–2– 2221 – 6008

Section A

Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

1. Mitosis in cancerous tissues is uncontrolled and the number of cells undergoing mitosis
increases exponentially. Rapidly dividing cells in root tips can be used as a model

(Persea americana) and the leaves of crepe jasmine (Tabernaemontana divaricata) have
been shown to be toxic to some human cancer cell lines. Root tips of the broad bean
(Vicia faba) were exposed to these aqueous plant extracts over a range of concentrations.

The mitotic index is the percentage of cells examined undergoing mitosis. The table shows
the numbers of broad bean root cells examined and the mitotic indices over a range of
plant extract concentrations.

Avocado Crepe jasmine

(P. americana) (T. divaricata)
Extract concentration Number of Mitotic index Number of Mitotic index
/ ppm cells examined /% cells examined /%
Control 3017 8.30 3017 8.30
100 3516 8.08 3000 8.00
1250 3450 7.68 3076 6.83
2500 4322 6.94 3089 6.31
5000 4200 4.29 3014 4.90
10 000 4023 3.11 3020 4.00
20 000 3697 2.11 3009 3.72

[Source: Republished with permission of SPRINGER-VERLAG DORDRECHT, from Do cancer cells in human
and meristematic cells in plant exhibit similar responses toward plant extracts with cytotoxic activities?,
Cytotechnology, Noha S. Khalifa, Hoda S. Barakat, Salwa Elhallouty, Dina Salem, Volume 67, 2015;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.]

crepe jasmine extract. [1]

..........................................................................

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP02
 –3– 2221 – 6008

(Question 1 continued)

mitotic indices for the two plant extracts. [3]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
20EP03
 –4– 2221 – 6008

(Question 1 continued)

60
50
40
Stages of mitosis
/% 30
20
10
0
Control 100 1250 2500 5000 10 000 20 000
Concentrations of avocado extract / ppm

60
50
40
Stages of mitosis
/% 30
20
10
0
Control 100 1250 2500 5000 10 000 20 000
Concentrations of crepe jasmine extract / ppm

Key: prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase

[Source: Republished with permission of SPRINGER-VERLAG DORDRECHT, from Do cancer cells in human
and meristematic cells in plant exhibit similar responses toward plant extracts with cytotoxic activities?,
Cytotechnology, Noha S. Khalifa, Hoda S. Barakat, Salwa Elhallouty, Dina Salem, Volume 67, 2015;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP04
 –5– 2221 – 6008

(Question 1 continued)

(d) Using both the table of mitotic indices and the bar charts, deduce whether these
extracts contain chemicals that block mitosis in broad bean root tips. [3]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
20EP05
 –6– 2221 – 6008

(Question 1 continued)

The mechanism of action of vinblastine, an anticancer drug, was investigated over a range of
concentrations. Vinblastine is an alkaloid isolated from the periwinkle plant (Catharansus roseus).
The percentage of cells in mitosis and ratio of anaphase to metaphase in cells exposed to this
drug in vitro

100 0.30

Anaphase : metaphase ratio

0.25
80
Cells in mitosis / %

0.20
60
0.15
40
0.10
20
0.05

0 0
0.1 1 10 0.1 1 10
Vinblastine concentration / nM Vinblastine concentration / nM

[Source: Republished with permission of American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics,
from Mechanism of Mitotic Block and Inhibition of Cell Proliferation by the Semisynthetic Vinca Alkaloids
Molecular Pharmacology, Vivian K. Ngan,
Krista Bellman, Bridget T. Hill, Leslie Wilson and Mary Ann Jordan, Volume 60 , Issue 1, 2001;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.]

(e) By referring to both graphs, evaluate the hypothesis that vinblastine targets cells in
mitosis and prevents them from completing the process. [3]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP06
 –7– 2221 – 6008

(Question 1 continued)

(f) Some anticancer drugs inhibit mitosis by blocking the formation of the spindle.
Suggest one other way in which vinblastine could block mitosis. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(g) Discuss one advantage and one disadvantage of using plant tissue to investigate
drugs intended to treat cancer in humans. [2]

Advantage: ..............................................................

Disadvantage: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Turn over
20EP07
 –2– 2221 – 6011

Section A
Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

1.

Allium cepa,

100
90 Key:
80 ZDV
70 NVP
Root length as
60
a percentage of
the control 50
/% 40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP02
 –3– 2221 – 6011

(Question 1 continued)

Allium

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

Allium

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
16EP03
 2221 – 6011

(Question 1 continued)

Allium

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

1.0

0.8 Key:
control
0.6 leptin
Mitotic
index
0.4

0.2

0.0
24th hour 48th hour 72nd hour
Time of exposure

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP04
 2221 – 6011

(Question 1 continued)

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

Turn over
16EP05
 2221 – 6017

Section A
Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

1. Honeybees (Apis mellifera) are key pollinators in most ecosystems. The worldwide use
of neonicotinoid pesticides has caused concern because they may be contributing to the
decline of honeybee populations.

across the world. Each pie chart shows the relative frequency of neonicotinoids in honey
samples from a continent.

Europe

North America
Asia

Africa
South America

Key: Neonicotinoid Oceania

acetamiprid
clothianidin
imidacloprid
thiacloprid
thiamethoxam
[Source:
Science
.]

(a)
samples. [1]

..........................................................................

(b)

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
16EP03
 2221 – 6017

(Question 1 continued)

The neonicotinoids can be used alone or together with other neonicotinoids. The percentage

in the stacked bar chart.

100

80
Key: Number of
neonicotinoids
Percentage 60 none present
of honey
5
samples / % 40
4
3
20
2
1
0
a

ia

pe

ia
ric

ic

ic
As

an
ro

er

er
Af

ce
Eu

Am

Am

O
th

h
ut
or

So
N

Continent

Science

(c)
pesticides in the continent with the lowest overall levels of contamination. [1]

............ %

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP04
 2221 – 6017

(Question 1 continued)

acetylcholine concentrations.

larvae fed on a normal diet.

100

80

60
Survival / %
40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5
Age of larvae / days
Key:
Control
Reduced acetylcholine royal jelly

(d) Deduce the conclusions that can be drawn from the data in the graph. [2]

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

(e)
rate. [1]

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
16EP05
 –6– 2221 – 6017

(Question 1 continued)

had never been exposed to neonicotinoids (control) and honeybees that had been exposed
for three weeks to two neonicotinoids; clothianidin and thiacloprid.

Acetylcholine
/ nmol L–1 4

0
Control Clothianidin Thiacloprid
100 ppb 8800 ppb

(f)

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

(g)

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP06
 2221 – 6017

(Question 1 continued)

(h) Companies that manufacture neonicotinoid pesticides have argued that they do not

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

..........................................................................

Turn over
16EP07
 –2– 8820 – 6002

Section A

Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

1. White clover (Trifolium repens) is native to Eurasia but is now a common plant found
worldwide in lawns, next to roads, in pastures and similar habitats.

Some T. repens plants are able to produce the toxin hydrogen cyanide (HCN) by
cyanogenesis. A study at 128 sites (2509 plants) in Toronto (Canada) looked at the
proportion of T. repens plants producing HCN. The sites were at regular intervals from the
city centre towards rural areas.

Toronto

1.0

0.8

Proportion of plants 0.6

with HCN
0.4

0.2

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from the city centre / km

(a) (i) State the distance from the city centre at which the highest proportion of plants
sampled contained HCN. [1]

..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP02
 –3– 8820 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

(ii) Outline the relationship shown in the graph. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

To determine whether similar patterns in cyanogenesis were seen in other cities, studies
were also carried out around New York City and Boston (USA) and Montreal (Canada).

New York City Boston Montreal

Proportion of plants with HCN

1.0 1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Distance from the Distance from the Distance from the
city centre / km city centre / km city centre / km

(b) Deduce whether the pattern of cyanogenesis was the same in all of the areas around
all four cities. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
20EP03
 –4– 8820 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

The researchers considered two possible ecological causes for the observed gradients in
cyanogenesis. First, the researchers assessed the extent of herbivory of T. repens plants
in Toronto by measuring the percentage of leaf area that was eaten. The graph shows the
results for both cyanogenic and non-cyanogenic plants.

60
Mean herbivory of T. repens / %

40

20

Key:
Non-cyanogenic
Cyanogenic
10 20 30 40 50
Distance from the city centre / km

(c) Discuss whether the data supports the hypothesis that the gradient in cyanogenesis is

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP04
 –5– 8820 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

The researchers then investigated a possible correlation between cyanogenesis and

exposure to freezing conditions. It had been proposed that when a cyanogenic plant freezes,
its cells burst, releasing HCN which is toxic to the plant. Snow can insulate the ground and
plants from freezing temperatures. However, snow is more likely to melt in cities, which then
exposes plants to freezing temperatures.

All four of the cities studied receive below freezing temperatures and winter snowfall.
Researchers looked at the number of days below freezing (0 °C) that did not have snow
cover in these cities.

16

12

Mean number of days

below 0 °C 8
without snow cover
4

0
Toronto New York Boston Montreal
City

(d) (i) Identify with a reason the city where the plants were more insulated from
freezing temperatures. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
20EP05
 –6– 8820 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

(ii) Using all of the data so far, suggest whether exposure to freezing temperatures in
the four cities is supported as a reason for the differences in HCN production
in T. repens. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP06
 –2– 8820 – 6005

Section A

Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

1. A study was conducted to look at the short-term effects of a change in diet on the risk of
disease in young adults. The table shows data on the habitual diet of the participants as well
as the study diet followed for two weeks.

Mean daily intake ± standard deviation

Habitual diet Study diet
Energy / kJ 10 143±949 9992±479
Fat / g 100±6 99±5
Saturated fat / % total fat 37±2 60±1
Unsaturated fat / % total fat 63±2 40±1
Monounsaturated fat / % total fat 46±1 32±1
Polyunsaturated fat / % total fat 17±1 8±1
Carbohydrate / g 248±23 232±16
Protein / g 119±12 120±9

(a) Comment on the total energy content of the two diets. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(b) Distinguish between the two diets. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP02
 –3– 8820 – 6005

(Question 1 continued)

Total blood plasma cholesterol levels were measured before the study began and once a
week after starting the study diet. Mean results are shown in the bar chart, including the
standard deviation.

180

160

140

120

100

80
Cholesterol / mg dL–1
60

40

20

0
Before After After
diet 1 week 2 weeks

(c) Calculate, showing your working, the percentage change in mean cholesterol level
after one week on the study diet. [2]

...................%

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
16EP03
 –4– 8820 – 6005

(Question 1 continued)

Control of blood glucose concentration was investigated using an oral glucose tolerance
test. For this test, the person was given a concentrated glucose drink (at time zero) and
then blood samples were taken every 15 minutes to determine the plasma insulin level. This
test was done before the study diet and after two weeks on the study diet. Mean results are
shown in the graph, including the standard deviation.

100
Key:
80 Before diet
60 After two weeks

Plasma insulin / µU ml–1 40

20

0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
Time after ingesting glucose drink / min

(d) (i) Compare the data for plasma insulin levels before and after the study diet. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(ii) State which cells secrete insulin. [1]

..........................................................................

(iii)
the test. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP04
 –5– 8820 – 6005

(Question 1 continued)

(e) The hypothesis made before the study was that saturated fats in the diet affected the
risk of coronary artery blockage and diabetes. Using all the data in question 1, evaluate
whether this hypothesis is supported by the study. [3]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

Turn over
16EP05
 –2– 8821 – 6002

Section A

Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

1. A community living in the water of an estuary was used to investigate how climate change
may affect ecological systems. The food web in this community included phytoplankton
(producers), zooplankton (consumers) and saprotrophic bacteria. Small plastic mesocosms
were set up with water from the estuary containing only these three groups of organisms.
The mesocosms were subjected to four different temperatures and two nutrient levels
(control and nutrients added) to replicate local variations of the conditions in the estuary
during springtime warming.

The graph shows the biomass of the community for each of the eight mesocosms at the
end of the experimental period. Biomass was measured in terms of the amount of carbon
present. The horizontal line indicates the initial biomass.

Key:
1.5 Nutrients added
Control

1.0

Biomass
/ mg C dm–3

0.5
Initial biomass

0.0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Temperature / °C

[Source: adapted from O’Connor, M.I., Piehler, M.F., Leech, D.M., Anton, A. and Bruno, J.F., 2009.
PLOS Biology, [e-journal] 7(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000178.]

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP02
 –3– 8821 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

(a) Describe the effect of temperature on the total biomass. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
20EP03
 –4– 8821 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

The graph shows the mean biomass of autotrophs and heterotrophs in the eight mesocosms.
The horizontal lines indicate the initial biomasses.

Key:
Autotrophs with added nutrients
Autotrophs with no added nutrients (control)
1.5
Heterotrophs with added nutrients
Heterotrophs with no added nutrients (control)

1.0

Biomass
/ mg C dm–3

0.5
Autotrophs
initial biomass

Heterotrophs
0.0 initial biomass
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Temperature / °C

[Source: adapted from O’Connor, M.I., Piehler, M.F., Leech, D.M., Anton, A. and Bruno, J.F., 2009.
PLOS Biology, [e-journal] 7(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000178.]

(b) Compare and contrast the effects of temperature on the biomass of autotrophs and
heterotrophs with added nutrients. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP04
 –5– 8821 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

Chlorophyll concentration was used as an estimate of the photosynthetic capacity of the

community. The rate of photosynthesis and mass of chlorophyll per unit volume were
measured in a mesocosm at three different temperatures.

3.0

2.5

Rate of photosynthesis
per mass of chlorophyll 2.0
/ mg C mg Chl–1 h–1

1.5

1.0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Temperature / °C

[Source: adapted from O’Connor, M.I., Piehler, M.F., Leech, D.M., Anton, A. and Bruno, J.F., 2009.
PLOS Biology, [e-journal] 7(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000178.]

(c) Explain the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis in this mesocosm. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
20EP05
 –6– 8821 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

(d) Suggest reasons for the decreases in biomass of autotrophs as temperature rises,
despite the increases in photosynthesis. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

In a larger study, California grassland was exposed to elevated temperature and nitrate
concentration for five years. The graph shows the total biomass production in individual and
in combined treatments. Error bars denote one standard error.

1200 Key:
Initial conditions (C)
1000
Increased temperature (T)
800 Increased nitrate (N)
Increased temperature and
Biomass / g m–2 600 increased nitrate (TN)

400

200

0
C T N TN
Conditions

[Source: adapted from Dukes, J.S., Chiariello, N.R., Cleland, E.E., Moore, L.A., Shaw, M.R., Thayer,S., Tobeck, T.,
Mooney, H.A. and Field, C.B., 2005. PLOS Biology, 3(10), e319. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0030319.]

(This question continues on the following page)

20EP06
 –7– 8821 – 6002

(Question 1 continued)

(e) Describe the effects of temperature and nitrate concentration on biomass. [3]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(f) Suggest two abiotic factors, other than temperature and nutrient supply, that may
affect the production of biomass of the grasslands. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(g) The first study used mesocosms and the second study was carried out in
natural grassland. Discuss the use of mesocosms as opposed to a study in a
natural environment. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

Turn over
20EP07
 –2– 8821 – 6005

Section A

Answer all questions. Answers must be written within the answer boxes provided.

1. The incidence of white syndrome, an infectious disease of coral, was investigated in a six-year
study on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. The map shows disease conditions on coral reefs at six
study sites.

Key:
Number of colonies with white
syndrome per 1500 m2 of reef
>50
26–50
1–25
0
Cooktown / Lizard Island

Cairns

Townsville

Whitsunday
Islands

Swain
Queensland Reefs

Capricorn
and Bunkers
Group

[Source: adapted from Bruno, J.F., Selig, E.R., Casey, K.S., Page, C.A., Willis, B.L., Harvell, C.D., Sweatman,
H. and Melendy, A.M., 2007. PLOS Biology, [e-journal] 5(6), e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050124.]

(a) (i) Identify the site with the highest incidence of diseased colonies. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP02
 –3– 8821 – 6005

(Question 1 continued)

(ii) Deduce whether there is a trend in the incidence of white syndrome over the
north-south range of latitude. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

Satellites were used to record sea surface temperatures. The temperatures each week
above a reef were compared with mean temperatures for that week between 1985 and 2004.
If the sea surface temperature was 1 °C or more above the mean, this was recorded as a
weekly sea surface temperature anomaly (WSSTA). The number of WSSTAs was calculated
for the twelve months preceding the date on which a reef was surveyed for white syndrome.

On each reef, the number of cases of white syndrome in a 1500 m2 sample area was
surveyed once per year. The table shows these cases in relation to numbers of WSSTAs and
coral cover on the reef. Low coral cover was 0–24 % and high coral cover was 50–75 %.

Mean number of corals with white

syndrome per 1500 m2

Coral cover / %
WSSTAs per year 0–24 25–49 50–75

0 0.9 0.9 10.4

1 to 5 3.6 9.8 23.3

5 4.7 4.5 80.1

[Source: adapted from Bruno, J.F., Selig, E.R., Casey, K.S., Page, C.A., Willis, B.L., Harvell, C.D., Sweatman,
H. and Melendy, A.M., 2007. PLOS Biology, [e-journal] 5(6), e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050124.]

(b) (i) Describe the evidence that is provided by the data in the table for the harmful
effects of rising sea temperatures on corals. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over
16EP03
 –4– 8821 – 6005

(Question 1 continued)

(ii) The researchers concluded that there was a threshold coral cover percentage,
below which infection rates tended to remain fairly low. Using the data in the
table, identify this threshold level. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(iii) Suggest a reason for a larger percentage of corals being infected with white
syndrome on reefs with a higher cover of corals. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

The graphs show the relationship between the weekly sea surface temperature anomalies
(WSSTA) and coral cover during two twelve-month periods (1998–99 and 2002–03), which
were the warmest in the six-year study. Each dot represents one studied reef.

80 80

60 60
Coral cover / %

Coral cover / %

40 40

20 20

0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15
1998–1999 2002–2003
Weekly sea surface temperature anomalies (WSSTA)

[Source: adapted from Bruno, J.F., Selig, E.R., Casey, K.S., Page, C.A., Willis, B.L., Harvell, C.D., Sweatman,
H. and Melendy, A.M., 2007. PLOS Biology, [e-journal] 5(6), e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0050124.]

(This question continues on the following page)

16EP04
 –5– 8821 – 6005

(Question 1 continued)

(c) (i) Compare and contrast the data for 1998–1999 and 2002–2003. [2]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(ii) Suggest a reason for the correlation between coral cover and WSSTA in
1998–1999. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(d) Some scientists predict that, if humans continue to produce carbon dioxide at the
current rate, the pH of the oceans will become more acidic. Suggest possible effects
on the coral reefs. [3]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................
..........................................................................

(e) This study was carried out over six years on the Australian Great Barrier Reef. State
one advantage of field investigations compared with mesocosm experiments to study
ecological processes. [1]

..........................................................................
..........................................................................

Turn over
16EP05