A heat sink designed for electronics cooling is a compact heat

exchanger for which the ratio of heat transfer area to occupied volume is very large.

Therefore increasing the number of fins provides more area for heat transfer.

Increasing the number of fins from 238 to 294, increased the heat transfer area by 8.4

%. However, it should be noted that increasing the number of fins creates an adverse

effect, which is the increased static pressure drop. In order to overcome higher

pressure drops, higher pumping powers are needed, which requires the installation of

more powerful fans or blowers.

3. The shape of Fins 

Different kinds of heat sink geometries are possible. Pin fins, straight fins, fluted fins,

wavy fins and fins with non-standard geometry are possible. The most common ones

are pin fins whose cross section can be round, square, elliptical, hexagonal or any

other suitable geometry. A round cross section pin fin heat sink design is used in

Global Win CDK38 (Fig 2.4). Straight fins that have rectangular cross sections are

also widely used. Depending on the spacing among the fins of a heat sink, flow

requirements and pressure drops may differ. Design engineers try to achieve the

minimum thermal resistance with the pressure drop as low as possible by modifying

the fin shapes. Extensive literature is available on this subject.

 Fig. 2.4. Two heat sinks with different fin geometry. (Ojha, 2009)

4. Fin alignment

Alignment of the fins on the base plate plays an important role especially for the heat

sinks which are cooled by fans installed by their side. We only considered the heat

sinks that are cooled by fans on the top. For side cooled heat sinks, fin alignment may

be inline or staggered. Although the staggered design is superior to the inline design

under the same flow conditions, Dvinsky et al. (2000) showed that inline design

performs better than staggered for their specific case when the same fan is used. The

explanation for this behaviour is the higher flow resistance of the staggered heat sink,

which causes more air to bypass the heat sink.

5. Base plate thickness and fin height

These two parameters are to be handled together due to the frequently encountered

space limitations. Base plate thickness accounts for the uniform distribution of heat

through the base of heat sink, since electronic components are generally smaller than

the heat sinks. Although base plates are generally square, they can also be rectangular,

round or irregular in shape. If the base plate thickness increases then the fin length can

be shorter. Technically, fins can be manufactured with a height approximately 80

times their thickness or diameter but since the rate of increased performance becomes

less as height is increased, fin height of 45 times the thickness is the suggested

maximum

2.2.3 Heat Transfer

Heat is a form of energy, hence can be transferred from one medium to another to

conserve it. As a result of the law of energy conservation, heat transfer or thermal
 energy is transferred from a higher thermal energy surface or object to a lower

medium or object. Heat transfer occurs in different modes under different conditions.

The three modes of heat transfer that exist include conduction, convection, and

radiation. 

1. Conduction 

This mode of heat transfer takes place within a solid or at the interface where objects

are in contact. In a solid material, heat is transferred through conduction as a result of

the vibration of atoms against one another within it without the material not

necessarily moving as a whole. In heat sinks, conduction takes place in two different

phases. First is the heat transfer through conduction between the object being cooled

and the base or bottom surface of the heat sink. The second phase is conduction

within the heat sink from its base to the extruded fins. Heat from the hot bottom base

of the heat sink is conducted to the extruded fin for dispersion to its surroundings. 

2. Convection 

Convection heat transfer is the transfer of heat as a result of the movement of a fluid

(e.g. water, air etc.). Two main types of convection exist based on conditions and

desired results. Natural convection is a form of heat transfer in which no external

source (fan, blower, or pump) is needed to move the fluid being used. On the hand,

forced convection makes use of an external source to move the fluid. Most heat sinks

operate by means of forced convection. In most cases, a fan is placed so as to direct

air through the fins of the heat sink. Different flow directions are used in forced

convection. The two directions are; Side inlet, Side exit (SISE) and Top inlet, Side

exit. The placement of the external fluid source usually depends on size restriction and

heat sink geometry. 

 3. Radiation

Radiation is a form of heat transfer that exists as a result of electromagnetic waves or

light emission. This mode of heat transfer does not require a medium like the other

forms discussed. Heat sinks do not rely on the radiation mode of heat transfer to

function as a thermal management device. The dominant modes of heat transfer in a

heat sinks function are conduction and convection. These forms are present no matter

what scenario or purpose a heat sink is used for.  

2.3 Power MOSFETs

Since its proposal and initial fabrication in 1960 using a thermally oxidized Silicon structure,

the Power MOSFET is one of the most important devices very large-scale integrated circuits

and power electronics and it is among the most commonly used power devices due to their

superior performance over BJT, IGBT, thyristor, etc.

In its application in an inverter where DC power from the battery bank is inverted to AC

power, MOSFET switches are responsible for flipping the DC power back and forth creating

AC power. (Hannemann et al., 1991; Whitaker, 1996) A result of this process is the

dissipation of electrical power as thermal energy. This event is of importance as the reliability

of the power inverter will be jeopardized if correct thermal management measures are not put

in place to safe guard the switches. Temperatures exceeding an optimal level could cause

significant damages and major hindrances to the functionality of electrical energy conversion

systems. (Ellison 1987; Pang et al., 2005) This further shows the importance and paramount

it is to develop improved cooling methods to curb unacceptable temperature rises and the

subsequent problems that follow. (Mandel and Sen, 2016) As previously discussed, a method

used to conduct away the heat generated in the power devices and into the environment is the

use of a heat sink.

2.3.1 Power Dissipation

The total dissipated power in the switches is the sum of the conduction and switching losses

(Rajapakse et al., 2005; Haaf and Harper, 2007)

According to Graovac et al. (2006) and Jauregul et al. (2011), the IRF 3205 MOSFET chip

Turn on Energy losses (EonM) is expressed as:

tri+ tfu
EonM ¿U DD X I Don X +Qrr X U DD (1)
2

Where tri is the current rise time, tfu is the voltage fall time, IDon is the drain current, UDD is the

Inverter supply voltage (DC), Qrr is the reverse recovery charge. The voltage fall time can be

calculated as a median of the fall times defined through the gate current as [14]:

(t fu1 +t fu 2)
tfu= (2)
2

Where

C GDI
t fu 1=(U ¿ ¿ DD−R DSon . i D ) ¿ (3)
I Gon

C GD 2
t fu 2=(U ¿ ¿ DD−R DSon . i D ) ¿ (4)
I Gon

U Dr−U plateau
I Gon = (5)
RG

Where CGDI is the gate-drain capacitance 1, CGD2 is the gate-drain capacitance 2, RG is the gate

Resistance, UDr is the output voltage from driver circuit, Uplateau is the plateau voltage. The

turn off energy losses is expressed as:

IRF 3205 MOSFET chip Turn off Energy losses (EoffM) can be calculated as:

tru+ tfi
Eoff M =U DD X I Doff (6)
2

Where tri is the current rise time, tfu is the voltage fall time, IDon is the drain current, UDD is the

Inverter supply voltage (DC), Qrr is the reverse recovery charge. The voltage fall time can be

calculated as a median of the fall times defined through the gate current as [14]:

(t ru 1+ t ru 2)
tru= (7)
2

Where

C GDI
t ru1=(U ¿ ¿ DD−R DSon . i D ) ¿ (8)
I Goff

C GD 2
t ru2 =(U ¿ ¿ DD−R DSon . i D ) ¿ (9)
I Goff

−U plateau
I Goff = (10)
RG

The total losses due to switching in the chips are function of switching frequency and

can be obtained as:

PSWM =(EonD + E offM ) f SW (11)

All silicon devices provide resistance to the flow of electric current that originates from the

resistivity of the bulk semiconductor materials. When the device is operating in the ON state

and the OFF state leakage current, the losses due to conduction in the chips is computed

using the drain-source ON state resistance (34567) (Graovac et al., 2006)

 U DS ( i D ) =R DSon ( i D ) X i D (12)

Where UDS is the drain source voltage, i D is the drain current. Therefore, the instantaneous

value of the IRF 3205 MOSFET conduction loss is:

Pc (t )=U DS ( t ) X i D ( t )=R DSon ( i D ) X i2 D (t) (13)

The total power dissipation due to switching ON and OFF and conduction of the chips is

then obtained as:

2
Pd =PCM + P SWM =R DSon X i Drms +( E onD + EoffM )f SW (14)

The ON state resistance of the chip is highly temperature dependent, and it can be linearly

obtained as:

R DSon=R DSonSPEC X [ 1+0.005 X ( T jmax −T SPEC ) ] (15)

Where Tjmax is the operating junction temperature, RDSonSPEC is the ON state resistance value at

TSPEC, TSPEC is normally 25oC. The power dissipation varies with the duty ratio and equation

(14) is re-written as

Pd =∆ t on f SW ( R ¿¿ DSon X i 2Drms +(EonD + E offM )f SW ) ¿ (16)

From equation (1) and equation (6), the power dissipated is obtained as (Onoroh et al.,

2019):

Pd =( ∆t on f SW ) ¿ (17)
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