Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or

aggradational work (deposition) of running water are called fluvial
landforms.

The fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases –

erosion, transportation and deposition.

The depositional action of a stream is influenced by stream velocity and

the volume of river load.

The decrease in stream velocity reduces the transporting power of the

streams which are forced to leave some load to settle down.

Increase in river load is effected through accelerated rate of erosion in

the source catchment areas consequent upon deforestation.

Various landforms resulting from fluvial deposition are as follows:

Alluvial Fans and Cones

When a stream leaves the mountains and comes down to the plains, its
velocity decreases due to a lower gradient.

As a result, it sheds a lot of material, which it had been carrying from

the mountains, at the foothills.

This deposited material acquires a conical shape and appears as a series

of continuous fans. These are called alluvial fans.

Natural Levees
These are narrow ridges of low height on both sides of a river, formed
due to deposition action of the stream, appearing as natural
embankments.

These act as a natural protection against floods

Delta

Deltas are fan-shaped alluvial areas, resembling an alluvial fan

This alluvial tract is, in fact, a seaward extension of the floodplain

The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread into the mouth of
the river at sea. Further, this load spreads and piles up as a low cone

Types of Deltas: There are great variations in size, shape, growth, and
importance of Deltas. A great number of factors influence the eventual
formation of deltas such as depth of the river, sedimentation, sea-bed,
character of tides, waves, and currents, etc. owing to these factors
several types of deltas can be found.

Bird s foot delta It s a kind of delta featuring long, stretching

distributary channels, which branch outwards resembling the foot of a
bird. Deltas that are less subjected to wave or tidal action culminates to
a bird s foot delta. Example the Mississippi River has a bird s foot delta
extending into the Gulf of Mexico

Arcuate delta Arcuate is the most common type of delta. This is a fan-
shaped delta. It s a curved or bowed delta with a convex margin facing
the sea. Arcuate deltas have a smooth coastline due to the action of the
waves and the way they are formed. Examples – The Nile, Ganges, and
Mekong river deltas
Cuspate delta A few rivers have tooth-like projections at their mouth,
known as the cuspate delta.Cuspate deltas are formed where the river
flows into a stable water body (sea or ocean). The sediments brought
down by the rivers collide with the waves. As a result, Sediments are
spread evenly on either side of its channel. Example Ebro river delta in
Spain

Estuarine delta some rivers have their deltas partly submerged in the
coastal waters to form an estuarine delta. This may be due to a
drowned valley because of a rise in sea level. Example Amazon river
delta

Bluff

A bluff is a small, rounded cliff that usually overlooks a body of water,

or where a body of water once stood.

Bluff is a ridge of land that extends into the air.

Floodplains

An area of low, flat land along a stream or river, formed mainly of river
sediments and is subject to flooding

Floodplain is a major landform of river deposition.

Deposition develops a floodplain just as erosion makes valleys.

Rivers in the lower course carry large quantities of sediments

CHANNEL AND SAND BARS

 An elongate accumulation of sand, lying parallel to the shore

 An elevated region of sediment that has been deposited by the

flow

erosional;

Fluvial Erosional Landforms are landforms created by the erosional

activity of rivers.

Various aspects of fluvial erosive action include:

Hydration: the force of running water wearing down rocks.

Corrosion: chemical action that leads to weathering.

Attrition: river load particles striking, colliding against each other and
breaking down in the process.

Corrasion or abrasion: solid river load striking against rocks and

wearing them down.

Downcutting (vertical erosion): the erosion of the base of a stream

(downcutting leads to valley deepening).

Lateral erosion: the erosion of the walls of a stream (leads to valley

widening).

Headward erosion: erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which

causes the origin to move back away from the direction of the stream
flow, and so causes the stream channel to lengthen.

River Valleys

The extended depression on the ground through which a stream flows

throughout its course is called a river valley.

At different stages of the erosional cycle, the valley acquires different

profiles
1) V-shaped Valley

A V-shaped valley is a narrow valley with steeply sloped sides that

appear similar to the letter "V" from a cross-section.

2) Gorge

A gorge is a deep and narrow valley with very steep to straight sides

A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well as its bottom.

Gorges are formed in hard rocks.

Example Indus Gorge in Kashmir

3) Canyon

A canyon is a variant of the gorge.

Unlike Gorge, a canyon is wider at its top than at its bottom.

A canyon is characterised by steep step-like side slopes

Canyons commonly form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks

Example Grand Canyon carved by Colorado River, USA

Waterfalls

A waterfall is simply the fall of an enormous volume of water from a

great height.

They are mostly seen in the youth stage of the river.

Potholes

The small cylindrical depressions in the rocky beds of the river valleys
are called potholes.
Plunge pools: Plunge pools are large, deep potholes commonly found
at the foot of a waterfall.

Terraces

Stepped benches along the river course in a flood plain are called
terraces.

Terraces represent the level of former valley floors and remnants of

former (older) floodplains.

Gulleys/Rills

Gulley is a water-worn channel, which is particularly common in semi-

arid areas.

It is formed when water from overland-flows down a slope, especially

following heavy rainfall, is concentrated into rills, which merge and
enlarge into a gulley.

Meanders

A meander is defined as a pronounced curve or loop in the course of a

river channel.

The outer bend of the loop in a meander is characterized by intensive

erosion and vertical cliffs and is called the cliff-slope side. This side has
a concave slope.

The inner side of the loop is characterized by deposition, a gentle

convex slope, and is called the slip-off side.

Oxbow Lake
Sometimes, because of intensive erosion action, the outer curve of a
meander gets accentuated to such an extent that the inner ends of the
loop come close enough to get disconnected from the main channel
and exist as independent water bodies called as oxbow lakes.

Peneplane (Or peneplain)

This refers to an undulating featureless plain punctuated with low-lying

residual hills of resistant rocks. It is considered to be an end product of
an erosional cycle.

2.Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

A glacier is a moving mass of ice at speeds averaging few meters a day.

Types of Glaciers: continental glaciers, ice caps, piedmont glaciers and

valley glaciers.

erosional landforms

Snout or Glacier terminus

A glacier terminus, toe, or snout, is the end of a glacier at any given

point in time.

The terminus is the usually the lowest end of glacier.

Cirque/Corrie

Hollow basin cut into a mountain ridge.

It has steep sided slope on three sides, an open end on one side and a
flat bottom.
When the ice melts, the cirque may develop into a tarn lake.

Cols

Cols form when two cirque basins on opposite sides of the mountain
erode the arête dividing them.

Cols create saddles or passes over the mountain.

Glacial Trough

Original stream-cut valley, further modified by glacial action.

It is a ‘U’ Shaped Valley. It at mature stage of valley formation.

Since glacial mass is heavy and slow moving, erosional activity is

uniform – horizontally as well as vertically.

A steep sided and flat bottomed valley results, which has a ‘U’ shaped
profile.

Hanging Valley

Formed when smaller tributaries are unable to cut as deeply as bigger

ones and remain ‘hanging’ at higher levels than the main valley as
discordant tributaries.

A valley carved out by a small tributary glacier that joins with a valley
carved out by a much larger glacier.

Arete

Arete is a narrow ridge of rock which separates two valleys.

Aretes are typically formed when two glacial cirques erode head-wards
towards one another
When two corries cut back on opposite sides of the mountain, knife
edged ridges are formed called arêtes

When three or more cirques cut back together, recession will form an
angular horn or pyramidal peak.

Steep-sided, sharp-tipped summit with the glacial activity cutting into it

from two

Horn

Horns form through head-ward erosion of the cirque walls.

If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques

meet, high, sharp pointed and steep-sided peaks called horns form.

Horns are a single pyramidal peak formed when the summit is eroded
by cirque basins on all sides.

Ridge that acquires a ‘horn’ shape when the glacial activity cuts it from
more than two sides.

Glacial Valleys

Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with wide, flat floors and
relatively smooth, and steep sides.

When the glacier disappears, and water fills the deep narrow sections
of the valley, a ribbon lake is formed.

D-Fjord

Steep-sided narrow entrance-like feature at the coast where the stream

meets the coast.

Fjords are common in Norway, Greenland and New Zealand.

deposion;

Outwash Plain

When the glacier reaches its lowest point and melts, it leaves behind a
stratified deposition material, consisting of rock debris, clay, sand,
gravel etc. This layered surface is called till plain or an outwash plain.

Boulder clay or Glacial till

This is an unsorted glacial deposit comprising a range of eroded

materials such as boulders, sticky clays & fine rock flour.

Esker

Winding ridge of un-assorted depositions of rock, gravel, clay etc.

running along a glacier in a till plain.

The eskers resemble the features of an embankment and are often

used for making roads.

Kame Terraces

Broken ridges or un-assorted depositions looking like hump in a till

plain.

Drumlin

Drumlins

Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly

of glacial till with some masses of gravel and sand.

Inverted boat-shaped deposition in a till plain caused by deposition.

Kettle Holes
Formed when the deposited material in a till plain gets depressed
locally and forms a basin.

Moraine

The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers
is called glacial till.

The long ridges of deposits of these glacial till is called as Moraines

Depending on its position, moraines are classified into be ground,

lateral, medial and terminal moraine.

Terminal Moraines - Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris

deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers.

Lateral Moraines - Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the
glacial valleys. These moraines partly or fully owe their origin to
glaciofluvial waters pushing up materials to the sides of glaciers.

There can be many lateral moraines on either side in a glacial valley.

The lateral moraines may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe
shaped ridge

Ground Moraines - Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave an

irregular sheet of till over their valley floors. Such deposits varying
greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called ground
moraines.

Medial Moraines - The moraine in the centre of the glacial valley

flanked by lateral moraines is called medial moraine. They are
imperfectly formed as compared to lateral moraines.
Sometimes medial moraines are indistinguishable from ground
moraines.

General term applied to rock fragments, gravel, sand, etc. carried by a

glacier.

Depending on its position, the moraine can be ground moraine and end
moraine.

3.Geomorphology and Hydrology

Water used by human beings is available from different sources—

streams, lakes and rivers on the surface of the earth or groundwater.
Different stratographic and lithological zones present different
conditions of surface and groundwater.

Limestone terrains vary widely and the ability to yield water depends
on the type of rock. Permeability in limestones may be primary or
secondary. Primary permeability depends upon the presence of initial
interconnecting voids in the calcerous sediments from which the rock
was formed. Secondary (or acquired) permeability occurs because of
earth movements such as faulting, folding, warping, and due to solution
or corrosion mechanism.

This secondary permeability varies notably with respect to the

topography of a region, being greatest beneath and adjacent to
topographic lows or valleys. Much of the groundwater in karst terrain is
confined to solution channels.
In early stages of karst evolution conditions are not too different from
those of other types of landscapes with similar relief. But as the cycle
advances, a large proportion of water is diverted to solutionally opened
passageways, and surface water gets diminished. The main source of
water in such regions then are karst springs. Such springs may supply
water to meet moderate demands, but the quality of water may be
affected by pollutants and bacteria.

The sources of the spring water should be determined in such a case of

pollution. The swallow holes and sinkholes feeding water to the
underground drainage systems emerging as springs may be located.
This can be done by putting some colouring material, such as
fluorescein, into the water entering nearby swallow holes (or sinkholes)
and testing the various spring waters to find out their source. A
knowledge of the structural geology of the region is of use in this
context, as groundwater moves down rather than up the regional dip.

The ease with which water may be obtained in a limestone region

depends on the geomorphology of the area. If the limestones have
enough permeability and are capped by sandstone layer, there may be
no difficulty in obtaining wells of large yields. Moreover, the water
would get naturally filtered as it passes through the sandstone beds.

If, however, the limestone is dense and compact, with little mass
permeability, movement of groundwater will be largely through
secondary openings. In such circumstances, the yield of water may be
low or, even if adequate, subject to contamination. Karst plains lack a
filtering cover and sinkholes, swallow holes or karst valleys within an
area of clastic rocks should cast doubt on the purity of the water from
springs nearby.
Groundwater potential in glaciated regions can be determined on the
basis of the geomorphic history of the area, characteristics of glacial
deposits and landform. Outwash plains, valley trains and intertill gravels
are likely to yield large volumes of water. Most tills are poor sources of
water because of the clay in them, but they contain local strata of sand
and gravel which may hold and supply enough water for domestic
needs.

Buried preglacial and interglacial valleys could be good sources of

groundwater. Their presence (or absence) may be detected by studying
the preglacial topography and geomorphic history of the area. Buried
valleys are located by constructing bedrock topography maps of
glaciated areas.

Geomorphology and Mineral Exploration

Mineral deposits are associated with geological structure. Landscape

characteristics of the specific localities could indicate such geological
structures.

Surface Expression of Ore Bodies:

Some ore bodies have obvious surface expressions as topographic

forms, as outcrops of ore, gossan, or residual minerals, or structural
features such as faults, fractures and zones of breccia. Lead-zinc lodes
could be marked by a conspicuous ridge as in the case of Broken Hill,
Australia.

Quartz veins could stand out prominently as they are much more
resistant to erosion than the unsilicified surroundings, as in Chihuahua,
Mexico. Some veins (calcite, for instance) and mineralised areas may be
indicated by depressions or subsidence features.
Weathering Residues:

Many economically important minerals are the weathering residues of

present or ancient geomorphic cycles and geomorphology can be of use
in searching for such minerals. Iron ore, clay minerals, caliche, bauxite
and some ores of manganese and nickel may be such weathering
residues. Weathering and erosion are constantly at work on the rocks
of earth’s surface, and the products of rock weathering may be of
economical value.

The surfaces on which residual weathering products commonly form

are pleneplain or near-pleneplain surfaces. Such minerals are more
commonly to be found upon remnants of Tertiary erosional surfaces
above present base levels of erosion. Bauxite, for instance, is either the
residue of a small amount of insoluble aluminous material in dolomites
and limestones or it is the direct product of the weathering of
aluminous minerals.

Placer Deposits:

Placer deposits are mixtures of heavy metals which are aggregates of

materials derived through chemical weathering or erosion of metallic
formation. Placer concentration of minerals results from definite
geomorphic processes and, found in specific topographical positions,
may have a distinctive topographic expression. The type of rock forming
the bedrock floor may influence the deposition of placers.

Residual placers or ‘seam diggings’ are residues from the weathering of

quartz stringers or veins, are usually of limited amount, and grade
down into lodes. Colluvial placers are produced by creep down slope of
residual materials and are thus transitional between residual placers
and alluvial placers.

Gold placers of this type have been found in California, Australia, New
Zealand, and elsewhere. Part of the tin placers of Malaya is colluvial
placers (the koelits) and parts are alluvial placers (the kaksas). About
one-third of the world’s platinum is obtained from alluvial placers in
Russia, Colombia, and elsewhere. Gold, tin and diamonds are among
the more important minerals obtained from alluvial placers.

Diamonds in the Vaal and Orange River districts of South Africa, the
Lichtenburg area of South Africa, the Belgian Congo, and Minas Geraes,
Brazil, are obtained from alluvial placers. About 20 per cent of the
world’s diamonds comes from placer deposits. Aeolian placers have
yielded gold in Australia and Lower California, Mexico. Bajada placers
form in the gravel mantle of a pediment and in the confluent alluvial
fans of a bajada.

They are more likely to be found near a mountain base than out on the
more gentle slopes of a basin fill. Beach placers have yielded gold in
California and Alaska, diamonds in the Namaqualand district of South
Africa, zircon in India, Brazil, and Australia, and ilmenite and monazite
in Travancore, India.

Location of placers may be aided by drilling and geophysical testing. A

magnetic survey will usually be helpful because magnetite is likely to be
associated with gold. If the bedrock is a basic type with a higher
magnetic intensity than the placer gravels, areas of magnetic “lows”
may reflect the positions of the filled channels.
“Knowledge of the bedrock geology, application of geophysical
surveying, test drilling and aerial- photograph interpretation all
contribute their parts to exploration for these buried placers, but most
fundamental to this search is a thorough understanding of the
geomorphic history of the region,” observes W.D. Thornbury.

Oil Exploration:

Many oil fields have been discovered because of their striking

topographic expression. Mineral oil is considered to have been formed
by the decay and decomposition of organic matter. After formation,
this oil gets trapped in rocks under structural traps or stratigraphic
traps. Sedimentary strata are folded into anticlines and synclines
allowing the permeable and impermeable strata to get closer, and the
mineral oil are well-preserved within the upper permeable and the
lower impermeable beds.

Generally mineral oil is found in the porous and permeable rock

structures with lower layers of impermeable rocks. Sandstone and
limestone provide ideal locations of mineral oil as they are porous and
permeable. The shale below acts as the impermeable bed. In regions of
heavy tropical forests, where topography cannot be seen through the
forest, tonal differences may indicate an anticlinal or domal structure.

More subtle evidence of geologic structures favourable to oil

accumulation is being made use of today in the search for oil. Drainage
analysis of a terrain shown on aerial photography is one such
technique. A sophisticated perception of drainage anomalies of an area
is required, and a geomorphologist would most likely possess the
requisite knowledge. Drainage analysis is particularly useful in regions
where rocks have low dips and the topographic relief is slight.
According to Leverson, many oil and gas sources are associated with
unconformities—ancient erosion surfaces; hence a petroleum geologist
must deal with buried landscapes. Where ancient erosion surfaces
shorten permeable beds and are later sealed over by deposits, the
erosion surfaces become stratigraphic traps, most of which are along
unconformities

DRAINAGE

Development of Streams - Steamflow begins when water is added to

the surface from rainfall, melting snow,and groundwater. Drainage
systems develop in such a way as to efficiently move water off the land.
Streamflow begins as moving sheetwash which is a thin surface layer of
water. The water moves down the steepest slope and starts to erode
the surface by creating small rill channels. As the rills coalesce, deepen,
and downcut into channels larger channels form. Rapid erosion
lengthens the channel upslope in a process called headward erosion.
Over time, nearby channels merge with smaller tributaries joining a
larger trunk stream. (See figure 17.3 in your text). The linked channels
become what is known as a drainage network. With continued erosion
of the channels, drainage networks change over time.

Drainage Patterns
The drainage pattern of a stream refers to the typical shape of a river
course as it completes its erosional cycle

They are governed by the topography of the land, resistance and

strength of base rocks and the gradient of the land

Dendritic drainage pattern

It is the most common form of drainage system.

The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as

dendritic In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams,
which are then joined together into the tributaries of the main river

The examples of Dendritic Pattern include the rivers of northern plain

such Indus.

Trellis drainage pattern

In the trellis drainage pattern, the primary tributaries of rivers flow
parallel to each other and they are joined by secondary tributaries at
the right angle.

The geometry of a trellis drainage system is similar to that of a common

garden trellis used to grow vines.

Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains,

Examples of trellis pattern include the drainage system of the

Appalachian Mountains in North America and Seine and its tributaries
in Paris basin (France) etc.

Parallel drainage pattern

A parallel drainage system is a pattern of rivers caused by steep slopes

with some relief.

The parallel drainage pattern is observed in a uniformly sloping region

where the tributaries seem to be running parallel to each other.

A parallel pattern sometimes indicates the presence of a major fault

that cuts across an area of steeply folded bedrock.

Examples of this system include the rivers of Lesser Himalaya

Rectangular drainage pattern

Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are of approximately

uniform resistance to erosion, but which have two directions of joining
at approximately right angles.

In the rectangular drainage pattern, the mainstream curve at right

angles and the tributaries join the mainstream at right angles.
Example Colorado river the USA

Angular drainage pattern

Angular drainage pattern is commonly observed in foothill regions.

Angular drainage patterns form where bedrock joints and faults

intersect at more acute angles than rectangular drainage patterns.
Angles are both more and less than 90 degrees

the mainstream is joined by the tributaries at acute angles.

Radial drainage pattern

When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the
drainage pattern is known as radial .

Volcanoes usually display excellent radial drainage. Other geological

features on which radial drainage commonly develops are domes and
laccoliths.

The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range present a good

example of it.

Centripetal drainage pattern

When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or
depression, the pattern is known as centripetal .

Examples - streams of Ladakh, Tibet and Loktak Lake in Manipur (India)

Annular drainage pattern

In an annular drainage pattern streams follow a roughly circular or

concentric path along a belt of weak rock, resembling in plan a ring-like
pattern.
1. GEOMORPHOLOGY OF COASTS
Every continent or island is bordered by a long or short coastline.
Coastline is the line separating theland and sea. Coastal zones are the
transition zones between terrestrial and marine habitat. They form an
interface between land and oceanic natural processes.
Coastal areas also are varied in their topography, climate and
vegetation. Some are sandy beaches, rocky shores, with or without tidal
inlets.
The climate of a coast are controlled by the land and sea breezes and
the humidity controlled by marine water.
Waves are powerful tools for constructive and destructive activities.
Hence. the geomorphology of beach,materials and processes are
always not constant due to the impact of everlasting action of tides,
waves and currents.
If we look at the division of a sea coast and a sea shore, the shoreline
represents the actual landward limit of the seawater. This is the
boundary between land and water. This limit varies with reference to
location and time.
Along the coasts we could notice a high tide zone and a low tide zones.
These are two observable waterlines upto which the tides normally
swash the coast. It happens everyday. The average water level between
the high tide and the low tide is considered as the mean sea level.
Coastal belts are divided into three divisions as
a) Backshore – represents the beach zone starting from the limit of
frequent storm wave, above high tide shoreline.
b) Foreshore – extends from high tide water to low tide water. It is the
sloping beach face in the
zone of swash and backwash.
c) Offshore – represents the zone of oceanic shallow water inside the
continental shelf.
The greatest amount of sediment transport as beach deposit occurs
within the shore and nearshore zones.Beyond the nearshore lies the
offshore region.
There are five major zones identified along the coastal belts as:
a) Zone of wind action
b) Limit of wave action
c) Zone of swash and backwash
d) Zone of breakers
e) Zone of shoaling waves.
Zone of wind action lies on the landward side and the zone of shoaling
waves exist inside the sea.The limit of wave action ends along the
regions of berms, which are sediment deposited zones well above the
zones of swash and backwash.
The following are the characteristic features of a shoreline:
a. Breaker zone : It is the area where the incoming waves become
unstable, raising to a peak and breaking down.
b. Surf zone : where the waves of translation occur after the waves
break. Long shore currents occur in this zone, which run parallel to the
coastline.
c. Swash zone: Is the place where the waves backwash the materials. It
is the place where up and down movement of beach materials take
place.
d. Berms are the flat back shore areas on beaches. This is the Sun-
bathing zone with wave deposited sediments. A berm is a bench-like
feature containing sands carried shoreward by the swash. Landward of
the berm is a belt of dunes built by wind of loose sand swept off the
berms. There are summer and winter berms, both are located within
the zone of wave action. During the summer, accumulation of sand
takes place and it forms the summer berms. The summer berm starts
from the zone of swash and backwash. Bars are created inside the
waters along the zone of wave breakers. Moving water shapes excess
quantities of detritus into sorted and layered deposits.
e. Beach Face : A beach is defined as a body of cohesionless sediment
along a coast that is subjected to the effects of breaking waves. The
beach and nearshore meet at the low tide line. Beach is the sloping
portion of the coast below the berm. This area is partly exposed by the
backwash of waves (swash zone).
A beach is characterized by its geometric profile and the sediments
comprising in it. The parameters of a beach are
1. its geographic setting and profile
2. the beach face slope
3. volume of sediments lying within the beach and
4. their environmental conditions.
Beaches are classified into high, low and moderate energy beaches
based on these characters. Normally,high energy conditions prevail
during summer months. The wave height increases after the onset of
monsoon and produce significant changes in the beach morphology.
Features of a coastline:
The other major features of a coastline are:
a) Sand dunes
b) Lagoons or tidal inlets
c) Estuaries.
Sand dunes:
Sand dunes of a beach, upto 3 mt elevation, is considered to be the
zone of wind action.
Dunes are accumulations of wind-blown sand.
Although some dunes are bare, most of the dunes near a coast are
vegetated with coastal plants. Such
plants existing in a coastal dune help to stabilize the dune.
Dunes are very dynamic geomorphic features. They are subjected to
erosion during periods of high waves and accrete during normal wave
conditions.
During a storm or a large swell, waves attack and erode the dunes.
This process, known as scarping, releases sand that was stored in the
dune into the active beach.
The influx of sand is often carried offshore to build sand bars, which
help to attenuate the incoming wave energy.
LAGOONS
Lagoons are shallow bodies of brackish or salt (sea) water partially
separated from the neighboring sea by barriers of sand or shingle.
The sea water can flow only through narrow openings left by the
barriers. They become the coastal ponds or lakes, if they are completely
detached from the sea.
ESTUARIES
Marine ecosystems also include the salt marshes and wetlands located
along the shores and river mouths.
Within the coastal zone, several unique habitats like estuaries, tidal
inlets, and foreshore ecosystems are also included.
At the mouth of every old stream and a river, there will an aquatic
condition which includes the habitat of both fresh and salt waters.
These are called as estuarine environments.
Estuaries are the coastal areas where the saline waters of the ocean
meet with the fresh water of streams and rivers. Estuarine habitats are
usually very productive because of the accumulation of nutrients from
a large catchment of a river.
Estuaries offer good fishing grounds as the water column is shallow and
approachable. These zones are the breeding habitat for a variety of
Shrimp and Prawn species, oysters and fish.
They also provide sheltered harbours for ships and their traffic.
Estuarine waters are used for cooling of water in power generation
plants. Various kinds of estuaries exist along the coasts of every
continent in the world.