NOTES FOR THE ESSAY ON PAPER TWO SECTION THREE

SUBJECT: Communication Studies

TOPICS: - Message Design 1: Audience Analysis, Oral and Visual

Media.
-Message Design 2: Communication Context and Media.
- Fallacies
- Recognizing Bias in Sources of Information
- Rhetorical Appeals

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What it Means to Customize a Message –

When a communication message is composed bearing in mind the special

characteristics and interests of the audience for which it is intended, the message
is said to be customized.

What it Means to Analyze an Audience-

This means identifying and considering the distinctive features and characteristics of the
target audience in the information of the message ( type of audience.)

special audiences-

visually challenged, the hearing impaired, patients of various chronic and terminal illnesses,
and ethnic and linguistic minorities.

the objectives of a communicator:

a. Awareness objective- enhance comprehension

b. Acceptance objective- get audience to positively accept the message
c. Action objective – have the audience respond positively to the information
received.

The Techniques used in Message Design:

 - graphic symbols, verbal symbols, colour

Typological emphasis eg. capital letters, italics

Spacing and indentation eg. white space, black line

-formatting text. Eg. word spacing, line spacing

The Characteristics of Selected Written Media:

- the newspaper article
- fliers and brochures
- the press release
- public service announcement

What is Involved in the Multi-Media Approach to Message Design-

A multi- media approach integrates elements of the written, the visual, and the graphic in
the composition of the message.

Fallacies Present in Writing-

Definition: modes of structuring and presenting an argument that seem to offer

adequate and convincing support for the conclusion drawn but which upon close
examination do not do so. Text .224

- Fallacies affecting content and logic.

Eg. non sequitur ( it doesn’t follow)

- Fallacies involving emotional persuasion

Eg. bandwagon appeal
- Fallacies involving credibility
Eg. appeal to authority

- Fallacies involving clarity

Eg. Vagueness

Bias in Writing.
Definition: the act of influencing unfairly or to prejudice someone’s thought.

The Elements Involved in the Creation of Bias.

eg. the source, loaded and emotive words, facts vs opinion , tone etc.

The Rhetorical Appeals and How They are used in Essay Writing

LOGOS APPEAL

PATHOS APPEAL
ETHOS APPEAL

> > 245

MODULE 3:
Speaking
and
Writing

Rhetorical Appeals > > > > >

As far back as 322BC, the Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle proposed three appeals to
audiences which are to be found in every type of discourse and are the basis on which we accept the
message(s) presented or are convinced to accept them. He identified these appeals by their Greek
names – Logos or logical appeal, Pathos or emotional appeal and Ethos or credibility appeal. It is
important for us to know about these appeals since, whether we realize it or not, we use one or all of
these in every message we create to send to others and we respond to the use of one or more of
these appeals when we give feedback to any message we receive in any context of communication.
They are the foundation on which every communication message is based whether they are private
conversations, public speeches or advertisements to mass audiences. Knowledge of rhetorical
appeals is crucial in customizing messages for specific audiences or segments of diverse audiences.
Knowing which appeal works best for which audience will make your message more targeted and
effective. Here are the main features of these three types of appeals:

Logos Appeal
According to Aristotle, the appeal to logic or reason in a message is the most important element
which causes an audience to accept it. Simply put, an audience is more likely to understand and
accept a message which makes sense to him or them. What then are the indicators that logos appeal
is being used in a message? These are many and include any factor which convinces you that a
message is logical, reasonable to accept, and can be proven to be truthful.

Evidence of logos or logical appeal which a sender may include in his message or a receiver may
detect and respond to in a message include the use of following:

Inductive reasoning: presenting information in such a way that the audience moves from specific
known facts to a projected conclusion which is based on the facts but which is not known for certain.

Deductive reasoning: presenting information in such a way that the audience moves from a general
statement about members in a group, class or category to a guaranteed conclusion about a member
of that group, class or category.

Comparative or analogical reasoning: using comparison and contrast in the presentation of

information so that ideas, patterns and concepts become clear.
 Factual, statistical and research evidence: the use of any hard evidence which is empirical,
which means verifiable, provable or observable is evidence of logos appeal. There is a natural
assumption that research evidence is normally to be trusted since it is scientifically gathered.

Reference to established standards, criteria and specifications: such reference to professional,

business, and vocational standards of behaviour or method of operation also give the impression that
the information is verifiable, provable or observable.

Definitions, examples, illustrations and examples: all these methods of clarifying ideas and
concepts are evidence of logos appeal since they help the audience to better make sense of
information presented in a message.

Testimonial evidence: whether this is from a first-person eye-witness account or expert opinion by
an authoritative source, such information is considered evidence of logos appeal since it is normally
assumed that such information is verifiable and can be trusted to be true.

Pathos Appeal
Another persuasion appeal which Aristotle referred to is pathos or appeal to the emotions. It is hard
to imagine anyone accepting, believing or being persuaded by any information towards which they do
not have a positive attitude. The danger with emotional persuasion is that sometimes we can feel so
strongly about something that we fail to consider its logic or sense. Decisions based mainly on
emotions often prove not to be the best decisions. In addition, speakers or writers who present
information to audiences may negatively play upon the audience’s fears and insecurities, emotionally
swaying them by their desire or by their fear of unpleasant consequences, real or imagined. Emotions
are powerful drivers of our actions and this is why marketers play on them to get us to buy their
products by manipulating key desires like pride, the desire for pleasure, the need to belong and the
need to save money. No wonder Aristotle felt that pathos or emotional appeal was the most
unreliable form of persuasion since persons can be easily manipulated against reason and common
sense. The following are the main indicators of pathos or emotional appeal which a communicator
can include in a message:

Use of emotive language: This is the most common form of pathos appeal and it includes words
and phrases which are intended to create an emotional response in the audience who either hears or
reads it. Emotive language refers to the connotative use of words and phrases to stir up any kind of
feelings and attitudes in a listener or reader including anger, pride, sympathy, love, loathing or
indifference. The use of vivid adjectives and nouns is one indicator that emotive language is present
but the most reliable indicator is that language is not being used in a referential or denotative sense.

The use of inclusive language is another form of emotive appeal. Communicators will often use
words and phrases which cause their readers or listeners to identify with the sender and agree with
and support his message or cause. Depending on the communicative context, commonly used
inclusive language include words and phrases like, my fellow citizens, friends, our, we, us, brethren,
colleagues, sisters, patriots, compatriots, countrymen, comrades or any other expression which gives
persons feelings of esprit de corps or a sense of belonging to team, special group or organization.

When emotive language is included in a message, it always reveals the speaker’s or writer’s bias and
should put you on guard that s/he may be trying to manipulate or sway you. Nevertheless, emotive
language can be used for both noble and ignoble purposes. In any communication context, it all
depends on the purpose of the one who creates the message.

Use of testimonial: One of the oldest and most persuasive forms of communication is a personal
account of an experience which someone has either suffered or endured. We almost always react
with sympathy to other people’s accounting of their suffering and we cannot help but feel inspired by
accounts of their triumph over adversity and setbacks. Personal testimony is a very effective way to
appeal to an audience to get him/them to adopt certain feelings, attitudes and actions.
Use of language techniques: Language techniques which stir up deep feelings in a reader or
listener because they cause reflection or make ideas more memorable are evidence of pathos or
emotional appeal. These include vivid imagery, striking comparisons through similes and metaphors,
and attention grabbing exaggeration for effect. An often overlooked technique which is commonly
used by communicators is the rhetorical question. Since the use of this technique is intended to
create a dramatic effect or make a point by causing the reader/listener to reflect, it is a powerful tool in
emotional appeal.

Ethos Appeal
This third rhetorical appeal is often referred to as the credibility or ethical appeal because the
emphasis is on the character or credibility of the person delivering the message and not so much on
the message itself. Simply put, in ethos or credibility appeal we are convinced to accept and believe
the message because we trust the speaker or writer of the message based on his or her character.
Factors about a communicator’s character which could cause an audience to trust and believe him or
her include ethical behaviour or conduct, being balanced and fair, possessing an outstanding
reputation, fame and celebrity status, knowledge and expertise in a given field or profession,
trustworthiness, compassion and sensitivity, and the absence of obvious bias.

The following are the main indicators of persons with good ethos or ethical appeal:

Ethical behaviour: Audiences are more likely to trust and believe a message from someone who
advocates moral, ethical and socially acceptable ideas.

Being balanced and fair: Audiences tend to trust sources of information who are balanced and fair in
the way they present information or in the way they apply similar standards to similar situations. To be
balanced and fair is to avoid obvious bias in the selection and presentation of information in a
communication message.

Reputation: Audiences tend to respect, believe and support those who have outstanding reputations
and stature which can be based on fame, renown, and celebrity status.

Knowledge and expertise: People with expert knowledge are respected and revered the world over.
Audiences tend to believe what the experts say because such persons have specialized knowledge
and experience beyond what the average person has. Experts are also more articulate, confident and
possess current or the latest knowledge in their given field which causes people to trust them.

Compassion, sensitivity and courtesy: Persons who are courteous and compassionate in the way
they present information about others and sensitive in the way that they respond to the views of
others who do not agree with them are more likely to be believed and accepted that those who are
rude, sarcastic, dismissive or intolerant.

Rhetorical Appeals and Message Design

So far, we have discussed the three appeals which may be used in any message, whether written or
spoken. It is important to note here that all messages will likely have more than one appeal present.
So, a message which is mainly appealing to the emotions will have elements of facts and logical
organization which could also appeal to the audience’s sense of logic and reason. Since a
communication message can be created to involve more than one appeal, it is useful when talking
about rhetorical appeals to identify the dominant appeal and then account for the other appeal(s)
which may also be present. For example, a public service announcement about hurricane
preparedness will most likely have logos as the dominant appeal since its main aim is to
communicate important information to the audience but it could involve pathos or emotional appeal
by alerting the audience of the dangers of going outside during the storm. Additionally, if the message
comes from an official and trusted government it would also have strong ethos or credibility appeal.

Activity: In the list below, carefully consider the following contexts of communication and then fill
in the appropriate information as required, based on your knowledge of rhetorical appeals. You are
encouraged to use number 1 as an example.
Communication Contexts Dominant Secondary Justification for appeals
Appeal Appeal selected
1. As president of your Pathos or Logos or logical Pathos appeal is appropriate in
youth club, you have emotional appeal appeal this context as it can create
been asked to appeal sympathy in the target audience
to other youths to help for the homeless persons and
feed the street people motivate them to participate.
in your town.
Logos appeal would also be
used as the audience would
need facts about the street
people and directions on how to
participate in the venture.

2. You are a committee

member planning a
programme to
encourage unattached
youth who have 2 or 3
CXC subjects to
undertake additional
training to become
better qualified and
realize their full
potential.

3. A number of teenaged
girls in your city have
dropped out of school
because of pregnancy
but are embarrassed
to join the Government
programme to continue
their education. Your
church group has been
asked to reach out to
these girls as a first
step in encouraging
them to continue their
education.

4. Given the epidemic of

childhood obesity in
your country, your
principal has called
upon the student
council to spearhead
an after school and
summer exercise
programme for
affected students. Your
responsibility is to
persuade overweight
students in your school
to participate.

Earlier in our discussion of message design, we learned that the elements which make up the
message (such as language registers, diction, whether speech or writing and dialectal variety) should
be suitable for the target audience and the context of communication. A similar consideration has to
be made when selecting rhetorical appeals. The appeals selected should be appropriately selected to
suit the age, knowledge level, interests and experience of the target audience. An important part of
determining suitability of a particular appeal for an audience is the choice of promotional strategy
used to convey the appeal(s).

By promotional strategy we mean all forms of communication media, activities or plan of action,
intended to achieve specific communication goals by informing or persuading a target audience to act,
accept, or give favourable consideration to participating in any activity as a result of being exposed to
a communication event.

The following is a list of the most common promotional strategies used by communicators. In the table
below, match each with an appropriate rhetorical appeal and explain why you think the appeal you
have selected is the most suitable to emphasize that strategy. Remember that some strategies will be
appropriate for more than one appeal.

Promotional Strategy Rhetorical Justification of Choice

Appeal(s)

Seminar / Group or Rap

Session

Role play / Dramatization /

Mime

Videos / Audio Visual media –

PowerPoint, podcast

Posters / Flyers / Pictures /

Charts

Brochures / Booklets / Leaflets

Songs / Jingles / Raps /

Chants / Dub or Reggae
poetry

Bumper Stickers / decal

Radio, television and internet

advertisement

Promotional novelties and

incentives

Promotional events – fairs,

walks /runs

Celebrity or expert testimonial

or endorsements

Social Media networking /

messaging / webinar

Having completed the preceding activity on promotional strategies, you should have realized that
many of the strategies listed may be used to communicate more than one of the appeals. While there
are some strategies that seem to be better suited to certain appeals, there is generally no hard and
fast rule as to which strategy fits which appeal. The best guide in making such a decision is to
carefully consider the extent to which the particular strategy enhances the dominant appeal which is
your aim in communicating. Remember that each strategy can promote more than one appeal.
 A relevant example of a strategy which is ideally suited to a particular appeal but which can also
illustrate other appeals is celebrity and expert endorsement. Celebrity or expert endorsement is
ideally suited to ethos or credibility appeal. In situations where the communicator’s character is
unknown to the audience or is questionable, s/he may choose to have a spokesperson to deliver the
message who has good ethos appeal. This is why celebrities like athletes, entertainers, politicians,
academics, professionals and local heroes have been used as spokespersons to endorse a variety of
products, services and causes.

The type of celebrity or expert testimonial used to give a message good ethos appeal will depend on
the message to be delivered and the aim of the communicator in delivering that message. For
example, information related to health would best be endorsed by a doctor or medical professional
while messages about setting personal goals and aspiring towards the life one wants to lead would
best be conveyed by a lifestyle coach. Of course, celebrity or expert endorsement may also illustrate
logos or logical appeal especially if the spokesperson presents fact and information based on his/her
area of expertise.

Exercise 8.3 > > > > >

For each of the following scenarios, identify an appropriate rhetorical appeal and a strategy suitable to
the appeal selected. In a response of no more than an extended paragraph each, justify your
selection of each appeal and strategy.
1. The groundskeeper at your school has a habit of waiting until class is in session before running the
lawnmower or blower. This causes a disruption of classes. As Student Council president, you have
the task to communicate with him and bring this problem to an amicable resolution.
2. Residents in your neighbourhood have been leaving their garbage in the park next to the communal
garbage skip when the garbage collectors fail to remove the garbage on time and the skip is full. This
is both unsanitary and unsightly. Explain the best way to appeal to your neighbours to end this
practice.
3. You are a recent sixth form graduate now in your second year at university and you notice that the
children of high school age in your old neighbourhood are spending hours on the street corner on
school nights and are not engaged in serious study. You are concerned enough to address this
growing problem.
4. Your Church, Temple or Mosque is engaged in a public campaign to assist residents in your city who
were flooded out in the recent hurricane that impacted your country. Explain how you would get the
more affluent members of your city to support the campaign.
5. With the recent public works on the main highway, impatient motorists have taken to illegally using your
housing scheme as an alternate route to avoid the gridlock. The result has been noise nuisance and
speeding through the narrow streets. Something needs to be done before someone gets hurt and the
problem gets worse.