Premier’s Collaborative

Research Program (2005-

2008)
Characterising Treated Wastewater For Drinking
Purposes Following Reverse Osmosis Treatment

Technical Report
Project Partners
Organisation Authors/Representatives

Department of Paul Van Buynder,

Health Richard Lugg,
Clemencia Rodriguez

Department of Melissa Bromly

Water

Department of Jane Filmer

Environment &
Conservation

Water Palenque Blair, Mark

Corporation Handyside, Simon
Higginson, Nick Turner

National Oana Lord

Measurement
Institute

Chem Centre Peter Taylor, Karyn

Courtney, Clare Newby

Curtin Water Anna Heitz, Kathryn

Quality Linge, Justin Blythe,
Research Francesco Busetti
Centre

University of Clemencia Rodriguez

Western
Australia

CSIRO Water Simon Toze, Simon

for a Healthy Higginson
Country
 Approved for final release:

Date: 23 November 2009

Project Director Dr Richard Lugg

Organisation Department of Health

Published by Department of Health, Western Australia

Copyright © 2009 Department of Health, Western Australia

ISBN 978-0-9807477-0-6
Executive Summary

This report details the first comprehensive research conducted in Western Australia
to determine the feasibility of augmenting drinking water supplies through
groundwater replenishment. The Premiers Collaborative Research Program project
“Characterising Treated Wastewater for Drinking Purposes Following Reverse
Osmosis Treatment” was conducted over a period of three years. Partnering the
Department of Health in the project were the Department of Water, the Department of
Environment and Conservation, the Water Corporation, the University of Western
Australia, Curtin University of Technology, the National Measurement Institute,
CSIRO and the Chemistry Centre of Western Australia.

The aims of the project were to:

• Characterise the microbial and chemical constituents of the three large

metropolitan Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs).

• Analyse the permeate to assess the performance of micro-filtration and reverse

osmosis (MF/RO) treatment at the Kwinana Water Reclamation Plant (KWRP) and
the specially constructed Beenyup Pilot Plant (BPP), to consistently produce water
meeting health and environmental requirements.

• Use the research results to develop and refine health and environmental
guidelines.

This research was conducted to determine the feasibility of using MF/RO treatment
to provide water to supplement groundwater supplies. There are now plans to
assess this proposal further in a groundwater replenishment trial (GWRT). The
objective of the GWRT is to treat the secondary wastewater from the Beenyup
WWTP using advanced treatment (MF/RO and ultraviolet disinfection) and inject up
to 5 ML/day into the confined Leederville aquifer at a depth of approximately 200
metres for a trial period of three years. The recycled water is planned to be injected
in a P3 drinking water source protection area (about 3 kms from drinking water
abstraction bores) with the water quality being such that there will be negligible risks
to the environment or human health.

Chemical characterisation

Chemicals were selected for analysis based on being:

• currently or previously available for use in Western Australia;

• of toxicological concern; and/or

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 • recorded elsewhere in wastewaters above guideline levels (Australian Drinking
Water Guidelines (ADWG), Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling (AGWR)
(Phase 2) Augmentation of Drinking Water Supplies (2008)

Almost 400 chemicals were tested during the project including pesticides, metals,
pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals, endocrine disruptors, and persistent organic
pollutants such as dioxins, furans and PCBs among others.

The chemical groups analysed include a broad range of parameters with different
chemical characteristics and toxic effects.

This research is a comprehensive chemical, physical and microbiological

characterisation of secondary wastewater and recycled water quality after MF/RO
treatment.

Key Chemical results

• The MF/RO treatment process resulted in recycled water quality of the required
health and environmental standards for augmentation of drinking water supplies.

• The majority of chemicals analysed were detected in secondary wastewater, of

which approximately 25% were also detected after MF/RO at very low concentration
levels, below health significance.

• The water quality achieved after the MF/RO treatment complies with ADWG
(2004) and with the AGWR (Phase 2): Augmentation of Drinking Water Supplies
(2008) values except occasionally for N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a
disinfection-by-product.

• NDMA was routinely detected in secondary wastewater. After MF/RO treatment

NDMA was occasionally above the AGWR (Phase 2): Augmentation of Drinking
Water Supplies (2008) guideline value of 10 ng/L. However, this guideline value is
very stringent, being a tenth of the 100 ng/L limit in the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-
Water Quality (2008) and proposed for the ADWG, which was never exceeded. The
average concentration of NDMA did not exceed 10 ng/L, that is particularly relevant
as post-treatment maximum concentrations will be smoothed by retention in
groundwater for months to years.

• A total of nine N-nitrosamines, including NDMA, were analysed. The potential

toxicological contributions from all detected N-nitrosamines were added to produce a
combined hazard quotient (HQ) (where the guideline value is 1). The calculated
average HQ value in post-RO water was 0.7 at BPP (compared to 1.5 at KWRP,
where N-nitrosamines were more commonly detected).

• The research has resulted in the development of reliable methods to

characterise recycled water quality following secondary and MF/RO treatment.
Research outcomes led to the identification of chemical indicators for the validation
and verification monitoring of the GWRT.

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 • This research provides confidence to proceed with the GWRT. The research
indicates a high degree of safety associated with undertaking the proposed
Groundwater Replenishment Trial for a period of three years.

Microbial characterisation and virus challenge test

The microbiological quality of the secondary wastewater was characterised at

Beenyup WWTP and Subiaco WWTP. In secondary wastewater thermotolerant
coliforms and enterococci were always detectable. Coliphages, often used as
indicators of viral contamination, were detected in 95% of the Subiaco and 100% of
the Beenyup samples. Adenovirus were detected in 68% of the Subiaco and in all of
the Beenyup wastewater samples. No microbial parameters were detected after
MF/RO treatment.

Two challenge tests were undertaken at BPP using the coliphage MS2 as an
indicator of enteric viruses to assess the capacity of the RO membranes to exclude
such viruses. The results showed that the RO membranes alone were able to
achieve at least a 4 log removal (i.e. 99.99% removal) of virus.

Recommendations of the Department of Water and the Department of

Environment and Conservation

The Department of Water and the Department of Environment and Conservation

support the GWRT as a means of obtaining site-specific information on transport and
attenuation of contaminants which will be used to conduct a detailed environmental
risk assessment for a future full scale groundwater replenishment scheme. The trial
will also help to identify possible policy and regulatory areas requiring further
development.

The Department of Water and the Department of Environment and Conservation

recommend the monitoring of water quality using integrated whole of effluent toxicity
(WET) tests. The Department of Water and Water Corporation, with other partners,
are currently conducting a project to provide more specific recommendations
regarding use of WET testing for environmental risk assessment of groundwater
replenishment in WA.

Recommendations of the Department of Health

The DoH considers the results of this research provide the necessary confidence to
proceed to the GWRT over a three year trial period. It is of the view that the GWRT
will build on these results so as to:

• Assist in obtaining additional data on N-nitrosamines

• Validate the selected chemical and microbial indicators.

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 • Highlight policy and regulatory areas requiring further development with a view
to enabling a large groundwater replenishment scheme to proceed in the future.

Therefore, the GWRT will be closely monitored to see whether it provides

confirmation of the conclusions of this initial research, and in particular to observe the
behaviour of NDMA and other disinfection byproducts during the advanced treatment
and in the aquifer.

The Department of Health supports the implementation of the three year GWRT
proposed by the Water Corporation, subject to:

• documentation and implementation to the satisfaction of the Department of Health

of a comprehensive risk management framework, as used in drinking water
management, to ensure that only water meeting strict specifications is able to
enter the aquifer; and

• validation and verification monitoring of the advanced water treatment plant to the
satisfaction of the Department of Health, using chemical and microbial indicators
based on this research.