Power Amplifiers

Unit V
Lecture - 1
 Contents
• Power amplifiers

• Class A

• Class B

• Class AB, Biasing Circuits

• Class C

• Class D
 Power Amplifiers
• In any of the electronic systems, output stage is to provide the amplifier with low
output resistance so that it can deliver output signal to load without loss of gain

• Practical amplifiers always consists of a number of amplifier stages, the signal will be
amplified until the sufficient power is available.

• The final stage of multistage amplifier is power amplifier - must provide maximum
power with low output resistance - it can deliver o/p signal without any loss of gain

• Fig. shows the block diagram of audio amplifier

• It raises the power level of the signal

• It is operated in Audio Frequency (20Hz to 20KHz) – it is called Audio Power Amplifier

• i.e.,

• Low output resistance, loss of signal

• Most challenging design part is output stage

• It must deliver the signal in efficient manner

• i.e., power dissipation must be as low as possible

• High power conversion efficiency is required

• So to withstand at very high power levels i.e 1W, power transistors are used

• It is like BJT transistors, but special attention must be given for the thermal properties
of Transistor

• Transistors which is suitable for power amplification is Power transistors

• It differs form other Trs. mostly in size

• It is considerably larger to provide for handling the great amount of power

Power amplifier should have these features:

• Size of power transistor is made large in order to dissipate the heat produced in
transistor during operation

• Base is made thicker to handle large currents

• Transistor with comparatively smaller β are used

• Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching

 Performance Quantities of Power Amplifiers
• Collector Efficiency or Amplifier Efficiency or Figure of Merit :
• Ratio of ac output power to the zero signal power (ie. dc power) supplied by battery of power amplifier
• Or Ratio of output AC power to input DC power

AC output power 𝑃𝑜 (𝐴𝐶)

• η = Input DC power x 100 % = x 100 %
𝑃𝑖 (𝐷𝐶)

• Distortion :
• The change of O/P wave shape from I/P wave shape of an amplifier

• Linearity between input and output signals

• It is measured in terms of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
• Definition: RMS value of harmonic component of output signal measured in
percentage
 Performance Quantities of Power Amplifiers
• Power dissipation capability :
• The ability of power transistor to dissipate heat

• Will have heat sink

• Heat Sink- Fixed metal sheet or metal cap having bigger surface area

• Additional heat will be transferred to this sheet

 Applications

• Public Addressing systems

• Radio Receivers

• Driving servo motors in industrial control systems

• TV receivers
 Classification of output stages

• Output stages are classified according to the collector current waveforms

• That results when an input signal is applied

• Position of the Q-point on load line decides the class of operation

• Class-A
• Class-B
• Class-AB
• Class-C
 Class-A Power Amplifier
• Transistor is biased such that the output current flows for full cycle of input

• Conduction angle is 3600

 Class-B Power Amplifier
• Transistor is biased such a way that transistor conduct only one half cycle of
input

• Conduction angle is 1800

 Class-AB Power Amplifier

• Intermediate class of class A & B

• Transistors is biased at non zero DC current much smaller than peak current of sine
wave signal

• Transistor conducts more than 1800 but less than 3600

 Class-C Power Amplifier

• Transistor is biased such that the output current flows less than 1800

• Conduction angle is less than 1800

• Output signal looks like pulsating current waveform

CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER
 CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER

• Depending upon how the load is connected at the amplifier Output

• Two types of Class-A power amplifier

• Series fed Class-A

• Transformer coupled class-A

 Series fed Class-A Power Amplifier

• Load R (here Rc) is connected in series with collector

• A simple series fed class –A amplifier with resistive load Rc

• Transistor used is power transistor

• For analysis purpose we assume that the static Output characteristic curve to be
equidistance for equal increments of input signal

• Input signal- sinusoidal

• Output current and voltage will be sinusoidal

• Waveforms representing class-A operation

• Under ideal condition power Output is

P= Vc Ic =Ic2 Rc

Where Vc & Ic -RMS values of Output Voltage & Output current respectively
• Graphical representation of class-A amplifier is given here

• Ic or ICQ- Quotient Load current

• For AC output Volt & output current swings

shown In Fig.

We can write

Vmin = Minimum instantaneous value of collector (o/p) voltage

Vmax = Maximum instantaneous value of collector (o/p) voltage

• VPP= Peak to peak value of ac output volt across load

• VPP= Vmax – Vmin

• Now Vm = Amplitude of ac output voltage as shown in the above Fig.

• Vm= VPP/2=Vmax-Vmin/2

• Similarly we can write for output current

• Imax= Maximum instantaneous value of collector (o/p) current

• Imin= Minimum instantaneous value of collector (o/p) current

• Im = Amplitude of ac output current as shown in the above Fig.

• Im= IPP/2= Imax-Imin/2

• Hence RMS value of ac voltage &current can be obtained as:

• Vrms= Vm/√2

• Irms= Im/√2

• Hence we can write Vrms= Irms Rc

• That is Vm= Im Rc
• Thus ac power delivered by the amplifier to the load can be expressed by using RMS
maximum value and peak to peak values of output voltage and current

• Using RMS values

Pac= Vrms Irms= I2rms Rc = V2rms / Rc

• Using Peak values

• Pac= Vrms Irms= (Vm/√2) (Im/√2) = Vm Im/ 2

= I2m Rc/ 2 = V2m/ 2 Rc

• Using peak to peak values

Pac= Vm Im/ 2

= [(Vpp/2)(Ipp/2)/2]

= Vpp Ipp/8

= I2pp Rc/8

= V2pp/ 8 Rc

In terms of Maximum & Minimum values

Pac= [(Vmax- Vmin)(Imax-Imin)]/8

 Conversion efficiency

• η = [signal power delivered to load/ DC power supplied to output circuit] x100%

= [(Vm/√2) (Im/√2) / Vcc Ic] x100%

= 50 Vm Im/ Vcc Ic ----------- (1)

• For ideal conditions we assume that characteristic curve is linear

• Equal increment in i/p results equal increment in o/p

• For such conditions Im= Ic and Vm= Vmax-Vmin/2

• Substitute these values in Equ.(1), we get,

• η = 50 (Vmax-Vmin/2) (Ic) /(Vcc Ic)

• = 50 [(Vmax-Vmin/2) (Ic) /(Vcc Ic)]

• = 25 [Vmax-Vmin/Vcc]

• In series fed class-A amplifier

• Vcc = Vmax and Vmax >> Vmin

• η = 25 (Vmax-Vmin/ Vmax)

• η = 25 %
 Harmonic distortion

• We assumed that in amplifier, Transistor is working in linear region

• If not like that, Transistor is working in nonlinear region, output signal is not
same as that of input signal, they differ

• This is called HARMONIC DISTORTION or AMPLITUDE DISTORTION

• Some new frequencies or harmonics may present

• That are not present in I/P

• So output contains 2nd , 3rd harmonics along with the fundamental frequency

• If we assume that i/p is Vi= V sinωt

• output signal can be mathematically represented by

io=Io+ I1 sinωt+ I2 sin2ωt+ I3 sin3ωt+…..

• Io – DC component,

• I1 – peak value of 1st harmonic(fundamental)

• I2 – peak value of 2nd harmonic

• Then harmonic distortion of each component is defined as

D2= I2/I1

D3= I3/I1 and so on

• When distortion occurs, output power due to fundamental component of distorted

signal

• P1= I12 Rc/ 2

• Total power

I1 2 I2 2 I3 2
PT= (I1 2+ I2 2+ I3 2+ … ) Rc/2 = Rc (𝟏 + 2 + 2 + ….)
2 I1 I1

= P1 (1+ D22+ D32+…)

• Then total distortion or total harmonic distortion is defined as

D= √ D22+ D32+D42+…

PT= (1 + D2 ) P1

• If distortion is 10% then

• PT= (1 + (0.1)2 ) P1

• PT= 1.01 P1

• This shows that given power to load is increased from 1 to 1.01 ie increased by 1%
 Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages

• Circuit is simple

• Load is directly connected to collector so output transformer is not necessary

• Less number of components are required

Disadvantages

• Load resistance is directly coupled to collector this causes considerable wastage of DC

power loss

• Power dissipation is more

• Output impedance is high

• η is very poor due to large power dissipation

 Transformer coupled class-A power amplifier

• Transformer is placed in output to deliver power to load

• Permits impedance matching and dc power loss small

• Because of small resistance of transformer primary winding

Circuit diagram
 Transformer Impedance matching

• N1(N2), V1(V2), I1(I2) – number of turns. Voltages and currents respectively in

primary (secondary) coil of transformer

• We know that V1/V2=N1/N2 & I1/I2=N2/N1

• V1= V2 ( N1/N2) & I1=(N2/N1 ) I2

• Hence V1/I1 = ( N1/N2)2 (V2/ I2)

• Let reflected load or Effective load on primary side RL’ & output load resistance
or effective output resistance “RL”

• RL’ represented- V1/I1 & RL represented- V2/I2

• Therefore RL’= (N1/N2)2 RL = n2 RL

• Where n- turns ratio = Number of turns in primary/ Number of turns in secondary

• By adjusting “n” properly it can be possible to match the source and load impedances
• DC & AC load lines are shown here

• These load lines are drawn for ideal conditions

• ie by assuming DC resistance of primary winding to be ZERO

• DC load line is vertical at VCC with infinite slope

• While the slope of AC load line is -1/RL’(reflected resistance) of primary windings

• The intersection of AC &DC load line gives Q-point of Amplifier

• Transformer is an inductive circuit element

• Due to counter EMF effect of transformer (Lenz’s law) the current ic collapses, a
voltage is induced in the primary in direction aid to supply voltage

• So Vcc becomes 2 Vcc & output signal swings from 0 to 2Vcc

• Collector efficiency η= PAC/ PDC x100

= [(Vmax- Vmin)(Imax-Imin)]/8 Vcc Ic

• Vmax=2 Vcc Vmin=0

• Imax=2 Ic Imin= 0

• η= (2 Vcc-0) (2 Ic-0)/ 8 Vcc Ic x100

= 4 Vcc Ic / 8 Vcc Ic x100

= 50%

η= 50%
 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

• η is higher than direct coupled amplifier

• Impedance matching is possible

Disadvantages

• Due to transformer circuit becomes bulkier and costlier

• Circuit implementation is complicated compared to direct coupled

• Frequency response is poor

 Class-B Amplifier

• Device is operated at cut off region

• So output current flows only for one half cycle of input signal

• ie conduction angle is 1800

• Here collector current flows only in one half cycle

• To get full cycle across load a pair of transistor is used

• Two transistors conduct in alternate half cycles of input signal

• Depending upon the types of transistors whether n-p-n or p-n-p, there are two
configurations of Class-B amplifier

1. When both transistors are n-p-n or p-n-p, then circuit is called PUSH –PULL class-
B amplifier

2. When two transistors are of complementary pair ie,

one n-p-n and other p-n-p –COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY class-B amplifier

 Transformer coupled Push Pull Amplifier

• Input transformer converts two out of phase

signals for Transistors

• Both Transistors are n-p-n type

• Signal inversion Q1 will conduct on +ve half

cycle

• Q2 will conduct on –ve part

• Output transformer combines the signals

by permitting current in both directions even
though one Transistor is always off
 Complementary symmetry class-B amplifier

• It consists of complementary pair (one n-p-n+

one p-n-p)

• Connected in such a way that both transistors

cannot conduct simultaneously
• Vi- 0v, both transistors are cut off & Vo= 0V

• If Vi goes +ve & exceeds 0.5v(cut in V), QN conducts and operates as emitter
follower

• output voltage Vo follows input Vi (Vo=Vi- VBEN)

• QN supplies load current, QP cut off

• If Vi goes -ve & more than 0.5v, QP turns ON, acts as emitter follower, again Vo
follows Vi (Vo= Vi + VEBP)

• QP supplies load current, QN cut off

• As a conclusion, Transistor in class-B are biased at zero current ie near cut off
and conduct only when i/p is present

• The circuit operates in push-pull mode

• That is QN pushes source current to load when Vi is +ve

• QP pulls(sinks) the current from load when Vi is -ve

• Transfer characteristic curve of class B
amplifier

• There exists a range of VI centered

around zero where both Transistors are
cut off & Vo is zero- DEAD BAND

• Dead band results in Cross over

distortion
 Cross over distortion

• There is a period between the crossing of the half cycles of i/p signals for which
none of the transistor is active and output is zero
• Hence the nature of output signal is not same as that of i/p signal

• Such a distorted output waveform due to cut in voltage is shown in Fig.

• This is called cross over distortion

• Due to cross over distortion each transistor conducts for less than a half cycle
rather than complete cycle

• Such distortion gives an unpleasant sound in audio power amplifier

Collector efficiency η

• I/P DC power PDC= 2Vcc Idc

• For half sine wave- Average value of I

• PDC= 2 Vcc Im/π

2- 2transistors are used

• AC output power

• Pac= Vm Im/2

= Im/2(Vcc- Vmin)
• η = PAC/PDC x100%

Im/2(Vcc− Vmin)
= x100%
2 Vcc Im/ π

Im/2(Vcc− Vmin)
= x100%
2 Vcc Im/ π

Vcc−Vmin
= π/4 x100%
Vcc

• Vcc >> Vmin & 1-Vmin/Vcc

• = π/4 x100% =78.5%

 Class AB amplifier

• Cross over distortion can be eliminated by biasing

transistors at a small non zero current

• This results class AB amplifier

• A bias voltage VBB is applied between the bases of

QN & QP giving rise to bias current IQ
• For Vi=0, Vo= 0 & a voltage of VBB/2 appears across the base-emitter junction of
each QN & QP

• Assuming both devices are matched,

iN=iP= IQ= Is e VBB/2VT

• The value of VBB is selected to yield the required Quiescent Current IQ

 Biasing the Class-AB amplifier

• There are two approaches for generating voltage VBB required for biasing Class-
AB amplifier

• Biasing using diodes

• Biasing using the VBE multiplier

 Biasing using diodes

• Biasing voltage is generated by passing a constant current

“IBias” through a pair of diodes D1 & D2

• Quiescent Current is established in QN & QP will be

IQ= n IBias

where n-ratio of emitter junction area of output devices to

the junction area of the biasing diodes
 Biasing using VBE multiplier

• It is an alternate arrangement for diodes

• Provides more flexibility in both discrete & integrated designs

• Consists of Transistor Q1 with a resistor R1 placed between base and emitter

• And a feedback resistor R2 connected between collector & base
• The resulting two terminal network is fed with constant current source “Ibias”

• If we neglect base current of Q1

• Then R1&R2 will carry same current “IR” which is given by

IR = VBE1/ R1

• Then voltage drop across bias network

VBB= IR(R1+R2)

= VBE1(R1+R2)/ R1= VBE1(1+R2/ R1)

• So the circuit will simply multiplies VBE1 by the factor (1+R2/R1)

• And it is known as “VBE” multiplier

• Multiplication factor is under designer control

• It can be changed according to the requirement of “IQ”

 Class-C amplifier

• Class-A amplifier is biased at linear active region to produce output with

minimum distortion

• Due to biasing arrangement the Transistor remains ON even for No input signal

• This results poor efficiency

• To improve efficiency, Class-C amplifier is used

• Transistor is biased such that it remains OFF for NO SIGNAL conditions

• And operates in the saturation region when an input signal is present

• When Transistor is OFF, the current through it is very small and hence
Transistor dissipates negligible power
• Similarly when the Transistor operates in saturation region the voltage across
it is very small, again power dissipation is very small

• Therefore in class-C amplifier as the Transistor dissipates less power, its

efficiency is higher than that of Class-A amplifier

• However Class-C amplifier is highly non-linear and produces distorted o/p

• This can be overcome by connecting low pass filter at the output

• LPF blocks all the high-frequency harmonics and passes only signal frequency
to the load
• When input is +ve, & above cut-in volt of Transistor, and the Transistor Operates
in saturation region

• During this period, the output volt is equal to the saturation volt

• Fig shows i/p &output waveforms of class-c

• Remains constant as long as the I/P signal is above cut-in volt

• When input voltage is less than the cut in voltage the transistor is remains off

• The output volt is fed to LPF, it suppress the high freq. harmonics presents in
collector and produces output similar to input signal
 Class-D amplifier
• It is designed to operate with digital or pulse type of signals

• It becomes necessary to convert

• I/p signal- pulse type – signal back to sinusoidal signal

• Fig shows that the conversion of
sinusoidal waveform into pulse type
signal using sawtooth or chopping
waveform

• This is obtained using OP-AMP

COMPARATOR
 Block diagram of Class-D amplifier

• Comparator, Amplifier and LPF

 Operation of Class-D amplifier

• There are 3 stages of operation: generation of pulses, modulation and filtering

• Ist stage: comparator- has two i/ps- triangular & audio sinusoidal signal

• Its output is rectangular wave with duty cycle according to amplitude of i/p
sinusoidal signal

• It generates i/p modulated pulses

• 2nd stage: modulation: consists of complementary symmetry pair of p-channel and

an n-channel device in push pull operation

• PWM output of comparator is fed to complementary stage

• p-channel and an n-channel devices turn ON and OFF alternately as PWM
signal amplitude goes high and low

• output of this stage has pulses with unwanted spectral components

• output signal with pulse freq and its harmonics

• 3rd stage : Filter: removes these unwanted spectral components

• Tr. amplifier is either ON or OFF, it provides current only when it is tuned
ON with little power loss

• A Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique is used

• I/p signal is converted into series of pulses whose averaged value is directly
proportional to the amplitude signal at that instant
• Class-D amplifier is switching amplifier, output tr. are switched ON & OFF,
modulating the i/p signal

• When Tr. is in saturation, that is ON, Tr. behaves as low value resistor

• Hence volt. drop across it is very small

• If it is OFF state, Transistor acts like a very high value resistor allowing a very
small current to flow

• In either case, power dissipation is minimum

• So it has high η
Applications of class –D

• In general application for audio power amplifier

• High powered sub-woofer amplifiers