Gene expression

1.02 Proteins express DNA

Growth and development depend on the activity of different genes during different
phases of an organism´s life
Gene makes transcription and/or translation. Genes block gene off for no proteins
production. Genes allowed gene on for proteins production.

Genes are expressed when DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into proteins
Gene expression is a general term that refers to the processes that makes proteins. Those
processes are transcription or RNA from a DNA molecule, and then translation of that RNA
into a protein.
DNA is inside the nucleus of the cell; it contains genes that code for very specific proteins.
If a cell needs to make a particular protein, the gene must first be transcribed to create
messenger RNA (mRNA). Then mRNA is translated into an amino acid chain that will
become a protein. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes.

When activated, genes make proteins. When repressed, genes don´t make proteins
The segment of DNA that codes for a protein is called a gene. Scientists say a gene is on or
off. To say a gene is on means that it is being expressed. When a gene is being expressed,
the protein it codes for is actually being made by the cell. When a gene is off, the protein
is not being made and the gene is not being expressed.
Organisms develop, differentiate, and grow by regulating their gene activity. Cells turn
genes on so that they make proteins, or they turn genes off by repressing transcription
and translation. Some proteins are made all the time, while other are made only in
response to the body´s needs.

All of an organism´s cells contain identical DNA molecules and identical genes. However,
different genes are active in different cells
All of an organism´s cells came from a single zygote that began to divide and grow. All
body cells also contain the exact same genes. Cells differentiate and specialize by
controlling which genes are turned on. Some genes are active in skin cells and inactive in
muscle cells. At any given time, only a portion of any cell´s genes are active and producing
proteins. The other genes are turned off.
Cells differentiate when different genes are expressed
Different types of cells often have unique appearances and functions. If you look deeper
into cells, to the level of the protein, you would see different sets of proteins in different
cells. Gene expression means that an mRNA transcript is made from the gene´s DNA
sequence. Then, the mRNA transcript is translated into a protein.
The activation of specific genes is the most important step in cell differentiation. As an
organism grows and develops, different genes are either turned on or off in various cells.
That regulation is a key part of cell development. Cells differentiate because different
genes turn on and turn off. Genes do not disappear, and they aren´t removed from cells
during differentiation. They are just expressed differently.

Different genes are also active during different stages of development

Development depends on the expression of different genes at different times and in
different parts of an organism.
When a human embryo is developing, it produces a unique form of hemoglobin called
fetal hemoglobin. Fetal hemoglobin attracts oxygen more strongly than adult hemoglobin,
and that stronger attraction helps the growing fetus take in the oxygen provided from its
mother´s bloodstream.
While the embryo is growing, cells in its liver transcribe genes that produce the proteins
making up fetal hemoglobin. Just before birth, several changes take place. The liver stops
transcribing those genes, and bone marrow being transcribing a different set of genes to
produce adult hemoglobin.

Gene expression is controlled by transcription factor which are proteins

Genes make proteins, and proteins do much of the work of the cell. Controlled gene
expression allows for cell specialization and an organism´s growth and development.
Proteins called transcription factors has the ability to turn genes on and off. These protein
either can allow transcription to proceed or can block it.

Gene expression is the result of both transcription (creating mRNA from DNA) and
translation (creating proteins from that mRNA)
The proteins that are created perform most of the work of a cell. All of an organism´s body
cells have the same chromosomes and genes, but different genes are active in different
cells. In an organism, the different between cells are caused by different patterns of gene
activity.
Only some genes in a cell are active at a given time. Cells do not turn on, or activate, all of
their genes at the same time. Gene expression at various times lead to differentiation,
growth, and development.
Transcription factors regulate gene expression, by either allowing or blocking
transcription.

1.03 How Proteins Work

Proteins control many of the actions and form most of the structures of living things
Proteins perform many functions for living organisms. Many of the functions are
structures, enzymes, antibodies, and storage.

Proteins are molecules made from the instruction in DNA that do the work of the cell
DNA contains the instructions for building molecules called proteins. The sequence of
nitrogenous bases in DNA determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein. That
sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of that protein.
Proteins repair cell structures, help move other molecules into and out of cells, and as
enzymes, catalyze many important chemical reactions. Proteins also carry oxygen
throughout the body, cause muscles to contract, and help the body respond to changes in
the environment. They provide structure and support to cells.

Proteins play many roles in the body

Proteins are complex molecules with intricate 3-D structures. The shape and structure of a
protein molecule influences its activity by determining how that protein will chemically
and physically interact with other molecules.

Some proteins that carry out functions essential to life are common to all organisms
Scientists have discovered cytochrome p450 enzymes in every group of organisms on
earth, from bacteria to protozoa, plants to fungi, to all mammals. Its appearance in such a
diverse number of organisms indicates that it carries out many important life processes.
Genetic variation among people leads to differences in the proteins they produce
Genes may exist in variant forms called alleles. The human genome -or complete set of
gene- is made up of about 25000 genes. Variations in those genes account for not only
differences in people´s appearance, but also in characteristics such as susceptibility to
disease. A change in your DNA, and ultimately the proteins made by cells, can have a
significant impact on human life.

A protein´s shape affects its function

The amino acid chains that make up proteins fold and twist around themselves to make
the 3-D structures required for activity. Sometime, the shape that proteins take on are so
complicated that their assembly requires the assistance of other proteins called
chaperones. The quaternary structure of a protein involves several proteins working
together to perform a specific function.

Proteins play many roles in nerve cells

Signal transmission and muscular motion are two processes that rely on proteins. Nerve
signals come in the form of electrical impulses that travel along the length of a nerve cell
membrane. That electrical impulse is produced when various ions enter into or rush out of
the cell membrane through proteins called ion channel membrane proteins.
Without the proper proteins, your nervous system could not function, your muscles could
not contract, and in effect, life could not exist.

Proteins make up important structures

Proteins are not only involved in important cell processes, but they also provide structural
support to many of your cells and their products.

Proteins help keep you healthy

 The protein hemoglobin carries oxygen to all your body´s cells

 Antibody protein protect you from foreign invaders such as viruses
 Enzymes help you digest food
 Proteins help make sure cell division work properly
 Proteins even regulate the production of other proteins
Proteins play many important roles in the body
Proteins perform much of the work of the cell, from providing support and strength, to
assisting in communication, to responding to the environment. Proteins keep you healthy
by digesting food, carrying oxygen to cells, breaking down medications and other
chemicals, and, as antibodies, recognizing and destroying potentially harmful organisms
such as bacteria.

1.04 Gene Expression 1

Cells regulate gene expression as a way of responding to their needs
Lactose is present lac operon thar is active in enzymes made. Lactose is absent in lac
operon that is blocked in enzymes not made.

The enzyme lactase is not produces in the small intestine of a person who is lactose
intolerant
The enzyme lactase, which is produced by cells in the small intestine, breaks down lactose
in the diet. In a person who has lactose intolerance, E. coli gets the chance to create the
enzymes to break down lactose. When E. coli breaks down lactose, it also produced gas,
causing bloating and abdominal discomfort.

Environmental cues can affect gene expression and protein synthesis

E. coli produces three different enzymes in the presence of lactose, and these enzymes
break down that sugar into smaller units. The genetic system in E. coli that controls the
actual making of those enzymes is called the lac operon. The system uses cues from the
environment to control if and when to make the necessary enzymes to break down
lactose.
Lac operon: that segment of DNA in some bacteria that contains the genes, operator, and
promoter that directs the formation of the enzymes that break down lactose.

The lac operon regulates gene expression based on the cell´s environment
There are three genes responsible for making the enzymes
needed to break down lactose. They are located next to
each other along a segment of the bacteria´s DNA. The two regions of the DNA just before
the genes are called the operator and the promoter.
When there is no lactose present in the bacteria´s environment, E. coli makes a protein
called a repressor. The repressor binds to the operator. When the operator is blocked, the
gens for lactose-digesting enzymes cannot be read -genes are turned off. Step through the
process to review how E. coli can turn off gene transcription.

Gene expression is controlled by regulating transcription

When lactose is present, the repressor protein cannot
function. Lactose actually binds to the repressor and causes
that protein to change its shape.
With the repressor out of its way, RNA polymerase (which
builds mRNA strands in transcription) can now move along
the DNA and being transcribing the 3 genes located on the
bacterium´s DNA. With lactose present, the genes are turned on, and the enzymes to
digest lactose are produced.
Basically, the absence or presence of the lactose molecule controls the repressor. E. coli
makes sure that those proteins are always available to make the system work.

Gene expression can be controlled at several points along the pathways from DNA to
RNA to proteins
The lac operon system is one example of how cells turn their genes on and off. It is one of
many possibilities for controlling gene expression. Each point along the pathway from DNA
to RNA to proteins is a potential point for controlling gene expression. Gene expression
can occur anywhere on that pathway. Sometimes gene are controlled by interfering with
the final structure of the protein.

The lac operon is a model for the regulation of gene expression in a prokaryote
Gene expression is the combination of transcription of mRNA from DNA and the
translation of that mRNA into proteins. The process of gene expression can be regulated
at several points along the pathway from DNA to RNA to proteins.
The lac operon system is an example of regulation at the level of transcription. Depending
on the cell´s environment, transcription is either stopped or started. The system self-
regulates, so that the cell only produced the enzymes required to digest lactose when
they are needed. Self-regulation saves energy for the cell, and it provides a clear example
of how the cell can regulate gene expression according to its needs.

1.05 Gene Expression 2

Gene expression can be regulated at any protein along the pathway of DNA to RNA to
proteins -even after a protein is made
Gene expression is controlled at transcription, translation and final protein, which is
structure and function.

Gene expression allows multicell organisms to differentiate, develop, and grow

Gene expression causes cells to differentiate during an organism´s growth and
development. Cell differentiation is the change in cells as genes are turned on or off.
Without cell differentiation, cell division would only create identical cells. Cells can
regulate gene expression at any point along the pathway from DNA to RNA to proteins.

The eukaryotic genome varies in several ways from the prokaryotic genome
Prokaryote such as bacteria contain less DNA and fewer genes than eukaryotes. In
bacterial DNA, important features such as the operator region are located very close to
the genes they regulate. In addition, genes that produce proteins that work together are
usually located next to each other on the bacterial chromosome.
The eukaryotic genome is not simple. Genes that work together may be very far apart,
transcription may require several helper proteins working together, and genes often
contain large sections of DNA thar are not used for transcribed.

Regulation of gene expression can occur at many points along the pathway from DNA to
RNA to proteins
In eukaryotes, transcription happens inside the nucleus and translation happens outside
the nucleus in the cytoplasm. This physical separation allows for different approaches to
gene regulation.
Gene expression mechanisms can influence transcription, when the mRNA transcript is
made from DNA in the nucleus. They also may affect the RNA molecule after it leaves the
nucleus and enter the cytoplasm. In addition, gene expression mechanisms may affect the
translation of the mRNA into protein.
Gene expression can be regulated at the very beginning, by altering the process of
transcription
Transcription in eukaryotes is more complex than it is in prokaryotes. Proteins that assists
in transcription are called transcription factors. Transcription factors control how DNA is
transcribed into mRNA, making them essential in gene expression. Without the
transcription factors, RNA polymerase can´t begin transcription of the genes.
Transcription factors are proteins that control gene expression. Without an attached
transcription factor, the gene is turned off. In this case, the gene (DNA) cannot be read.
The transcription factor attached to a special piece of DNA called an enhancer. A series of
changes can now beings. Once the transcription factors is attached, the necessary changes
take place to turn on the gene. Everything falls into place to allow transcription to being.
The attached transcription factor allows RNA polymerase to create a segment of mRNA,
with the transcription factor attached, the gene is tuned on.

Gene expression can be regulated even after the gene has been transcribed
Before mRNA leaves the nucleus, it may undergo additional processing inside the nucleus.
Introns are segments of DNA that do not code for any part of the protein. They are
transcribed into mRNA, but are removed before mRNA leaves the nucleus to enter the
process of translation. Exon are the region of mRNA that are translates into proteins.
In a process called splicing, introns are clipped out by special proteins and exons are
connected to another, making a continuous strand of mRNA. The finished mRNA can then
be successfully translated into a protein at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Proteins can be altered after they have been translated in the process of posttranslation
regulation
Once a protein is made, it can still fall under the influence of many factors in the cell. In
fact, most proteins are not fully functional until they undergo additional processing after
translation. A protein may have additional molecular units added to it. It may undergo
structural changes in shape. The important thing to remember is that proteins are not
completely finished right after translation. This forms of gene expression, called
posttranslation regulation, happens after translation and is yet another way to control
gene expression.

If gene expression does not work correctly, serious complications such as cancer may
arise
At its most fundamental level, cancer is really a conditional brought on by gene expression
gone awry. Often, cancer involves changes in the activity of more than on gene.
Understanding and controlling the expression of these genes may help scientists develop
new cancer treatments.

Growth, development, and differentiation are all caused by regulating gene expression.
Some diseases occur when gene expression does not work correctly
Gene expression -the production of proteins active in the body from the instructions
encoded in DNA- is responsible for all the processes that keep your body running. Your
cells regulate gene expression in many different ways along the pathway from DNA to RNA
to proteins. When gene expression does not occur correctly, serious problems and
diseases such as cancer may develop.

1.06 Biotechnology
Biotechnology is useful in medicine, environmental cleanup, and food production
A gene of interest is inserted into a host organism´s DNA and becomes recombinant DNA
useful in medicine, environmental cleanup, and agriculture.

Biotechnology is the use of living organisms to produce materials with potential uses in
health, agriculture, foo production, and many other fields
Biotechnology is an area of science, medicine, and engineering that involves using living
organisms to produce needed materials. Biotechnology relies on discoveries from
numerous scientific disciplines: biology, chemistry, genetics, molecular biology, physics,
and engineering, among other.

People have used biotechnology for centuries

Your ancestors did not know about genes, DNA, or proteins, but they did understand how
to use living organisms to produce materials that were helpful to them in some way.

Today, many applications of biotechnology involve combining DNA from different

organisms
Recombinant DNA is a type of DNA molecule that is created in a laboratory and
incorporates the DNA of two or more organisms. Most often, recombinant DNA
technology involves inserting a gene into bacterial cells, and then having those cells
produce the protein coded for by the gene.

Scientists frequently use bacteria to make recombinant DNA and to produce proteins
To produce recombinant DNA in bacteria, scientists first identify a human gene that
produces a protein they would like to use, perhaps as a medicine. Then, they insert this
human gene into the bacterial DNA.
Often, scientists insert the gene into a small, circular piece of bacterial DNA called a
plasmid. A plasmid is independent of the main bacterial chromosome, but still replicated
each time the cell divides. As the cells replicate, scientists can produce huge populations
of bacteria, all of which carry the gene of interest.

Scientists have harnessed the power of bacteria to produce the insulin used by people
with diabetes
Scientists at a biotechnology company isolate the human gene that produces insulin. After
isolating the gene, they inserted it into a bacteria plasmid and allowed it to replicate,
producing a huge population of bacteria that all contained the gene for human insulin. As
the bacteria transcribed the gene in their genome, they also transcribed the gene for
human insulin, producing large quantities of this protein.
Biotechnology is used to make many different drugs that help jeep people healthy
Vaccines, cancer therapies, asthma treatments, and many other medicines are produced
with the help of other organisms and the manipulation of DNA. In the near future, many
vaccines and medicines may be delivered in you in the food you eat and drink.

New pieces of DNA can alter an organism´s protein production

Recombinant DNA technology works because DNA is the universal code recognized by all
living organisms. RNA polymerase in one organism will generally transcribe any gene that
´s inserted in the right location in another organism´s genome. Biotechnology often force
people to carefully consider the long-term effects of their actions.

DNA fingerprints is used in fields as diverse as genetic testing and crime scene
investigation
Each individual has a unique DNA fingerprints. Crime scene investigator can match DNA
evidence to a specific DNA fingerprint.

Biotechnology has been used for centuries, and modern science has greatly expanded
this technology
Since its development, recombinant DNA research had leaf scientists to new ways to
produce medicines and fuels, and to improve crop production. Using large populations of
bacteria to produce the insulin needed by millions of people with diabetes. Biotechnology
had changed the way we live our lives.

1.07 Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a process that involves identifying a gene in one organism and
transferring it to another organism, usually to give the second organism characteristics it
did not originally have
Genetic engineering creates recombinant DNA, new genes, proteins, and traits.

Genomics is the study of the whole genome, or the entire set of DNA in an organism
A genome is the full set of DNA in an organism´s cell. Scientists have started to determine
the complete sequence of DNA in several types of organisms, including humans. The field
of research that has grown around the study of the whole genome is called genomics.
Knowing the sequence of an organism´s genome is a first step in identifying the genes in
that organism and figuring out what happens when those genes are turned on or off.

In 2003, scientists completed a full sequence of the human genome

Francis Collins, director of the Human Genome Project, oversees a team of researchers
mapping all genes in humans. There are approximately 25,000 genes in the human
genome.

Scientists have sequenced the genomes of many other organisms

Scientists also have sequenced the genomes of several other model organisms.
Understanding the genomes of other organisms will help scientists explore questions
about relationship between organisms, compare gene regulation mechanisms, and
identify genes that control various functions. Since 1995, scientists have sequenced the
genomes of more than 180 organisms.

Scientist study genomes to identify genes that encode for helpful traits
David Salt, a scientist at Purdue University, studies plants that have unique abilities to take
up metals into their tissues. The plants Salt studies have the ability to take up metals and
thrive. He identified the gene that helps certain plants to tolerate the metal selenium. The
plant is a great choice for research because its entire genome has been sequenced.

Biotechnology may help research produce clean, renewable fuels

Ethanol can be processed from corn and other grains by using enzymes to break down the
grain and the sugar it contains, and then adding yeast to the mixture. The microorganism
yeast feeds on those sugars, producing ethanol in the process.

Genetic engineering may help produce fuel from crop plants and plant waste
While some scientists are engineering strains of corn that can easily be converted into
ethanol, other are focusing on ways to turn the whole plant into ethanol. This process is
accomplished by breaking down the molecule cellulose and releasing the sugar that can
be fermented into ethanol. By identifying the genes that help these organisms break down
cellulose, scientists hope to one day genetically engineer bacteria that could create
ethanol from huge quantities of leftover plant material.

Despite its potential benefits, many people have concerns about genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is a field with no clear definitions of what’s wrong. For this reason,
scientists and policy makers work together to find a balance between the benefits and
concerns.

Genetic engineering is the process of manipulating the DNA of organisms to further

advance biotechnology
Genetic engineering uses recombinant DNA technology to introduce a gene from one
organism into the DNA of a second organism. The protein coded for by the gene is then
made by the second organism.
Genetic engineering is a field with much promise in agriculture, medicine, and energy,
despite these benefits, some people are concerned about the potential implications of
genetic engineering on human health and the environment.