Website: www.MicroSave.net Website: www.meda.

org

Basic Financial and Accounting Systems

for MFIs
March 2008

Mennonite Economic Development Associates

Ruth Dueck Mbeba

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Acknowledgements

MEDA acknowledges the contribution and input of Nandan S. Bisht, Abhishek Choudhury,
Ruth Dueck Mbeba, Ruth Hoffman, V. Nagarajan, L.B. Prakash, and Vishrant Shukla in writing
and development of the overall toolkit. Much of the content and application is based on Indian
and international microfinance accounting practices.

Many thanks to the helpful input and support from MEDA staff in making this effort possible,
especially to Trudy Rejeski.

A learning toolkit is never “final” as new techniques, tools and resources become available and
are shared with one another. Both accounting standards and regulatory frameworks for
microfinance are continually developing, and it is important to keep up to date with changes.
Participant feedback and comments will assist to continually improve this toolkit and its
resources.

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Basic Financial and Accounting Systems for MFIs page i

Table of Contents

1. Introduction..........................................................................................................1
What do Users Need and Why?..............................................................................2
Microfinance Institutions and their Clients ..........................................................5
What is Accounting?................................................................................................6
Accounting Conventions or Guidelines .............................................................................. 6
2. Overview of Microfinance Accounting Systems .......................................11
Micro-Finance Accounting and Management Information Systems ................................ 11
Cost Accounting for Multi-Service MFIs ......................................................................... 15
The Chart of Accounts ...................................................................................................... 16
The MIS Structure for Loans and Savings........................................................................ 19
MFI Accounting Policies .................................................................................................. 20
3. Accounting Documents................................................................................22
Source Documents ............................................................................................................ 22
Accounting Transaction Voucher ..................................................................................... 22
Cash and Bank Journals (Cash Book or a Journal cum ledger)........................................ 23
General Journal ................................................................................................................. 24
General Ledger.................................................................................................................. 24
Subsidiary Ledgers............................................................................................................ 25
Fixed Assets Ledger.......................................................................................................... 26
The Audit Trail ................................................................................................................. 26
4. The Accounting Cycle .................................................................................28
Transactions ...................................................................................................................... 28
Classifying Transactions................................................................................................... 28
Journaling.......................................................................................................................... 29
Posting to the General Ledger........................................................................................... 29
Trial Balance..................................................................................................................... 29
Reconciliations.................................................................................................................. 30
Accounting Adjustments................................................................................................... 31
Draft Financial Statements and Closing ........................................................................... 31
Why is Loan and Savings Information so Important? ...................................................... 31
Transaction Occurs – Client Receipt or Payment ............................................................. 32

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Issue Receipts or Verify Receipts of Payments ................................................................ 32

Record and Summarise Receipts for General Ledger....................................................... 33
Update Client Records with Individual Transactions ....................................................... 33
Draft MIS Reports............................................................................................................. 33
Reconcile MIS and General Ledger.................................................................................. 33
Issue Summarised MIS Reports........................................................................................ 33
5. Internal Control Procedures.......................................................................35
Control Environment ........................................................................................................ 36
Policies and Procedures .................................................................................................... 36
Qualified, Trained and Motivated Staff ............................................................................ 36
External and Internal Audits ............................................................................................. 36
General Control Procedures.............................................................................................. 37
Specific Control Procedures ............................................................................................. 38
Segregation of Duties........................................................................................................ 38
Accounting for Cash ......................................................................................................... 39
6. Accounting Procedures for Microfinance .................................................42
Cash vs. Accrual Accounting............................................................................................ 42
Accounting for Client Transactions .................................................................................. 43
Accounting for Accrued Loan Interest Revenue .............................................................. 44
Accounting for Impairment Loss Allowance and Provision for Impairment Losses ....... 45
Accounting for Loan Write-Offs and Write-Off Recoveries............................................ 47
Accounting for Deferred Expense on Group Formation................................................... 48
Accounting for Software Development and Amortisation ............................................... 49
Accounting for the Purchase and Depreciation of Fixed Assets....................................... 49
Accounting for the Sale or Disposal of Fixed Assets ....................................................... 50
Accounting for Grants and Donations .............................................................................. 50
Accounting for Fixed Asset Donations............................................................................. 51
Accounting for Donations of Loan Capital....................................................................... 52
Accounting for In-Kind Subsidies and Grants.................................................................. 53
Accounting for Financial Costs ........................................................................................ 54
Translation of Foreign Currency....................................................................................... 54
Accounting for Bank Partnerships .................................................................................... 55
Accounting for Applications in Technology Services ...................................................... 55
Accounting for Agency Relationships .............................................................................. 56

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7. Financial Statements and Reports .............................................................57

The Financial Statements.................................................................................................. 58
Cash Flow Statements....................................................................................................... 61
The Portfolio and Operational Reports ............................................................................. 63
Disclosure of Financial Information: ................................................................................ 64
Consolidating Financial Statements of Branches ............................................................. 66
Closing Entries.................................................................................................................. 66
Other External Reports ..................................................................................................... 67
Emerging Trends............................................................................................................... 67
Where to Go From Here ................................................................................................... 69
Resource Bibliography...................................................................................................... 71

Figures:

Figure 1.1: Accounting Debits and Credits............................................................................................. 9

Figure 2.1: Microfinance Financial Management Information System – Accounting System and Client
Portfolio System (MIS)......................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.2: Sample Chart of Account Structure.................................................................................... 16
Figure 2.3: Sample Chart of Account Descriptions and Explanations.................................................. 17
Figure 3.1: General Journal Sample (adjustments) ............................................................................... 24
Figure 4.1: Accounting Cycle ............................................................................................................... 28
Figure 4.2: Sample Trial Balance ......................................................................................................... 30
Figure 4.3: Accounting Cycle for Client Transactions in the MIS ....................................................... 32
Figure 6.1: Illustration of Accounting for the Impairment Loss Allowance and Provisions ................ 47
Figure 6.2: Illustration of Accounting for Loan Write-offs and Write-off Recoveries......................... 48
Figure 6.3: Illustration of Deferred Expense on Group Formation....................................................... 49
Figure 6.4: Illustration of Accounting for Software Development and Amortization .......................... 49
Figure 6.5: Illustration of Accounting for Grants and Donations ......................................................... 51
Figure 6.6: Illustration for Donations and Grants for Fixed Assets ...................................................... 52
Figure 6.7: Illustration of Donations for Loan Capital ......................................................................... 53
Figure 6.8: Illustration of Donations of In-kind Subsidies and Grants ................................................. 54
Figure 7.1 Understanding Relationships between Financial Statements .............................................. 62

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List of Handouts:

Section 1: Introduction
1.1 Workshop Schedule
1.2 Financial Statement Terms and Definitions – SEEP Framework
1.3 List of International Financial Reporting Standards
1.4 List of International Accounting Standards

Section 2: Overview of Accounting Systems

2.1 Sample Chart of Accounts

Section 3: Accounting Documents

3.1 Sample Accounting Documents for MFIs
3.2 Sample Client Forms for MFIs
3.3 Sample Document Register

Section 4: The Accounting Cycle

4.1 Sample Accounting Cycle
4.2 Sample Reconciliation Schedule
4.3 Reconciliation Tips
4.4 Sample Bank Reconciliation
4.5 Sample Portfolio Reports
4.6 Sample MIS Report Schedule

Section 5: Internal Control Procedures

5.1 Sample Accounting Policies
5.2 Sample Monthly Accounting Checklist
5.3 Sample Manager’s Accounting Report Checklist
5.4 Sample Management Checklists
5.5 Sample Cash Count and Verification
5.6 Sample Vault Register

Section 6: Accounting Procedures for Microfinance

Section 7: Financial Statements and Reports

7.1 Sample Financial Statements
7.2 Sample Audited MFI Statements
7.3 Sample Portfolio and Non-Financial Data Reports
7.4 Sample Consolidated Financial Statements
7.5 Course Evaluation

List of Exercises

Section 1: Introduction
1.1 Balance Sheet Classification
1.2 Sample Transactions – Balance Sheet

Section 2: Overview of Accounting Systems

2.1 Chart of Accounts – Head Office and Branch

Section 3: Accounting Documents

3.1 Accounting Documents Design

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Section 4: The Accounting Cycle

4.1 Preparation of Accounting Adjustments
4.2 Analysing a Trial Balance

Section 5: Internal Control Procedures

5.1 Sample Accounting Transactions
5.2 Segregation of Duties – Distance Management
5.3 Segregation of Duties – Loan Officers Handling Cash
5.4 Segregation of Duties -- Branch Personnel Problem

Section 6: Accounting Procedures for Microfinance

6.1 Accounting for Impairment Loss Allowance, Provisions and Write-Offs
6.2 Accounting for Deferred Revenue

Section 7: Financial Statements and Reports

7.1 Financial Statement Preparation
7.1 Financial Statement Preparation - Condensed
7.2 Loan Portfolio Quality Reports
7.3 Where Users Get their Information!
7.4 Case Study – If I Had a Million Dollars
7.5 MFI Accounting Action Plan

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1. Introduction
“My accounting department prepares all financial statements and submits them to the investors
and donors. I don’t get very involved in accounting.”

“We produce financial statements when requested by donors or statutory bodies –

usually on a quarterly basis. I find it unnecessary to do it more often.”

“We have an external audit simply to satisfy regulatory requirements.”

Do these comments sound familiar? Most m icrofinance practitioners would agree that an MFI ’s
accounting system is a key co mponent of control a nd reporting in t he institution. However, many are
not fam iliar with accounting and accounting terms, let alone appreciating or understanding the
financial sta tements pro duced by the accounti ng sy stem. Using the financial stat ements as
management tools – the balance sheet, the in come and expense st atement and the cash flo w
statements – is often a challenge.

However, the financial reports produ ced by accoun ting s ystems ar e first and fore most i mportant
management and monitoring tools. They form the foundation for relevant measurement, reporting and
performance analysis.

This toolkit is designed to provide MF Is of a ll types, legal structures and methodologies t he core
components of accounting s ystems needed to record , classify and summarise financial transactions
and to produce meaningful, tim ely and accurate fi nancial state ments and r eports. Key practica l
procedures and aspects of accounting for microfinance institutions are highlighted.

However, the toolkit is not intended to replace th e extensive accounting training offered by colleges
and uni versities that is necessary to produce certified accountants. Those courses include a strong
theoretical foundation of accounting pra ctice, and a b road range of specific applications. This toolkit
covers key t heoretical concepts but e mphasises pr actical procedures, skills, and tools needed to
manage accounting for microfinance. The materials draw heavily on basic acco unting principles, and
on other resources produced for the microfinance industry internationally. Resources and publications
are cited in the bibliography at the end of this toolkit.

Your MFI’s accounting structure and system is one of the key cornerstones of good information
systems in microfinance institutions. A good accounting system produces accurate, relevant and
timely reports that enable:
 meaningful analysis and monitoring of operations,
 are fully auditable and stand the test of external audits, and
 meet the requirements of external reporting needs.

It is also important that your MFI employs qualified and trained staff to develop a strong accounting
system, policies and procedures and carry out accounting responsibilities. Bookkeepers, accounting
clerks or data entry staff record financial transactio ns and activ ities, and m ust know how to do that
correctly. Accountants verify , reconcile and produce fi nancial statements supported b y
accompanying schedules, and must know how to do that well. Finance managers and CEOs of MFIs
must be able to understand financial inform ation, analy se performance, an d make the necessary
decisions to improve and strengthen the institution.

Finally, information and r eports produced by the accounting system must meet the needs of external
users and stakeholders, in cluding statut ory regulator s (e.g. the C ompanies A ct and Registr ar or the

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Societies A ct), Central B anks, the Income T ax Dep artment, inve stors, and las t but not least y our
Board members.

Accounting practice and reporting standards vary from country to country. It is reco mmended
that MFIs take local standards and issues into consideration when developi ng their own accounting
policies and procedures. Microfinance instituti ons should consult with national accounting bodies
and microfinance networks to verify and confirm local prac tice. Accounting and auditing firms
may be able to provide resources as well.

There is a growing tren d in the w orld towards co mmon accounting st andards outl ined in
International Accounting Standards (IAS) and International Financial Reporting Standards
(IFRS). National accounting standards may or may not reflect some of the global shifts, and need to
be reviewed from time to time to see how standards continue to evolve.

Reporting obligations may also vary according to the legal act governing the type of your
MFI’s registration. If yo ur MFI is su bject to central bank regulations, there will be specific
accounting and reporting obligations and expectatio ns that m ust be com plied with. Man y countries
have broad l egislation and fram eworks under whic h MFIs operate, without specific or detailed
reporting req uirements. However, others have very specific statutory and reporting form ats and
requirements based on the type of legal registration, rather than a sector wide a pproach. This is to
protect the users of financial servic es, investor s, shareholders, and the readers of fi nancial
statements. For example, India has specific requirements for:

 Societies and Trusts (NGO’s),

 Mutual Benefit Trusts (authorized to mobilize savings),
 Cooperatives and Mutual Aided Cooperatives,
 Not for Profit Companies,
 Local Area Banks,
 Non-Bank Finance Companies, and
 Commercial Banks.

This toolkit illustrates the features of a basic accounting system that is designed to provide a range of
reports and information, depending on user requirements. The Handouts include a range of reporting
formats and sa mples. The toolkit is ba sed on Inte rnational Acco unting Standards and International
Financial Reporting Standards.

What do Users Need and Why?

The table bel ow illustrates the various MFI inform ation users and report readers, what reports the y
need and why. Reports and schedules are generate d through automated sy stems or manual systems,
but usuall y a com bination of bo th. Co mputerised general ledgers and client l oan tracking systems
(MIS) generally produce the reports and data used to prepare more specific analytical reports. Other
reports – like an annual management report or a business plan are generate d through other planning
tools or summarising annual operational data.

User Information Needs Reports Needed Frequency

Branch  Portfolio Status and  Balance Sheet  Daily portfolio
Managers Quality  Income & Expense disbursements and
 Branch profitability Statement collections
 Credit Officer Portfolio Reports –  Weekly Portfolio

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 Daily or weekly
 Loan Product performance  Cash Status Reports cash status and
 Cash Balances and Flows MIS Reports – projections
– projected, actual collections,  Monthly Balance
 Portfolio Growth – disbursements, Sheets and Income
projected disbursements demand due reports and Expense
and collections Statements
MFI Managers  Portfolio Status and  Balance Sheet  Weekly portfolio
Quality  Income & Expense and cash status
 Branch profitably Statement (daily if necessary)
 Consolidated MFI  Portfolio Reports,  Monthly Balance
performance and profitably Aging Reports Sheets and Income
 Cash flow status and  Cash Status Reports & Expense
projections – by Branch  MIS Reports - Statements
and in total disbursements and  Weekly or
 Financial performance and collections monthly cash flow
trends  Ratio Analysis statements or
 Branch liquidity and projections
inter-Branch cash
management
Board Members  MFI Profitability  Balance sheet actual  Monthly or
 Portfolio and Cash Status and budgeted Quarterly financial
 MFI Risks  Income & Expense statements and
 Reporting issues to Statements with full ratio reports
external stakeholders disclosure notes and  Annual or semi-
 Financial performance and comparison to budget annual audited
trends  Portfolio Reports reports and
 MFI Activities and including Aging Management
Performance  Internal Auditor Letter
 MFI future plans and reports  Annual reports
strategies  Externally audited and business plans
financial statements
and Management
Letter
 Ratio Analysis
 Annual Management
Report
 Business Plan – short
term and long term
External  All accounting and  Access and availability  Annually or on
Auditors portfolio reports, of all accounting interim basis
accounting documents and source documents
reports internally  Access and availability
generated by the MFI’s of hard copy of general
general ledger system ledger, financial
 The MFI’s internal control statements, portfolio
system, policies and reports, portfolio
environment, including transaction listings
any risks and findings  Access to and
noted by the Internal availability of all bank

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Auditor reconciliations, fixed

asset schedules, and
other supporting
schedules and
information on key
accounts
 The MFI’s accounting
and credit policies
 The MFI’s Internal
Audit reports
 The MFI’s Chart of
Accounts – Head
Office and Branch
Regulators and  MFI Profitability  Balance Sheet  Weekly (in case of
Statutory(Central  Portfolio and Cash Status  Income & Expense regulated banks)
Banks,  MFI Compliance to Cash Statements for Cash Status,
Companies Balances, Capital  Cash Flow Statements Capital Adequacy
division, tax Adequacy, Write-Off  Ratio Analysis  Quarterly and
authorities) policies and risk  Audited financial Annually as
management performance statements with full required
 Shareholder information disclosure
 Debt investor details –  Cash updates e.g. Asset
secured and unsecured and Liability
 Differences in accounting Management Reports,
policies from legislated tax Capital Adequacy
policies and allowances Reports
 Financial statements
that are adjusted for tax
laws and allowances
Investors  MFI Profitability  Portfolio and Cash  As needed,
 Portfolio and Cash Status Status monthly or
 MFI Compliance to Cash  Audited financial quarterly
Balances, Capital statements and  Annually
Adequacy, Write-Off management letter
policies and risk  Ratio Analysis
management guidelines  Rater reports, Due
 Shareholder information Diligence reports
 Debt Investor details –  Annual Management
secured and unsecured Report
 MFI performance and  Business Plan – short
activity reports and future term and long term
plans and strategies

This toolkit will focus on the foundati on of accoun ting and fina ncial sy stems of the MFI and its
Branches. However, it will also make note of the user needs of external stakeholders and regulators,
since the MFI accountin g sy stem, including Br anch levels, should be structured to provide
information for all types of users.

“Begin with the end in mind!” Know what report and information your MFI’s stakeholders
need – and then build your systems and reports to facilitate the necessary information and
reports!

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Microfinance Institutions and their Clients

For the purpose of this toolkit, an MFI – a Microf inance institution -- will be any type of entity or
organisation that offers fi nancial servi ces to di sadvantaged secto rs of urban and rural co mmunities
that are unable to access t hese services from formal or commer cial banks. Microfinance institutions
offer various t ypes of fin ancial service products i ncluding savin gs, rem ittances or m oney transfers,
and micro-insurance. This toolkit places a clear emphasis on MFIs who offer credit services, since this
is often the f irst, and the most invested-in pr oduct in an i nstitution. MFIs m ay be registered in a
variety of legal form s – for-profit com panies, tr usts, banks, no n-profit com panies, federations or
NGOs. The regulatory system may have different reporting expectations for the different legal forms.
However, thi s toolkit will assu me that well-d esigned basic accounting s ystems and structures can
provide the needed information for MFIs of all legal forms.

Microfinance institutions serve a wide v ariety of clients – individuals, groups (often called Solidarity
Groups or Joint Liabilit y Groups), or Self Help Groups. Regardless of the client served, the basic
accounting process for loans and savings, Branch reporting, and MFI reporting is similar. MFIs
do need to make some basic decisions about the level of tracking for their clients, as discussed below.

Accounting for Various Methodologies and Approaches

MFI loan products vary by methodology. Some MFIs offer loans to individuals. Others lend
directly to gr oups that co-guarantee one another’s loans. Solidarity groups (SG) or Joint Liabilit y
Groups (JLG) are very popular methodologies. Many MFIs also lend to Self Help Groups (SHGs).

When lending to a Joint Liability Group or Solidarity Group, the MFI needs to decide whether it will
track group t ransactions and pa yments, or i ndividual m ember transactions. Most MFIs will track
individual member transactions. When lending to Self Help Groups, the MFI ne eds to decide on the
level of detail it will track on the Group. In general, SHG internal records do not get entered into the
MFI financials – but are used for the MFI’ s assessment of the SHG’ s credit rating or scoring.
However, the MFI tracks the loan activities and transactions with the Group. If the MFI collects and
holds any SHG savings, they must also be tracked by the MFI.

Self Help Groups cont inue to handle t heir own accounting f or t ransactions, internal savings, loan
approval processes, and delinquency management.

Microfinance institutions also serve the sector through various operating models. For exa mple,
commercial banks in so me countries are mandated by the Central Bank or econ omic policy to offer
financial serv ices to a prio rity sector in the nati onal poverty reduction strategy. However, t hey are
not prepared or are reluctant to offer these servic es directly. They may then lend operating or loa n
funds to existing MFIs serving the sector – and disclose these am ounts as “managed portfolio.”
This is often referred to as a “partnership model.” Other M FIs or banks engage in linkage
programmes where they provide financial services to Community Based Organisations or Self Help
Groups developed and promoted by NGOs in the development sector.

In both “partnership models” and “linkage programmes”, the ac counting process is si milar to
general acco unting processes and procedures outlined in this toolkit. However, the bank offering
these services must segment and disclose thes e amounts from other financial services, and provide
detail as to t he qualit y of the asset, and any allo wances for loan losses provi ded on the a mounts.
Standard microfinance assessment of asset quality and provisioning shoul d apply. The NGO or the
MFI who acts as the agent for the bank should account for these arrangements as outlined in Section
6 of this toolkit.

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What is Accounting?
Accounting
• Is the process of recording, classifying, and summarising economic events, that
• Leads to the preparation of financial statements, and
• Provides essential inform ation that allows the manager to choos e actions that will redirect the
enterprise’s activities to be more consistent with the mission and objectives of the business plan

Accounting is often referred to as “the language of business” and like any ot her language, it has its
own unique structure and vocabulary. Since accounting terms like assets, revenue, expenses and cash
flow are used regularly, it is important that managers and those making business decisions understand
basic a ccounting concepts. These concepts for m th e basis of a ccounting and financial management.
Handout 1.2 Financial Statements Terms and Definitions – SEEP Framework outlines key terms used
in accounting and financial statements, applying International Accountin g Stan dards. The Handout
provides a fairly broad list of terms and definitions , but it should not be conside red as an exhaustive
and complete resource.

Accounting falls into two broad categories: fi nancial accounting and ma nagement accountin g.
Financial accounting is concerned with recording, organising and summarising the financial results of
past operations. Financial accounting reports are gen erally prepared on a monthly basis for internal
and external purposes. The annual financial statements are subject to an independent auditor’s opinion
to verify the fairness and reasonableness of info rmation presented. External a udits are r equired by
statutory regulation for MFIs, but they can fulfil m any other management and Board objectives, such
as an independent and e xternal review of sy stems, reco mmendations for i mprovements in the
management letter, and investor requests, among others.

Management accounting information is tracked and presented at a much more detailed level (e.g. by
activity, or by Branch or department). Managem ent reports foc us not sim ply on a summary of
financial tran sactions, but on future projections, budgets, and previous period historical reports.
Management reports are f lexible, change as needed , and do no t conform to an y external standard,
because they are for internal management analysis and decision making only.

Not every one in y our MFI needs to understand all the details of its accounting sy stem like the
bookkeeper and the accountant. However, managers need to understand the sy stem in or der for
effective monitoring and control; t hey m ust al so know h ow to interpret the inform ation that
accounting provides. It is helpful for all to understand the conventions or guidelines that form the base
of the accounting system.

A strong, effective accounting system – including a loan and saving tracking system
– is an essential foundation for reporting and analysis of your MFI’s performance.
Without a good accounting system, your reports are not necessarily reliable. And
without reliable reports, you as an MFI manager are not able to confidently
understand financial reports or make reliable judgement or decisions to improve and
strengthen performance.

Accounting Conventions or Guidelines

Accounting practice is based on commonly accepted “conventions” or “guidelines” that guide policies
and accounti ng treatment of transactions. Th e following are commonly accepted accounting

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conventions or guidelines. Their application to accounting for microfinance will be illustrated in more
detail in Section 6 of this toolkit. In ge neral, these principles form the ba sis for the development of
accounting and reporting standards.

a. Business Entity Concept: Every business is a separate entity, distinct from it s owner and fro m
every other business. Therefore, the records and reports of a busi ness should not include t he personal
transactions or assets of either its owner(s) or those of another business.

A retired banker decided t o open a community microfinance organisation in the rural centre to which
he retired after 35 years of banking sector experience. He invested his own retirement package as start
up capital, and launched operations. He would withdraw funds fro m the organisation for personal use
when needed, recording the withdrawals against his original investment. Occasionally
he also invested the surpluses of a small business that he al so initiated in his
retirement. Needless to say, the annual aud itors were not im pressed with the retired
banker’s approach to the MFI’s cash resour ces. They felt that the retired banker did
not segregate his personal transactions from the MFI’s transactions.

b. Fair Value vs. Historical Cost Principle: General past pra ctice has been t o record ass ets at their
actual, historical cost. This is still the practice at the time of purchasing and recording the asset .
However, ov er time, the historical cost might be much less than the cost to r eplace the a sset today
(e.g. A computer, a vehicle) OR a lot less than which the asset could be sold for (e.g. land, a building).
Note: International Accounting Standards and International Financial Reporting Standards
recommend re-valuing assets from their historical cost to reflect current values as necessary in
International Accounting Standard 16.

An MFI purchased an office building in a lucrative deal at 100,000 in 2000. Five years later,
the area was targeted for intensive business development, and new commercial construction
boomed. The value of the MFI office building increased 5 times to 500,000. What is the effect
on the MFI’s financial statements? Under the historical cost convention? None. However, under fair
value accounting, the building should be re-valued in the accounting records from its historical cost to
the current market price.

c. Going Concern Concept: The records and balance sheet of an organisation

and a business is developed with the a ssumption that the business will continue
to operate indefinitely , and that th e assets us ed in conducting business and
operations will not be sold, and the liabilities will be paid as recorded.

In 2006, the auditors noted that cash flow in the community MFI was increasingly very, very difficult.
A large, national MFI ha d opened a Branch in th e co mmunity in 20 05 and offered more efficien t
service, and better interest rates. Although not regulated, the community group did offe r savings
services to its clients, but clients co mplained about the tim e to withdraw funds, and how at tim es,
funds were n ot available. The auditors began to evaluate whether the community based group might
actually be able to operate with its cash flow problems and staff competition.

d. Consistency Principle: Organisations should co nsistently apply the same accounting principles
from period to period. This ensures that reports from various periods m ay be com pared to produce
meaningful conclusions on the financial position of the organisation a nd the results of the o perations.
Any changes to accounting principles should alway s be disclosed in the notes to the financial
statements. Generally , auditors will rest ate previous year’s figures and adjust t hem retroacti vely for
comparison purposes.

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The co mmunity based MFI operated by the retir ed banker was anxious to present a f avourable
financial position when presenting his 2005 audited fi nancial statements to the local govern ment
office overseeing community activities of this nature. He changed his accounting po licy
on setting a Provision for Loan L osses and f or depreciation, resulting i n a 50,000 profit
for the year. However, he failed to disc lose the change in the financials present ed. The
auditor had no choice b ut to m ake adjust ments and disclosures for the change in
accounting policy, highlighting the reasons for changes, and results of changes.

e. Accrual: The accrual or realisation principle requi res that revenue be recogni sed in the accounting
period it is e arned, and expenses be recognised when they are incurred, rather than when there is
payment or collection of cash. It is r ecommended that MFIs appl y the accrual-based accounting
method.

MFIs choose either a cash basis of accounting or a n accrual basis of accounting.

The community m icrofinance group mana ged b y t he banker ope rated on a c ash
basis. In late 2003, t he gr oup received 200,000 as donation from an international
donor. However, the fun ds were not spent until the following year, so the March,
2003 year end reflected a very large surplus. Th e funds were spent in 2 004,
resulting in a very large loss for the y ear. Accrual accounting would have recorded
the revenues when earned and recognised when spent for the expenses intended.

f. Matching Principle: Organisations incur expenses to earn revenues. Expenses should be reported
on the Inco me State ment during the same pe riod as the revenues generated as a result of incurring
those expenses.

Accrual accounting would imply that the gr ant expenses for the approved grant would
be “matched ” by the related grant revenue in the same period. Revenue would be
recorded and recognised as spent for the objectives of the grant agreement.

The community MFI purchases insurance on its fixe d assets at th e beginning of each
fiscal y ear, in effect pre- paying a year’s insuran ce in advance. The pay ment is charged to prepaid
insurance, and amortised monthly in order to match the expenses to the revenue generated in the same
period.

g. Conservatism and Prudence: When presented with a choice, acco untants should choose
procedures and m ethods of recording transactions that ensure asset s, revenues and gains are not
OVERSTATED, and that liabilities, expenses and losses are not UNDERST ATED. This principle is
intended to result in the fair presentation of information.

The local g overnment b ody governi ng m icrofinance institutions in the area required that at a
minimum all MFIs allocate 2% of their total portf olio as the I mpairment Loss Allowance. However,
the actual portfolio quality of the community based microfinance group was very poor,
with delinque ncy as high a s 20% in some months. In fact a 2 % Allowance fo r Loan
Impairments was definitely inadequa te to cover the actual lo sses that w ere more
realistically expected.

The community MFI kept the low allowance in an effort to make the organisation look stronger than it
actually was. Assets were OVERSTATED as a re sult, and expenses UNDERSTATED, presenting an
unfair picture of the MFI’s financial health.

h. Substance over form implies that the accounting treatment and presentation of transactions should
be governed by their subs tance and not merely b y their legal form . This has further application for

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Basic Financial and Accounting Systems for MFIs Section 1 - 9

more advanc ed accounting topics and for specific issues relat ed to valuations, special agency
relationships or sophisticated investment vehicles.

i. Materiality im plies that financial statements should disclose all item s which might infl uence the
decisions of the users of financial statements if they had knowledge of the same. Disclosure, notes to
the financial statements, and errors or misstatements in the finan cial statements all affect the issue of
materiality. The concept of materiality is in itsel f relative and subjective, as the size and volume of
MFI activities differs greatly; therefore levels of materiality or immateriality will also vary greatly.

j. Double-Entry Accounting
• Any given tr ansaction will affect a minimum of two accounts within assets,
liabilities, or equity (including revenue and expenses).
• If the accounting equation i s to remain in balance, any change in the as sets
must be acco mpanied by an equal change in the liabilities or equity, or by
an equal but opposite change (increase or decrease) in another asset account.

Figure 1.1: Accounting Debits and Credits

Account Debit Credit

Assets Increase Decrease
Liabilities Decrease Increase
Equity Decrease Increase
Revenue Decrease Increase
Expenses Increase Decrease

The basic accounting equation is as follows:

Assets = Liabilities + Equity (Revenue – Expenses)

As in any mathematical or algebraic equation, this above equation can also be expressed as follows:

Liabilities – Assets = Equity

OR

Equity = Assets – Liabilities

At the end of the reporting period, revenue and e xpense accounts are netted out to result in a final
profit or loss. This profit or loss i s then transferred to the Balan ce Sheet as equity, thereby ensuring
that the Bala nce sheet bal ances. Withi n the equi ty section of the Balanc e S heet, most MFIs and
organisations create and operate several funds, reserves or restricted reserves for specified purposes.

The above accounting pri nciples form the foundati on of Accounting Standa rds developed by bot h
international and national bodies.

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Basic Financial and Accounting Systems for MFIs Section 1 - 10

From 1973 to 2000, the International Accounting Standards Committee was the international structure
for setting International Accounting Standards. In 200 0, the International Accounting
Standards B oard (IASB) was for med to carry on the work of the previous
committee. Specifically, the objectives of the Board are to: 1
a. Develop a si ngle set of high qualit y, understandable and enforceable
global accounting standards to facilita te high quality, transparent and
comparable information in financial statements for the global market.
b. Promote the use and rigorous application of these standards
c. Take into consideration the speci al needs of sm all and medium -sized entities and em erging
economies, and
d. Promote and bring about convergence of natio nal accounting st andards and International
Accounting Standards (IAS) and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) to hig h
quality solutions.

International Financial Reporting S tandards (IFRS) re fers to a nu mber of pronouncements i ssued by

the IASB on accounting a nd reporti ng issues. More br oadly, IFR Ss refers to the entire bod y of t he
Board’s pronouncements, including standards (IAS) and interpretations of the standards.

Handout 1.3 List of International Financial Reporting Standards provides a list of th e current
reporting standards promoted internationally. Handout 1.4 List of International Accounting Standards
provides the list of standards adopted and prom oted by internat ional accounting bodies. These ar e
increasingly becoming the “nor m” in accounting standards around the world, and many countries are
adopting these standards as their own. Further detail on these standards can be obtained at the website
www.iasplus.com.

The following section looks at the basic, structur al considerations and features of a financial
management and information system in an MFI. For the most part, it looks at the broad framework of
the accounting general ledger, the client tracking system, and the decisions that need to be made when
structuring systems to meet user needs.

1
www.iasplus.com

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Basic Financial and Accounting Systems for MFIs Section 2 - 11

2. Overview of Microfinance Accounting Systems

The basic components of an accounting system are fairly universal and applicable to all organisations.
Source documents form the basis of all transactions. A Chart of Accounts is a numbered system that is
structured to classify and organise transactions by account. The journals – cash journals, general
journals, or bank journals record each and every transaction or adjust ment. They are summa rised
monthly, or more often, and posted to the general ledger. The ge neral ledger holds a record for each
account in t he Chart of Accounts. It accumulates th e totals posted from the journals to provide
monthly and annual revenue and expenses. It accumulates all the accounts of the Balance Sheet.

These accounting records a nd processes form the basi s of all accounting s ystems. Most MFIs choose
computerised accounting packages that perform many of these accounting functions automatically, for
example, posting to various general ledger accounts and producing financial statements.

Micro-Finance Accounting and Management Information

Systems
The following diagram il lustrates a “ generic” fina ncial management information sy stem in a
microfinance institution, whether its clients are i ndividuals, Self Help Groups, Solidarit y Groups or
Joint Liability Groups and regardless of the MFI’ s legal structure or registration. The accounting
system follows the usual flow from transaction to the preparation of financial statements.

The loan tracking system acts as a subsidiary ledger to the general ledger. Client transactions must be
entered into both s ystems, but can be su mmarised in the acco unting gener al ledger. So me loan
tracking systems are manual, but it is a huge challe nge to handle a large nu mber of clients, produce
reports and age loans with great efficiency in a manual system. Most MFIs prefer automated systems.

Figure 2.1: Accounting System and Client Portfolio System (MIS) Microfinance

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Integrated vs. Non-integrated Information Systems

Most MFIs prefer automated systems – for both the general ledger and for the loan tracking system. In
addition, it is preferable and advisable for the two systems to be “linked” or i ntegrated, through one
single software. This might im ply two different modules within the software. An integrated sy stem
can be linked through either “batch posting” of transaction entries fro m the client accou nts to the
general ledger, or posting through real on-line updates with every transaction.

Non-integrated or linked systems imply that MFIs must pay closer attention to:
 greater control on data entry in b oth systems, since the same data is entered in two separate
systems
 greater control on data entry month end processes, related to cut-offs, adjustments, etc.
 greater controls for reconciliations of outstanding balances of loan principal

Even though your system may be integ rated, you may need to pay special attention t o posting from
the client accounts to the general ledger. Som e systems are very sensitive to el ectricity cuts, or ot her
disruptions to computerized processing, so reconciliations and regular monitoring are very important.

Centralised vs. De-centralised Accounting Systems

MFIs centralise or de- centralise their accounting systems depending on their size, their t echnological
adaptations, their geographic spread and their operational activities. Most MFIs will begin operations
with centralised accounting functions and decentralised operations. This means that the Head Office
processes all accounting and client loan transactions in services managed and controlled at the Branch
Office. Any Branch a ctivity, transactions, and documen ts must be recorded at the Br anch (usually
manually) and sent to the Head office for processing.

This may be manageable for a small volum e of activity, but over ti me it is likely to beco me
challenging as volum e inc reases and the num ber of distant Branc hes increa se. The Branches need
immediate and reliable financial information, particularly for loan tracking. Sometimes, Branches will
handle only loan and savings transac tions, while the Head Offic e takes car e of all other finances,
operating costs, sal aries a nd accounting. If the H ead Office also handles aut omation of loan and
savings transactions, there will be some duplicity of effort and the potential of errors and
discrepancies.

Over ti me, financial sy stems usually develop and evolve to full y decentralised accounting s ystems
where all financial transa ctions are processed at th e Branch and consolidated at Head Off ice. Th e
distinction between the two can be made in the following comparisons.

Accounting Centralised at Head Office Accounting Branch De-Centralised

Accounting at the Head Office: Accounting at the Branch:
 The MFI maintains general ledger at Head  The Branch itself maintains a general
Office that holds separate departments or ledger that handles all branch financial
cost centres by Branch. Some MFIs must transactions. The Chart of Accounts and
also segregate reports by donor. In this case, structure of the system must be consistent
the Chart of Accounts must facilitate both with the MFI and the Head Office’s system
Branch and donor sub-accounting. overall.
Alternately, Head Office may open a  Branch accounting includes all transactions
separate general ledger for each Branch related to operating expenses, salaries,
 To the extent possible, the MFI should transportation, office rent, loan interest,
allocate assets (e.g. fixed assets and loan interest income, bank fees, etc.
portfolio) and liabilities to Branch  Branches need to hold their own bank
departments. It may be difficult to establish accounts as needed, petty cash and

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Accounting Centralised at Head Office Accounting Branch De-Centralised

Branch based balance sheets if they are not operating cash and exercise the same levels
set up this way from the beginning, since of internal control and operational
operational bank accounts or cash at Head guidelines stipulated in the accounting
Office are often merged into a few accounts policies and procedures of the MFI.
for optimum liquidity management.  The Branch must structure loans and
 Department accounting or accounting by operating advances from Head Office
cost centres must record all Branch revenues according to established policy. Usually
(from loan interest and fees) and operating this is an advance to the Branch. All inter-
expenses in order to determine the Branch’s office transfers and transactions must be
performance and break-even point. recorded promptly and according to policy,
 Large Branch operating expenses may be including interest, new advances or
handled and processed by the Head Office. retirements.
Branches may operate petty cash funds for  The Branch should record any deficits or
small, incidental expenses that are then also surpluses generated by the Branch and
recorded by the Head Office on behalf of the monitor break-even points and trends of
Branch. The Branch must retain proper operating revenue over operating expenses.
records and report to the Head Office any  The Branches must operate their
transactions to ensure timely entry into the accounting according to MFI policy and
accounting records. ensure that their records are orderly and
 While Branches may record inter-office well-kept for audit purposes
transfer of funds, the Head Office generally  Branches must be aware of their own
is responsible for initiating the budgets and targets in order to effectively
reconciliation of these accounts and also the manage their Branch operations
elimination of accounts upon consolidation
of Branch financial statements
 A Head Office financial system that
consolidates Branch general ledgers or cost
departments will also handle various
transactions that relate to the MFI overall
but not to specific Branches, for example,
tax remittances, interest on borrowings,
amortization of MFI software development,
taxation, and deferred grant revenue.

Portfolio Centralised at Head Office Portfolio De-Centralised at the Branch

Loan and Savings Transactions at Head Loan and Savings Transactions at the
Office: Branch:
 Any MFI processing loan transactions must  Any MFI processing loan transactions
track the disbursement and collection of must track the disbursement and collection
loan repayments. This involves receipts, of loan repayments. This involves receipts,
cash collection registers, summaries, cash cash collection registers, summaries, cash
disbursement registers, and all documents disbursement registers, and all documents
needed in the audit trail for cash needed in the audit trail for cash
transactions. This is always conducted at the transactions. Entering and processing
point of the transaction – e.g. with the client transactions data in the client records is the
at the Branch or field centre. Entering and next step of the loan tracking system (often
processing transactions data in the client called the MIS).
records is the next step of the loan tracking  Branch MIS systems can be handled on a
system (often called the MIS). manual basis or through an automated
 MFIs that centralise client transaction system.
processing still need to have the basic audit  All Branch client accounting related to

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Portfolio Centralised at Head Office Portfolio De-Centralised at the Branch

trail for cash transactions outlined above at loan and savings transactions with the MFI
the Branch level. However, the Head Office – disbursements, repayments or
may have the MIS system that automates collections, adjustments, etc. is entered
client transactions in database software. into the Branch’s MIS system as soon as
This system then produces transaction possible after it has taken place.
reports, late loan reports, a month end  In either a manual or automated loan
portfolio outstanding report, and a month tracking system, the Branch must produce
end portfolio aging report. regular late loan reports, a month end
 The above MIS system must be able to portfolio outstanding report, and a month
segment client data by Branch, by Credit end portfolio aging report.
Officer and by other features as needed (e.g.  Branches must make proper provisions for
by area or loan product). loan impairments as outlined by MFI
 The most important feature in a centralised policy for any portfolio at risk
MIS for client transactions is that data is  Branch managers must be aware of their
carefully reconciled to cash transactions at own targets and goals with respect to
the Branch, and that information and reports disbursements, collections and portfolio
moves between the Branch and the Head quality in order to manage their Branch
Office as efficiently and quickly as possible. effectively.
In reality, THIS IS A CHALLENGE!
 The Head Office MIS system may need to
merge and consolidate the loan and savings
transactions of several Branches. If
automated, the software should facilitate
this consolidation. Alternately, reports are
exported to a spreadsheet and consolidated
manually.

The main point is that the ac counting principles, a nd the basic accounting cy cle are the same and
should be consistently applied, whether an MFI uses a centralised or a de-centralised system. A clear
audit trail with good internal controls in the acc ounting process must be in plac e whether systems are
centralised o r de-centrali sed. Finally, the purpose of the accounting system is to provide
information – in the form of financial reports – that provide reliable, relevant and TIMELY
information to managers. Decentralised systems in remote Branches – with appropriate internal
audit and controls -- is one of the most practical and efficient ways to do that.

Example of de-centralised Branch transactions affecting the Head Office:

Branches pay out the salaries of their staff each m onth and deduct withholding taxes, and account for
employer por tion of ot her governm ent social bene fits. Both wit hholding taxes are remitted by the
Head Office to the appropriate government authority:

Debit: Salaries 1,000

Debit: Employer Social Benefit 100
Credit: Bank for payment to employee 950
Credit: Taxes Payable – Accounts Payable Head Office 150

The amount payable for tax remittances includes the tax deductions on the employee’s salary, and the
employer por tion of ot her governm ent social benef its. The 150 w ill be transferred to Head Office,
who will record and pa y this am ount as withholding taxes to the appropriate government office. The
Branch retains the full costs and accounting of its staff salaries.

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Cost Accounting for Multi-Service MFIs

The principles behind cost accounting for multi-service MFIs are quite simple:
 First and fore most, a ccounting for business s egments is a standard prom oted and expected by
International Accounting Standards. This applies to both geography and business activity . The
application to microfinance institutions is that any activity in an MFI should be segmented from
other activities in the organisation, if it is ove r 10 % of the total volum e of the MFI’s rev enue,
assets, or profits (IAS 14).
 Secondly, microfinance is generally managed and offered as a co mmercial activity with a social
purpose. Tra cking perfor mance of microfinance im plies the need to seg ment other social and
developmental activities separately. Setting up a separate organisational structure, a sep arate
general ledger or a separate cost department are all ways to support segmentation of microfinance
activities. However, a balance sh eet that reflects only microfinance assets, liabilities and equity is
very im portant, as m uch of the performance an d ratio analy sis is based on balance sheet
information.

Separate Set of Books to be kept for Micro-Finance Activities:

Accounting standards for microfinance institutions in India have been designed to

promote transparency.
 First and fo remost, separate accounting b ooks a nd records must be maintained for
microfinance.
 Books of accounts are to be kept on accrual basis an d a double entry system of accounting
should be followed.
 Loan and sa vings tracking s ystems must be mai ntained, deta iling all coll ections and
disbursements from borrowers.
 Transactions with related agencies (Self Help Groups) who the lend t o individual to
borrowers must be detailed
 All revenue and expenditures re lated t o microfinance activities must be properly recorde d
and disclosed.
 Fixed asset t ransactions o f the microfinance institution m ust be properly recorded and
disclosed.
 Details of loans and advances to e mployees, directors, trust ees or any other perso n
managing the affairs of the MFI must be disclosed.

(Adapted from “Accounting Standards for Micro-Fi nance Institutions in India ” V. Nagaraj an & Co.
SIDBI Foundation for Micro Credit)

Some MFIs prefer to keep all their activities w ithin one accoun ting and rep orting structur e, but to
segregate activities within the one system. If you take this approach, you need to make decisions as to
how you will do that -- through activit y based costi ng technique s or general allocations. For more
information on the techniques and approaches in co st accounting for multi-service MFIs, refer to the
MicroSave “Costing and Pricing of Financial Services Toolkit” (D. Cracknell 2004).

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Basic Financial and Accounting Systems for MFIs Section 2 - 16

The Chart of Accounts

The accounting system is built on the chart of accounts structure. The design of the chart of accounts
is a fundamental decision for every i nstitution. It reflects the ty pe of information desired from the
system and provides a structure to do so.

It is the foundation for recording transactions into the general ledger and for
presenting the accounts in the financial statements.

Using a well-designed chart of accounts structure will:

 provide a clear method to account for separate parts of the MFI
 follow cost accounting and fund accounting principles,
 provide a simple way of adding accounts and therefore allow for growth, and
 provide flexibility to adjust accounts to the individual needs of the institution.

A detailed Chart of Account structure should allo w activity to be tracked b y branch, by donor
(account fund), by function (operating or non-operating), and by responsibilit y (the regions). An MFI
may need to consult with local standar ds and re gulators to deter mine whethe r there ar e pr escribed
formats for the Chart of Accounts. Man agement must decide the level of detail desired in the chart of
accounts. Too m uch detail can be time-consu ming, and pr ovide irrelevant information. T oo little
detail does not pro vide enough i nformation to make good managem ent d ecisions or financial
projections.

Most Microfinance instit utions, are i nterested in Branch performance (financial statements by
Branch), and some levels of donor or account fund reporting, to facilitate transparent financial activity
for external r eports. Further, MFI reporting is in creasingly becoming standardised for international
benchmarking and investors. In or der to get consistent and com parable analysis, common definitions
and understandings are important.

The structure described here is a multi-digit num ber with two or more separators: ABCC- DD-EE.
This allows activit y to be t racked by branch and by donor (account fund). Addi tional separators may
be added if needed.

Note: This structure would be edited depending on whether the MFI uses decentralised
accounting at the Branches, on the software specifications for consolidations, or whether
accounting systems are centralised.

Figure 2.2: Sample Chart of Account Structure

A The first digit indicates the type of 1000 Assets
account 2000 Liabilities
3000 Equity
4000 Income
5000 Expenses
6000 Non-operating income & expenses
B The second digit indicates a group of 1100 Cash Funds Advanced to Branches
accounts with common characteristics 1200 Loan Portfolio
1300 Impairment Loss Allowance
1400 Interest Receivables
1500 Other Receivables
1600 Prepaid Expenses
1800 Fixed Assets

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1900 Other Assets

CC The next two digits indicate specific 1005 Cash on Hand
accounts within the group 1010 Cash in Bank

D Number for Branches or non- -00 Head Office

microfinance activities -01 Branch One
-02 Branch Two
-03 Branch Three
EEE Donor/Investor 00 Unrestricted
01 Donor #1
02 Donor #2

How would it work in practice? Here are some examples:

Example 1: If 1010 is Cash in Bank, then
1010-00-00 is the balance of cash held in the head office bank account in unrestricted funds
1010-02-00 is the balance of cash held in the Branch Two bank account in unrestricted funds

Example 2: If 4010 is the interest income from regular loans, then

4010-01-06 is the interest income from loans from Branch 1 for donor number 6.
4010-03-00 is the interest income from loans from Branch 3 from the MFI’s own funds.

Account Explanations
The table below illustrates a general description of t he use of selected account groups i n the chart of
accounts, up to fixed assets and accum ulated depr eciation. (A co mprehensive sam ple Chart of
Accounts is illustrated in Handout 2.1 Sample Chart of Accounts). The account groups are highlighted
in bold print, and are only used as main categories for reporting purposes, and to provide a structure to
the chart of accounts. Posting from journals is made to the detailed accounts in the second level. The
table gives a description of the account and its possible uses. Not all of t he account gr oups may be
currently used by the MFI, but it is important to know the proper treatment in case of future need.

Figure 2.3: Sample Chart of Account Descriptions and Explanations

ASSET ACCOUNT GROUPS
1000 Cash and Banks To record all amounts deposited into a bank account
or added to cash on hand and all amounts withdrawn
from a bank account or taken out of cash on hand
1005 Cash on Hand Cash held in the office safe for petty expenses
1010 Cash in Banks MFI bank account that handles all MFI banking
transactions – deposits and withdrawals
1100 Trade Investments Any financial assets acquired primarily for the
purpose of selling or repurchasing in the near term.
These may include certificates of deposit, including
interest-bearing deposits and treasury bills.
1200 Loan Portfolio –
Current and Past Due To record the principal amount of loans issued to
clients and the amount of principal repaid by clients. If
a loan is unpaid at the end of the month, some MFIs
transfer the principal balance to “Past due loans”
1210 Loan Receivables All loans issued to clients less the amount of principal
repaid, being the balance of loans outstanding
1230 Loan Receivables – All loans that are past due their repayments, and have
Rescheduled formally negotiated a new repayment schedule, and are
now current

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1300 Impairment Loss To record an allowance for potentially uncollectible loans

Allowance based on an assessment of risk (usually aging). The
amount of the allowance should be adjusted monthly. In
some cases, an MFI will choose to adjust quarterly or
annually
1310 Impairment Loss The Allowance for potential uncollectible loans from
Allowance clients as per MFI policy
1320 Allowance for Loan The Allowance for potential uncollectible loans from
Losses – Rescheduled rescheduled loans as per MFI policy
1400 Interest Receivable on To record client loan interest that was due but not
Loan Portfolio paid. The amount is cleared when payment is made or
the amount is written off as a bad debt
1410 Interest Receivable – Loan interest from clients that is due, but not yet paid.
Loans
1500 Accounts Receivable To record amounts due from sources other than
and Other Assets clients.
1510 Travel advances – Advances paid to staff for travel expenses before a work-
employees related trip which must be retired with receipts for
approved expenses and any remaining cash.
1520 Other employee All other advances paid to staff for project expenses which
advances will be retired with receipts for approved expenses and
any remaining cash.
1530 Miscellaneous Any other items paid by the project on behalf of other
receivables parties which will be collected within a short period.
1540 Prepaid Expenses Expenses paid in advance of the reporting period, e.g.
annual vehicle insurance, prepaid rent, annual equipment
insurance
1600 Other (Long Term) Include investments that have a fixed maturity or
Investments payments that the MFI intends to hold to maturity.
This includes bonds or shares that the MFI plans to
hold for 12 months or more, but not loans, receivables,
or trade investments.
1800 Fixed Assets To record the cost (or value, if donated) of all fixed
assets owned by the MFI. Fixed assets may also include
other assets, such as software. Intangible assets (e.g.
Goodwill) may be included here if permitted by local
accounting standards and IAS.
1810 Land and Buildings Land and buildings that the MFI owns through direct
purchase, credit or donation.
1820 Vehicles Vehicles and motorcycles that the MFI owns through
direct purchase, credit or donation
1830 Computer Equipment Computer equipment (computers, printers, UPS) that the
MFI owns through direct purchase, credit or donation.
1840 Office Furniture and Office furniture and equipment that the MFI owns through
equipment direct purchase, credit or donation
1850 Accumulated The sum of all depreciation and amortisation expenses for
Depreciation and Fixed Assets. Accumulated depreciation represents the
Amortisation reduction in value of Fixed Assets corresponding to the
assets’ remaining useful life.

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1860 Accum. Depreciation – Depreciation is charged each period for land and buildings
Land and Buildings to show the “wear and tear” of the asset, and accumulates
in this account. However, land is not a depreciable asset.
1870 Accum. Depreciation – Depreciation is charged each period for vehicles to show
Vehicles the “wear and tear” of the asset, and accumulates in this
account.
1880 Accum. Depreciation – Depreciation is charged each period for computer
Computer Equipment equipment to show the “wear and tear” of the asset, and
accumulates in this account.
1890 Accum. Depreciation – Depreciation is charged each period for office furniture
Office Furniture and and equipment to show the “wear and tear” of the asset,
Equip. and accumulates in this account.

Maintaining the Chart of Accounts

The chart of accounts is not a static docu ment. It needs to be reviewed and revised on a regular basis
as needs dict ate. The H ead Office Fin ance Ma nager, in consultation with the Executive
Director, is generally responsible to m aintain the chart of accounts for bot h the Head
Office and the Branch Offices, and to ensu re that all accounti ng staff throughout t he
institution knows which account numbers they should be using.

From time to time it may be necessary to add accounts to the chart. If the MFI receive s
additional operating grants or loan capital fro m a new donor, and is required to report to
the donor for those specific activities, it i s useful to open accounts with the appr opriate
donor code. If the MFI expands to a new Branch, accounts need to be opened to handle
all the st andard financial activities of the branch. If the MFI expands to offer another
loan product , an account should be adde d for the new product in order to track
performance of the new product in the financial and management reports.

If the MFI uses an automated gener al ledger, there may be some additional things to
consider for the Chart of Accounts. They may need to be set up for Fund Accounting and
the potential to post som e revenues and expen ses to specific capital or equit y accounts.
Donations and grant equity might also require special treatment. This implies that the capital or equity
structure of the automate d sy stem ne eds car eful attention on installation and planni ng. Carefu l
attention and a clear audit trail are also im portant when closing year end transactions to the s ystem. If
not, most income and expense accounts will be automatically closed to the ge neral retained earnings
account.

Alternately, the MFI c an choose to set up spreadsheets and track the historical grants and d onations
from various donors outside the accounting system.

Note: It is critical to plan the structure of the Chart of Accounts for the MFI, to know the
limitations and requirements of software, and to ensure that Branches and Head Office are
consistent and unified. Without a consistent, well-controlled Chart of Accounts, software or
manual consolidation is a difficult challenge. Auditors may not be able to follow the audit trail,
and comparisons between Branches are difficult if not impossible.

The MIS Structure for Loans and Savings

MFI managers and inform ation users must think through the structure and need s of the MIS used to
track client l oans and savi ngs transactions, just lik e they think through their Chart of Accounts. The
MIS generally tracks the following on client transactions, including:

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Basic Financial and Accounting Systems for MFIs Section 2 - 20

 Identity of the client

 Credit history
 Amount disbursed
 Loan terms: interest rate, fees, maturity, etc.
 Repayment schedule: dates and amounts
 Amount and timing of payments received
 Amount and aging of delinquency
 Outstanding principal balance
 Outstanding of savings balance
 Savings terms; interest rate, charges, etc.
 Savings transactions – deposits and withdrawals
 Amount of interest on savings due

The system should contain this information for both current loans and past due loans. In practice most
MFIs do not maintain this information in usable form on loans that have been paid off or w ritten off.
This is a su bstantial deficiency . Archiving com pleted loans in historical records may be a good
solution, but these records must be accessible and useful in making new loan disbursements.

The MIS sho uld n ot o nly track individ ual client transactions. The portfolio should be tracked an d
segmented according to:

 The Credit Officer responsible for them

 By product, if several products are offered
 By Branch and by centre or cluster within the Branch
 By loan size if variable loan sizes are offered
 Aging reports by Credit Officer, area and Branch
 Rescheduled or renegotiated loans
 Historical loan history
 Other relevant characteristics needed for good portfolio and product management

This tool kit does not go i nto great dep th in the stru cture and det ails of design ing and structuring a
strong client loan tracking sy stem for MFIs. Great er detail is p rovided in some of the tools and
resources cited in the toolkit bibliography . “Management Information Systems for Microfinance
Institutions: A Handbook” (Waterfield, C.) published by the Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest
in February 1998 is an exhaustive resource for structuring MIS systems in MFIs.

MFI Accounting Policies

In brief, MFIs also need to review and set up basic accounting policies as they relate to the national or
international standards of accounting. The following list is not an exhaustive list, but is an example of
the areas in which MFIs need to develop policies.

 Methods of depreciation, depletion and amortization

 Method of accounting – cash or accrual

 Treatment of expenditure during construction or software development (intangible assets)

 Conversion or translation of foreign currency items (transactions, grants, loans)

 Treatment of goodwill

 Valuation of investments

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 Treatment of retirement benefits

 Valuation of fixed assets

 Treatment of contingent liabilities

Accounting policies are discussed in further depth in Section 5 on Internal Controls. While policies
and procedures are part of the internal control environment, acco unting polic ies in them selves also
have a broader connection to the national or international accounting policies applicable to the entity.

This section has laid out the foundation and key structural components to consider when setting up an
MFI’s financial reporting system. The following two sections enter the “nuts and bolts” of accounting
activities. They outline the detailed accounting documents and processes within an accounting system.
Sections 3 and 4 are targeted for MFI accountan ts and bookk eepers, although m anagers need to
understand the processes and the key control issues to effectively supervise staff.

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Basic Financial and Accounting Systems for MFIs Section 3 - 22

3. Accounting Documents
Microfinance is a financia l service a ctivity. As su ch, the principle “tools of the trade” ar e people,
paper and money. There are no significant inventori es or raw materials held in stock and no assembly
line of ph ysical goods p roduction. However, financ ial transactions – loan disbursem ents, loan
repayments, savings deposits, savings repay ments, and expense pay ments -- for m the heart of
accounting transactions in an MFI. Therefore this toolkit includes sections that e mphasise th e
accounting documents and the accounting cycle related to microfinance activities.

Accounting documents may vary, depending on whether a manual system or an automated s ystem is
used to keep the general ledger. Handout 3.1 Sample Accounting Documents for MFIs include sample
illustrations of a variety of the following docum ents and form s. The following paragraphs describe
basic accounting docum ents – fro m source docu ments to Transaction Vouche rs to docu ments and
reports produced by the accounting system.

Source Documents
The substance of source documents depends on the content of the financial transaction. Some basic
and common elements of source documents are:
1. Title of document and Company name and address
2. Date and serial number
3. Name of person completing the document
4. Signature or stamp of the person completing the document
5. Name of person or organisation receiving the document
6. Content of the transaction
7. Number of items and price, if applicable, and monetary amount.
8. The financial stamp of the organisation preparing the document

Source documents include all the documents related to the loan and savings procedures with MFI
clients. This would include, but not be limited to:

 Customer Registration Documents

 The Loan Application and assessment
 The Loan Approval (Sanction) form or document
 The Contract or the Promissory Note
 Loan Disbursements Sheets or Registers
 Loan Collection Sheets or Registers
 MFI Receipts for cash transactions!
 Client passbooks
 Client ledger cards for loans and savings

These source documents form the basis of the MFI’s loans and savings transactions. The y are usually
handled through manual processes and practices, although client ledger records for loans and savings
are usually automated. These source docu ments must be linked to the accounting transaction voucher
and the journals and regist ers that are entered into the MFI’s general ledger. Handout 3.2 Sample
Client Forms for MFIs provide a range of forms often used in handling client financial transactions in
an MFI.

Accounting Transaction Voucher

Each time a transaction takes place, there must be accompanying documentation. Preparing a voucher
ensures that the transaction is recorded consistent with the appropriate accounting procedure.

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Every organisation has specific ways of preparing vouchers. The most important point to remember is
that vouchers result in a paper trail for each transaction. This allows the organisation to have adequate
internal control over its re cord keeping and ensu re t hat its as sets are safeguarded. The Ac counting
Transaction Voucher is usually not posted directly to the general ledger. It is recorded only in journals
and subsidiar y ledgers. In automated ac counting s ystems, the voucher s are ent ered directly into the
system.

Vouchers are supported by invoices and cheque st ubs or cash requests and generally include the
following:

• Number and nature of voucher (serially pre-printed)

• Name of department
• Date prepared
• Account name and number
• Amount of money
• Source and description of the transaction
• Authorised signature(s) of Preparer and Reviewer
• Attachment of original invoices and cash requests (the source documents)
• Proof of delivery or completion of services rendered

The designated supervisor must authorise or approve all vouchers.

An automated general ledger will automatically store most of the books of account, as in the journals
(cash journal, bank journal, and general journal), the subsidiary ledgers, and the general ledger. Most
software packages will also capture the fixed assets ledger. However, for manual systems, the
following records and documents form the “books of account”.

Cash and Bank Journals (Cash Book or a Journal cum ledger)

The cash journal is used to record all the activity in the cash kept on hand in a
Branch or H ead Offic e. The appeara nce of the j ournal and the process o f
recording entries are si milar to that of the bank journal (as illustrated in
Handout 3.1 Sample Accounting Documents for MFIs). Extra columns can also
be added for frequently recurring ite ms, like s mall office expenses, as
illustrated.

At the end o f every day, the actual cash kept on hand must be counted to
ensure it is equal to the “Cash Balance” in the journal. So meone other than the
person responsible for maintaining th e cash box shall conduct this check. A
Cash Count s heet is im portant for your MFI auditors to review an d verify, particularly for year end
cash counts.
.
In some countries the Cash Book (for Cash and Bank accounts) is considered a “Cash Book –
cum ledger” in that individual entries are made, but the actual cash and bank
balances are updated with each individual entry.

The Bank Jo urnal (or Ban k Book) is used to record all activities — deposits and
disbursements — in the b ank account as they occur. If there is more than o ne
bank account, then each account must have its own Journal or Bank Book to reco rd
transactions. This is done t o simplify the process of reconciling the bank sta tement to
the accounting records and to ensure control over the accounts.

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The entries are recorded in the journals according to the vouchers as of the date of the bank
transaction. The bank balance column is updated aft er each day’s entries. Typically, a bank journal is
a boun d book with led ger pages with up to 30 columns across. There ar e colum ns designated to
specific accounts that have recurring transactions or entries in the month – like cheques to clients for
loans, salary payments, office expenses and travel expenses. Eac h colum n is sub-totalled at m onth
end, and the total is posted to the general ledger at the end of the reporting period.

General Journal
A “General Journal” is used to record transactions that do not involve the receipt or disbursement of
cash. Such transactions could include the following:
1. Recording accounts payable and accrued expenses
2. Record advances for client loans or client deposit repayments
3. Correct an error from a previous entry,
4. Record depreciation expense,
5. Make adjustments to prepaid expense or deferred revenue accounts,
6. Make adjustments to the Impairment Loss Allowance account
7. Record in-kind grants or donations, or
8. Any other non-cash transaction.

The general journal does not keep a cumulative balance like the cash and bank journals. Each entry in
the general journal “stands alone” and is supported with an approved voucher and various schedules
and supporting documentation. A typical page in a journal book will look like this:
Figure 3.1: General Journal Sample
Entry Voucher
Account Name or Description General Ledger
Number #

1 Acct # Debit Credit

General Ledger
The general ledger is the source of inf ormation used to prepare the trial balanc e
and the finan cial statemen ts. It is set up using the Chart of Accounts with one
page for each account, or ganised by account number, beginning with the asset
accounts and ending with expense account s. The general ledger represents th e
accumulation in one place of all infor mation about changes in an asset, li ability,
equity, revenue, or expense item.

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If there are certain accounts with a larg e number of transactions, the accountant may choose to also
maintain Subsidiary Ledg ers. Subsidiary Led gers record the account b y breaking it into detailed
categories. However, the general ledger will carry the “co ntrol account” that su mmarises t he totals
and transactions of the subsidiaries.

General Ledger Controls

The information in the general ledger is used to record, accumulate, and store accounting information.
Therefore, it is important to maintain a strict set of controls over the set-up, recording and finalising of
the ledgers
1. Before a ne w ledger is used, record the financial y ear, num ber of pages in the ledger
(assuming a bound book), the accountant’s signature, and date clearly on the title page.
2. If a loose-page ledger is used, the pages must be compiled and bound into a ledger book
3. Entries written into the genera l ledger (referred to as “posting” entries) come from the three
journals described above, not from transaction vouchers or subsidiary ledgers.
4. Number each page in sequence with the account name and number listed at the top.
5. Post entries with blue or black ink, not pencil. Use red ink for reversals or corrections and add
signature and date of correction.
6. At the end of each period, th e general l edger shall be “Closed”, t hat is, the balance of every
account shall be computed.
7. For income and expense accounts, use one line for the “Current Month T otal” and a separate
line for the cumulative total for the year to date.
8. Prepare a Trial Balance. (See Section 4.)
9. At the end of the financial y ear, the bala nces in the Income an d Expense acco unts shall be
“Closed” to the account, “Current Year Profit”. (See Section 4.)
10. The balances in the Asset, Liability, and Equity Accounts shall b e carried forward to open the
“Beginning Balance” of the new financial year. (See Section 4.)

Subsidiary Ledgers
Subsidiary Ledgers are used for any account that records numerous detailed transactions. Subsidiar y
Ledgers are used to reduce the size and complexity of the general ledger. They also serve an important
role in controlling the integrity of data and providing the current status of a loan or savings balance.

In an MFI, there will always be a Subsidiary Ledger to record individual client accounts for l oans and
savings activity. B y maintaining Subsidiary Ledgers on a regular (daily) basis, MFI staff and clients
themselves will be able to track th e loan and savings transactions a nd balances at any point in time.
When Subsidiary Ledgers are used, client loans a nd savings activities ar e usually summarised in the
Cash and Bank Journals. Only the totals are posted to the General Ledge r, rather than each individual
transaction. When Subsidiary Ledgers are used, th ere must always be an end-of-m onth reconciliation
of the individual bala nces in the Subsidiary Ledgers with the control account for Loans Receivable in
the General Ledger.

Subsidiary l edgers are al so used for travel a dvances, staff advan ces, accounts pay able and accounts
receivable.

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Fixed Assets Ledger

A fixed ledger records all fixed assets capitalised in the MFI’s general ledger. It i ncludes columns for
the date of P urchase, Asset Description, Serial Nu mber (if appl icable), donor source, the value of
assets (end of previous fis cal year), current period additions, current period disposals, assets (end of
current year/ period), depreciation rate, accumulated depreciation (end of previous fiscal year), current
year/period depreciation, accu mulated depreciati on (end of c urrent year/period), net book value
(current year/period), and net book value of the previous fiscal year.

All colu mns should be tot alled down, by asset categor y, and i n total. The tot als should agree to the
total categories of assets and accumulated depreciation in the general ledger.

The Audit Trail

Documents a re an integral part of all accounting systems. Automating acc ounting s ystem is a n
efficient way to handle the accounting process. But MFI accountants must remember that auditors are
only able to audit the hard copy print-outs of th e various accounting reports. Auditors can not verify
processes and transactions in electronic form, since they are subject to change or deletion very easily.
Hard copies verify the int egrity of tran sactions, data entry , month end or y ear end cut offs, and the
accuracy of entries.

If your MFI uses an automated accounting s ystem, en sure that journals, batch transactions and the
general ledger is printed out monthly and stored with that month’s accounting records. The audit trail
means that all source docu ments, vouchers and registers are physically traceable and linked through
the hard copy records and documents in an accounting system.

Monthly print-out of accounting journals and records:

 All journals recording the entry of each transaction; many

times this print out is called a “batch journal”
 All general journal adjustments
 All bank reconciliations and supporting schedules
 All general ledger accounts for the month/period
 All other reconciliations and docum ents that ar e made electronically and f orm part of the
month end accounting process

Document Controls
Documents are an integral part of all accounting systems. They should be stored in sequential order to
ensure that documents do not go m issing, or unable to be later traced. They should also be stored in
environments that are generally free of excessive dust and hum idity. Source documents like pre-
numbered receipts, purchase orders or invoices should be recorded in a Document Register, so
that MFI staff “sign out” the documents, and “sign in” when the books or documents have been
completely used, and only the book copy remains. Handout 3.3 Sample Document Register shows
how this control m ight be im plemented. It do es require good i mplementation to make th e contro l
effective.

Good managem ent and control of the MFI’ s documen ts is i mportant because many documents are
readily convertible to cash (e.g. a receipt) or goods (e.g. a purchase order). Control of docum ents will
help to control the MFI’s physical resources including cash.

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It is challengi ng to talk about accounting documents without t he context of how they are us ed. They
are an integral part of the accounting cycle and accounting processes. The following section illustrates
the various steps and processes in the accounting cycle, referencing accounting documents as needed.

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4. The Accounting Cycle

The accounting cycle is the monthly or periodic process used to record and post financial transactions
for the preparation of financial stat ements. It in cludes the process of review and reconciliation. The
accounting cycle described here is applicable to both automated and manual accounting systems. In an
automated system , many of the calcul ations, pos ting and account accu mulations occur w ithin t he
software. However, the process is the same as if a manual system were used.

The following describes any financial transaction that takes place within the MFI – wheth er a client
pays registration fees, is disbursed a loan, pay s a loan, or whether the MFI pay s salaries, rent and
operational expenses. The transactions include those that take place with the MFI itself, and not those
transactions that the MFI’s clients may have with one another (e.g. internal savings or internal lending
of Self Help Groups). Handout 4.1 Sample Accounting Cycle illustrates t he flow of financial
transactions and data through the accounting cycle with actual data and transactions.

Figure 4.1: Accounting Cycle

1. Transaction
occurs
8. Closing 2. Journalizing

7. Draft financial
statements 3. Posting

6. Closing Entries 4. Trial balance

5. Accounting
adjustments

Transactions
The accounting c ycle beg ins with the source docum ent that verifies, suppor ts, and docu ments the
transaction, and its accounting tr ansaction voucher. Financial tr ansactions d o not occur in a void
without any documents. Documents could include receipts, invoices, agreements, contracts, memos,
bank deposit slips and notes to support the transaction, when it occurred, what is affect ed, a rationale
for its occurrence and approval tha t recognises the transaction’ s leg itimacy. The accounting
transaction voucher is the MFI’s document that triggers the recording process in the MFI’s accounting
system. Before being entered, the vouc her is draw n up, account c odes are assigned, calculations are
checked and managerial approval is granted.

Classifying Transactions
The next step in t he cycle is to classify the transaction. The chart of accounts will provide the proper
code to record the transaction in the accounting system. The classification of transactions is also based
on the doubl e entry system of accounting. Any transaction will affect a mini mum of two accounts –
and reflect an increase or a decrease t o accounts. The transacti on m ay affect a debit account and a
credit account. It may also increase one debit account and decrease another debit account. Alternately,
it could increase a cr edit account and decrease a diff erent credit account as well. The m ain point in

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classifying tr ansactions is that the Chart of Acc ounts is followed, and followed consistentl y and
correctly in the treatment of transactions.

Journaling
All financial transactions are entered into the accounting system by means of the journals, whether the
cash journal, the bank journal or the general journal. The journals act as a daily diary of transactions,
listing them in chronological order from the accounting transaction vouchers. The journals record how
each transaction affects an asset, liability, equity, revenue or expense account. Each entry has a debit
and a credit.

At the end of the reporting period, take the following steps:

 Add each column of items together to arrive at a total.

 Verify that the total debits equal the total cred its, also called cross-balancing, for ea ch of the
columns of the journals.

 Verify that the balance of cash on hand in the cash journal agrees to the physical count of cash
on hand.

 Reconcile the bank balance in the bank journa l with the bank state ment from the bank (refer
to specific steps in the following section on reconciliations.

Posting to the General Ledger

a. Posting is the process of tr ansferring journal en try information from the Journa ls to the Gen eral
Ledger. At the end of the reporting period, perform the following procedures:
1. Ensure the debits and credits totals for all j ournals, the cash journal, the bank jo urnal and the
general journal are equal
2. Post the totals for the period to the General Ledger
3. Double-check each posting for accuracy
4. Update the accumulated totals in the General Ledger

b. In addition, detailed client transactions (not summarized) must be posted to

each client account in the subsidiary ledgers (or client accounts, MIS). This
includes disburse ments, re payments, adjustments (if posting errors), and
savings contributions. It is critical that t he posting to the client accounts be com pletely accurate,
and timely, since at the end of the reporting peri od, the su m total of all loans outstanding must
balance to the loans outstanding in the general ledger.

Trial Balance
At the end of an accounting period, after all journal entries have been made and posted to the General
Ledger, a trial balance is prepared to help in the preparation of the financial statements.
The trial balance is prepared by:
1. Taking the account balances from the General Ledger
2. Listing the accounts having debit balances in one column and those having credit balances in
the other column.
3. Totalling the debit balances.
4. Totalling the credit balances
5. Comparing the sum of the debit balances and the sum of the credit balances. (The sums
should be equal in order for the ledger accounts to be in balance)

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A trial balance is a fir st test of accurat e posting in the ledgers. However, it does not mean that the
ledger accounts are free from error. Some errors can not be detected in a balanced trial balance. These
include posting to the wrong accounts, and posting t he wrong amounts in both the debit and the credit
column.
Figure 4.2: Sample Trial Balance
ABC Microfinance Institute
Trial Balance as of __________________ (date)

Account # Account Name Debit Credit

1005 Cash on Hand 500

1010 Cash in Banks 5,000

1110 Loan Portfolio 45,000

1120 Rescheduled Loans 0

2120 Client savings 40,000

3130 Member Shares 5,000
3150 Retained Surplus 3,000
4110 Interest on Loans 5,000
5100 Volunteer Honorariums 1,000

5370 Miscellaneous expenses 500

5380 Meeting expenses 1,000

TOTAL 53,000 53,000

Reconciliations
Before finali sing the trial balance, it is i mportant to make reco nciliations of various proc esses and
accounts to ensure good internal control and integr ity of the fin ancial data. Handout 4.2 Sample
Reconciliation Schedule provides a sch edule of the various kinds of reconciliations that need to be
conducted. T hey i nclude i tems like pet ty cash, ba nk reconciliations, disbursements (reconciling the
general ledger to the client loan tracking sy stem), loan repay ments (reconciling the general ledger to
the client loan tracking s ystem) travel advances, accounts payable, and outstanding loan balances (the
general ledger to the client loan tracking sy stem). Handout 4.3 Reconciliation Tips provides simple
tips and approaches one could take in conducting reconciliation. It will give you an idea of “where to
start” when tr ying to analyse a discr epancy, and su ggestions of h ow to find the error. In ge neral, the
most critical reconciliations and confirmations are:
a. Petty Cash Verification. Handling and verify ing petty cash was described in Section 4 in
detail, including the importance of physically counting petty cash.
b. Bank Reconciliation (Make a ba nk reconciliation of the bank st atement to the MFI general
ledger, and record any adjustments as necessary, e.g. bank charges, outstanding cheques, etc.)
Handout 4.4 Sample Bank Reconciliation provides specific instructions and a sample template
to use in the preparation of bank reconciliations.
c. Loans and Savings Subsidiary Account Reconciliations

To reconcile the subsidiary ledgers, take the following steps:

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1. Prepare a li st of all client s fro m the S ubsidiary Ledger, b y name, client nu mber, principa l
balance outstanding, and savings balance outstanding
2. Double-check the accuracy of the list with the Subsidiary Ledger balances
3. Double-check the accuracy of the addition of the list
4. Compare the totals of the client list with the General Ledger balances
5. Investigate any discrepancies by double-checking the posting to t he Subsidiary Ledger fro m
the Cash and Bank Journals
6. Investigate any discrepancies by double-checking the addition and subtraction of transactions
in the client Subsidiary Ledger
7. Investigate any discrepancies by double-checking the accuracy of transactions recorded in the
Bank Journals and comparing with actual bank statements.

Accounting Adjustments
Accounting adjust ments are made to record corr ections, non- cash entries (e.g. depreciation) and
accruals of e stimated ite m. They are usually recorded in the ge neral journal, as they often do not
involve cash or bank, and if they do, they are to record corrections or unusual entries or transactions.
The most common types of adjustments in microfinance institutions are described below very briefly.
There may be others as well, and it is the work of accounta nts and bookkeepers to use their
professional discretion and local resources to know how to make these entries.

Correction of Errors:
Errors can and do occur throughout the accounting cycle, and at times they are not detected until some
time in the future. The best approach in making a correction is to first reverse the incorrect entry, and
the re-post the correct entry . When correcting an error of a p revious accounting perio d that has
already been closed, both the reversal a nd the corr ection are post ed in the cur rent period. Previous
period statements are not adjusted retroactively.

Non Cash Adjustments:

The majority of non-cash adjust ments or general j ournal entries include the following ite ms: record
depreciation, recognise or am ortise pre-paid rent, record accrued expenses like interest pay able,
expenses payable, provision for loan im pairments, allowances, write-offs, etc. These are based on the
broader acco unting policies adopted by t he MFI. The policies and their accounting treatment are
covered extensively in Section 6.

Draft Financial Statements and Closing

Once the reconciliations and accounting adj ustments have been posted, a ccountants are able to
prepare draft and final financial statements fro m the trial balance. Financial statements can be – and
should be – prepared monthly f or inte rnal management purposes. In this case, income an d expense
accounts are not actually closed to the retained ear nings each month. Rather income and exp enses are
officially “closed” to the retained earn ings account at the end of the financial y ear. This process i s
described more fully in Section 7.

Why is Loan and Savings Information so Important?

“Management information systems? Our computer people handle that!”

“I get all these numbers every month, but I have no idea what I’m supposed to do with them.”

“If only I’d known that four months ago.”

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Many MFIs may be guil ty of having too much paperwork and t oo many forms. However, MFIs rely
on loan and savings infor mation for their very survival. Having good inf ormation is essential for an
institution to perform efficiently and effectively – the better its information, the better it can manage
its resource s. Having the right kind of inform ation is just as critical, becaus e too much paper or
information can be confusing and inefficient – adding very little value in the end to work processes.

A management sy stem i s the series of processes and actions invol ved in capturing r aw data,
processing the data into usable informat ion, and di sseminating the inform ation to users in the for mat
needed. An MIS is not a co mputer programme and it in volves more than calculating num bers.
Information management is about people communicating with one another about events that affect the
work of their institution

This section of the toolkit outlines the very basic procedures f or accounting for client l oans and
savings transactions. Most MFIs may have more specific forms and detailed procedures, depending on
their methodology and work processes. The samples in this toolkit provide the basic minimum needed
for entry into the accounting systems and basic internal controls.

Transforming data into user-friendly information is the challenge – particularly for client transactions!
The illustration below des cribes the general cycle of accounting f or client transactions. At the heart
of the process, are the individual client record that contains both the schedule for loan
instalments and the historical record of repayments made.

Figure 4.3: Accounting Cycle for Client Transactions in the MIS

1. Client Transaction
occurs – loan or
7. Final MIS savings
Reports 2. Issue receipts

6. Reconcile with
banks, general 3. Record and
ledger, other summarize receipts

4. Update
5. Draft MIS individual client
Reports records

Transaction Occurs – Client Receipt or Payment

Any and every financial transaction involves a form – whether a receipt for a loan repayment, a client
passbook for updati ng savings deposits, or a l oan disbursement r eceipt or record. T hese documents
trigger entries into the client m anagement information system (the MIS) and th e financial accounting
system (the journals and bank accounts).

Issue Receipts or Verify Receipts of Payments

Many MFIs that use a gro up lending methodology do not issue individual receipts to group members
who are repay ing. However, repay ments are record ed in a Repa yment or Collection Register that
documents all collections subm itted by the group m embers at the meeting. This may be acceptable,
provided t hat collections r eceived outsi de of gr oup meetings are dul y receipted, and provi ded that

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group members also sign off on the Rep ayment Register to acknowledge that their pay ment has been
made. Their individual passbooks must also be immediately updated for the payment.

Record and Summarise Receipts for General Ledger

Cash or Repayment Registers must be summarised daily or weekly, agreed to bank deposit slips, and
be reviewed and approved for entry into the MFI’s ge neral ledger. It is very important that deposits
are made of collections intact, and that the de posit i s supported by bank documentation. This will
form the basis for the transaction voucher needed to enter the transactions into the general ledger.

Note that in most c ases, the su mmarised totals ar e entered int o the accounting s ystem, and not
individual group member transactions. In some cases, individual entries are also posted in detail to the
general ledger.

A daily reconciliation is ideal for better control and a strong audit trail. If the deposit is co mprised of
the receipts o f several days, the deposit should cl early document the Repay ment Register r eference
and amounts, to ensure the audit trail is complete.

Update Client Records with Individual Transactions

This is the process of “p osting” individual client transactions t o individual records. In a manual
system, this might be a loan ledger card, illustrated in Handout 3.2 Sample Client Forms. This record
acts as the su bsidiary record for one individual client or one group, depending on the methodology.
All disbursements are entered, all r epayments are entered and balances update d. All savings deposits
and withdrawals are al so entered on the client r ecord. Such detaile d processes a re intended to ensure
transparency, build client trust, and strengthen the internal controls of the MFI.

Draft MIS Reports

At this point in the c ycle of accounti ng for clie nt transactions, draft portfol io reports should be
generated and reviewed for accuracy, for completeness, and for any other issues. This is the chance to
verify the accuracy and reliability of the report, a nd to verify entries with the source document and
journal summaries that were used for data entry . Unusual balances or amounts should be investigated.
The best verification process is for Cred it Officers to get their portfolio reports as soon as possible in
the reporting cycle and review for reasonableness!

Reconcile MIS and General Ledger

A critical step at this point is to ensure that the outstanding balances on the MIS reports agree with the
general ledger control accounts – for both outstanding loans receivable and for savings balances. This
reconciliation should take place whether auto mated systems are integrated or not. Most m odular
systems or programs still have steps i n their pro cesses that need to be taken in order to ensure
synchronisation of entries in both systems.

If the MFI has “stand alone” systems – one system for accounting and one system for the client
portfolio -- this reconciliation is very, very critical, and can also be very, very challenging, since
it requires “entering data” into the two systems independently. This increases the exposure to
error and also abuse due to fraud or poor controls in managing data entry.

Issue Summarised MIS Reports

Handout 4.5 Sample Portfolio Reports provides a number of portfolio reports that are generated either
manually or through an automated system. They include Loan Disbursements, Loan Repayments, and
an Outstanding Loan Balance report, that includes portfolio qua lity inform ation. The l oan portfoli o
reports include aging analy sis needed to produce a Loan Aging Schedule. The challenge of handlin g

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client transaction accounting on a manual basis cannot be under-estimated. It is cumbersome, prone to

error and extrem ely tedious. Most of the ti mes, groups that still use manual systems are reluctant t o
prepare and produce reports – putting at risk good portfolio management.

Remember – just like the hard copy audit trail is important for accounting documents in the monthl y
accounting process, daily and weekly or monthly pr intouts of an auto mated client loan tracking
system is also part of the audit trail. Handout 4.6 Sample MIS Report Schedule outlines some of the
regular reports then need to be printed re gularly – for audit purposes and for management information
and control.

It is virtually im possible to outline and discuss th e accounting cycle withou t referencing internal
control issues and procedures. Ty pically, MFIs conduct operations with large volum es of cash in
highly decentralised locat ions. The na ture of MF I operations itself are considered high risk. The
following section on internal controls outlines the br oader aspects of the topic and pr ovides practical
suggestions for key controls for MFI managers and accountants.

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5. Internal Control Procedures

“Internal Co ntrols” refers to all the policies and procedur es adopted b y the
management of an entity to help en sure the orderly and efficient conduct of its
business. The internal co ntrol s ystem extends beyond m atters r elating directly to the
accounting system and com prises the c ontrol environment and control procedures. The
“control envi ronment” refers to the attit udes and atmosphere i n the MFI t owards
maintaining strong internal controls. MFI Board and senior management should lead and
promote the “control” atm osphere – b y exam ple, b y ap proving risk managem ent
policies, and b y supporti ng m anagement and the internal audit function in im plementing stron g
control systems.

Internal controls help to pr omote the basic objectives of management and try to prov ide reasonable
(but not absolute) assurance of the following:

• Profitability or sustainability: MFIs must be financially and institutionally sustainable to

effectively provide financial services and products to the poor communities they serve. All the
operating processe s, wor k flows, an d deliver y c hannels are designed to provide thos e
financial ser vices, and to do so effici ently, according to polic y, and without the loss of
reputation or resources of the institution.
• Adherence to management policies: MFI management is responsible for the overall
administration of the MFI; the Board and re gulatory aut horities approve policies that
management im plements. Manage ment’s adm inistrative controls are internal controls
designed to prom ote o perational ef ficiency and encourage adherence to establishe d
management policies.
• Safeguarding of assets: The phy sical as sets of an MFI can be accident ally destroy ed,
misused or stolen unless they are protected by adequate controls. Non-physical assets such as
loans receiva ble, im portant docum ents (e.g. Client loan contra cts or receip t copies), and
financial records are also vulnerable. Co mputer data, records and reports can also be
destroyed or lost if care is not taken to protect them throug h reliable and safe backu p
procedures, clear assignment of duties, and controlled operating environments.
• Prevention and detection of fraud and error: Your MFI’ s internal control s ystem i s
important in the prevention and detection of erro r, f raud or other irregularities. The cost of
preventing a particular error, should be balanced against the likelihood of the error occurring
and the amount of the error that could occur.
• Accuracy and completeness of accounting records: Part of the internal control sy stem is a
strong accounting s ystem. The accounting s ystem must produce accurat e and co mplete
accounting records.
• Timely preparation of reliable financial information: Financial reports and inform ation
must be reliable and timely if it is to be useful for management decision making. This is more
of a functio n of the accounting and fi nance st aff who use an accounting s ystem, than the
accounting system itself.
• Discharge of statutory responsibilities: All MFIs are accountable to external stakeholders –
whether it is their Board of Directors, their shareholders, Central Bank regulators, or donor s.
These stakeh olders have both statutor y and non- statutory expectations of your MFI, and a n
internal control system can provide support and means to fulfil those.
• Protection of staff members against disinformation:

The internal control s ystem extends beyond m atters relating directly t o the accounting s ystem and
comprises the control environment and control systems.

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Control Environment
The control environm ent is the overall attitude, awareness, and actions of the MFI’s Board of
directors and managers regarding the internal control system and its importance. If top management
believes control is im portant, others i n your MFI will sense that and respond by consci entiously
adhering to the policies and procedures established. However, if top management appears to only give
“lip service” to internal control, or appl y double standards and policies for the mselves, it is al most
certain that control objectives w ill not be as effectiv e. A strong control envir onment - for exam ple,
one with ti ght bu dgetary controls an d an effec tive internal audit functi on - can significantly
complement specific control procedures. Factors reflected in the control environment include:

• The function of the Board of directors and its committees, particularly the Audit Committee,
• Management’s philosophy and operating style, its commitment to integrity and ethical values;
its commitment to competence,
• The organisational structure and methods of assigning authority and responsibility,
• Management’s control system and methods, including the internal audit function, and
• Human Resource policies and procedures, and segregation of duties, and
• Management reaction to external influences.

Policies and Procedures

A microfinance institution needs cl ear and comprehensive Board approved accounting policies for its
accounting and financial management system. Documented policies and procedures provide guidance
and structure to staff, a basis for consistent treatme nt of financial data, and the foundation for internal
control and accountability. Accounting policies should be developed within the
context of local accounting standards, a nd apply best practices in microfinance
to the extent possible.

Examples include depreciation policies, wr ite-off policies, loan loss write-offs,

loan loss provisions, deferred revenue or expenses, Allowance for Loan Losse s
policies, accr ued interest policies, and at ti mes, re porting formats. Ref er to the
various accounting policies that MFIs should make sure to clarif y in Section 1 of
this toolkit.

Handout 5.1 Sample Accounting Policies provides an exam ple of what ty pes of policies and items
need to be covered in accounting policie s. Section 6 of this toolkit provides detailed illustrations and
procedures of how to use and apply different accounting policies, and in which situations.

Qualified, Trained and Motivated Staff

An accounting sy stem is o nly as good a s the account ing staff that use and manage it. It is im portant
that your MFI em ploys qualified and trained staff to carry out accounting responsibilities.
Bookkeepers or data entr y staff shoul d record fi nancial transact ions and acti vities, and must know
how to do t hat correctly . Accountants should verify, reconcile and prod uce financial statements
supported by acco mpanying schedules, and m ust know how to do that well. MFI Finance Managers
and Executi ve Directors need to u nderstand fi nancial info rmation, verify reports, analy se
performance, and make the necessary decisions to improve and strengthen the institution.

External and Internal Audits

External audits are generally req uired of m ost MFIs, if not b y t he donor, t hen b y local regulatin g
bodies. External audits can be useful in verify ing the reasonableness of financial statements, and add
credibility to the transparency of your MFI. However, it is not the role of external auditors to maintain

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an orderly set of financial records, or to be responsible for maintaining strong systems and preventing
fraud. This i s your responsibilit y – as MFI. “External Audits of Microfinance Institutions: A
Handbook” Volumes 1 and 2 published by the Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest. In 1998
provide useful resources for external auditors of MFIs. The Volumes are available at www.cgap.org.

Internal audits can im prove a MF Is fin ancial and o perating sy stems; their purpose is to d etermine
whether stated policies and procedures are followed, report any findings to the contrary, identify risks
to the instit ution, and m ake reco mmendations to m anagement to mini mise those risks. An effectiv e
internal audit function in an MFI greatly strengt hens internal c ontrol s ystems, and al so gives the
external auditor confidence to rely on the financial statements.

General Control Procedures

Specific control procedure s are the policies and pr ocedures that guide staff to process trans actions,
manage assets, and conduct their work. Control po licies and procedures also enhance and strengthen
the reliability of data and information in the accounting system.

The accounting transaction voucher (discussed i n Section 4 on Accounting

Documents), supp orted b y source d ocuments, is the beginnin g point whereby
information enters the accounting s ystem. The integrity of the entire sy stem,
including the financial reports, depen ds upon the internal control proced ures
designed to ensure the integrity of the individual transactions.

1. Transactions shall be valid. The system must not perm it the inclusion of fictit ious or no n-
existent transactions in journals or other records.

• All pre-printed form s shall be pre-num bered and kept under the control of the Head
Accountant
• All transactions entered in the journals must be recorded in numerical order
• All transactions must be fully substantiated by supporting source documents
• Any changes made to entries must be made by first reversing the i ncorrect entry and then
entering the new one. Entries that have already been posted should not be changed.

2. Transactions shall be properly authorised. Upon appro val of the ann ual bud get, t he
Manager alo ne authorises expenditures. These sha ll re main wi thin budget by classified
categories un less approvals are r eceived fo r any changes. Supporting docum entation a nd
vouchers for transactions that have been paid, shall be stamped “Paid” and dated.

The personal expenses of the Manager shall be within the approved budget and she/he shal l
provide to the Accountant the appropriate source documents for expenses.

3. Transaction records shall be complete. The sy stem must prevent the om ission of
transaction from the records. All pre-num bered forms must be accounted for in num erical
order, including forms that have been mutilated or otherwise voided due to error.

4. Transactions shall be properly valued.

• Expense reports, invoices, receipts and other transactions shall be checked for accuracy
and initialled by someone other than the person preparing the voucher.

5. Transactions shall be properly classified.

• The transactions must be entered into th e journals with the proper account categories
according to the chart of accounts.

6. Transactions shall be recorded at the proper time.

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• Recording transactions before or after they occur will increase the likelihood of error
• All transactions occurring in an y given month must be recorded in the books d uring that
month.
• Proper m onth-end cut-off procedures shall be m aintained to ensure consistent reporting
from month-to-month

7. All transactions must be supported by adequate and appropriate documents that justify
and support the payment.

Specific Control Procedures

Control procedures are the policies and pro cedures that management has esta blished to
achieve the entity’s specific objectives. Control procedures include things like:

• Accounting and financial policies and procedures to ensure corre ct

and consistent treatment of transactions and operational activities
• Independent checks and review of performance
• Adequate separation of duties (Have different persons “Approve”, “Record” and “Do”)
• Proper authorisation and approval of transactions and activities
• Design and use of adequate docu ments and records (Pre-nu mbered docum ents, Docu ment
Registers, multiple copies, Chart of Accounts, manuals and written procedures, etc.)
• Physical control over assets and records (In financial institutions, many re cords – like
receipts, purchase orders, or pa yment vouchers – are records that have “near-cash” qualit y.
They need to be well controlled)
• Security and controls over the application, chang e, continuit y and backup of com puter
systems, databases and software

Segregation of Duties
The above controls are often best maintained by a system of independent checks and segregation of
duties within the ac counting function. This ensures that each per son performs only certain functions
within the syste m and another checks that person’ s work. This is nece ssary to ensure that no one
person has control over the entire processing of an y given tra nsaction. There are ty pically three
functions in any given transaction: Record, Approve, and Do. These three functions shall be carried
out by three different persons where ever possible.

An advance for loan disburse ments, f or exa mple, has three

functions: 1) approve the transfer, 2) contact the bank to request
the transfer, and 3) record the transaction in the b ooks. In t he
head office, there are t hree persons , so the duties c an be
appropriately segregated.

Handout 5.2 Sample Monthly Accounting Checklist lists the various steps of the accounting process in
preparing monthly financial statements. A checklist of this nature c an be useful f or training purposes,
but also to assist a supervisor in reviewing and checking the monthly accounting process. Handout 5.3
Sample Manager’s Accounting Report Checklist is another to ol that can be used to help managers in
their indepen dent review and verification of an accountant’s wo rk. This t ype of checklist review
strengthens the work of t he accountin g staff in producing reliable financial statements, provides a

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systematic basis for the manager to review reports, and reminds them of the specific items to look for.
It might be appropriate during a manager’s training period, or for manager’s who are very unfamiliar
with financial reports. Handout 5.4 Sample Management Checklists illustrate some of the tools and
checklists used for different levels of branch and centre supervision and monitoring.

Accounting for Cash

Special focus and attention is given to the MFI’ s handling and accounting of cash,
since it is the most vulnerable medium of exchange in the institution, yet with very
high volum es and num bers of transacti ons. The proper management of cash i s
very important for a micro-finance institution for the following reasons:

 There are a large num ber of transac tions of cash receipts a nd cash
disbursements.
 The chance of fraud being committed regarding cash is high and strict controls
are therefore required. Properly maintained cash books help to achieve this.
 Timely payments to creditors increase the reputation of the organisation.
 Timely payments from clients improve the financial position.

1. Loan repayments
The primary source of operating cash received by a micro-finance institution is the repayment of loans
from clients. In some cases, payments are made directly into a bank account. In other cases, payments
are made to the teller or cashier. Sometimes payments are made directly to loan officers.

All collection procedures should include the following:

 Issue pre-printed repayment schedules to each client with the loan proceeds. Include bank
account numbers, if paid to a bank.

 Issue pre-numbered receipts to borrowers for bank deposit slips or cash funds received.

 List all collections, including field collections, and compare with journal.

 Each individual receipt is recorded in two places: the individual client ledger cards and the
cash receipts journal.

 Reconcile the total receipts for each day with the daily bank deposit slip (the institution’s
deposit, not the client’s).

A designated supervisor must review and verify that all cash receipts were deposited in
tact to the MFI’s bank account, and that all cash receipts are accounted for at the close of
business daily.

Payments should not be made to loan officers. If t here is no other option, a dditional control
procedures need to be established. See the example below.

In a village banking programme in Bangladesh, all the loan officers gather every morning
and write on a blackboard the total to be collected during that day’s client visits. At the end
of the day, the loan officers gather again to write the total actually received. The group
notes any discrepancy, and a follow-up visit is scheduled for the next day by the office
coordinator. Immediate follow-up dramatically reduces the opportunity for theft.

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2. Other receipts
There are other types of cash receipts over which the general manager must have direct control.

Donor Fu nds. The general manager must be respo nsible for th e deposit of donor fun ds to ensure
timely and proper crediting to the institution’s acc ount. No donor funds should be received and
deposited without his/her knowledge.

Sale of A ssets. The gener al manager must persona lly approve the sale of any asset, co mplete with
signature on the bill of sale and signature on the voucher showing the receipt of cash.

All cash r eceipts from whatever source must be recorded in a cash book and reconciled to the daily
bank deposit slip.

In so me in stitutions, all inco ming mail is fi rst

reviewed by the general manager and then forwarded
to the appropriate employee for further handling.

3. Cash Disbursements
Bank account - cheques
General Control Techniques:

 Use only pre-numbered cheques for disbursements

 Have proper documentation support for cheques
 Cancel supporting documents when paid (Stamp them “Paid” and write the date)
 Cheque signing by management with no access to records
 Keep voided cheques, but ensure signatures are obliterated
 Post or deliver cheques or disbursements directly to client or payee
 If hand delivered, obtain a receipt
 Record all cheques in numeric al order in the cash disbursements journal and allocate ea ch
cheque to the proper operating expense account number
 Do not pre-sign any cheques and store all un-used cheques under lock and key
 Use an imprest petty cash fund system with one custodian

Operating cash
Many local operating environm ents handle all or m ost financial transactions in cash. There a re many
reasons: banks have no bra nches in so me rural areas, banks may not cater to microfinance clientele,
petty traders or business vendors do not have bank accounts or pr efer doing business with cash. Thi s
increases the controls and procedures necessary for handling MFI operating cash.
General Control Techniques:

 Use a vault or safe that is well-secured and under lock and key for storing operating cash.
 Assign two staff for dual control of the vault.
 Use a V ault Register tha t records the denom ination of currency o n hand, t he date and
signature of physical count, and the sign ature of a supervisor reviewing the balances on hand
with the Cash Book.
 Use a Cash Book to record all cash transacti ons – deposits and withdrawals – updating t he
cash balanc e on hand. This includes all transa ctions related t o loans and to operating
expenses.
 Ensure that all cash disbursem ents ar e dul y authorised and supporting documentation i s
attached to the payment voucher.
 Cancel supporting documents when paid (Stamp them “Paid” and write the date)
 Ensure that the party or clients receiving the cash, signs to confirm receipt of funds.

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Petty cash
Where an MFI can use cheques to handle m ost fina ncial transa ctions, small supplies and items are
often paid through “pett y cash” r ather t han by ch eque. Procedures for handling the petty cash fund
need to be clearly outlined and consistently followed.
General Control Techniques:

 Petty cash should be m aintained on an imprest basis. At any given time, the cash and receipts
in the cash box shall total the im prest level. The level should b e maintained at a specific
amount.
 Only the designated staff p erson will handle petty cash. Actual cash will be spot-checked and
verified by the supervisor at least once per week. The staff person in charge of the fund will
reimburse for any discrepancies.
 All requests for petty cash must be si gned by an authorised supervisor on a pre-numbered
voucher.
 A cheque to replenish the fund should be issued when the fund is low, and at the end of every
month.
 The cash and vouchers should be kept in locked box or safe.

The designated supervisor must do a physical count of the petty cash at the end of each period,
and make a surprise spot-check at least twice during the month!

Handout 5.5 Sample Cash Count and Verification is a document that many external auditors look f or
in verifying end of year balances. Signatures in the petty cash or cash book itself to indicate a date and
verification of a cash count are also important.

Handout 5.6 Sample Vault Register is a record that MFIs often use in tracking the am ount of cash in
their vault at any given t ime. MFIs often use a large ledger book with several colu mns for th e
different bills and coins that are in the vault. The Register records the bills by de nomination, the date,
and the person who m ade the cash count on t hat date. It is good practice to make daily cash count of
cash in the safe, particularly if the MFI itself deals with cash for client transactions.

Strong internal controls are a critical part of th e accounting process in any organisation. They are
especially i mportant for MFIs who typically handle very large volum es o f cash trans actions in
situations where the segre gation of duties is not always possible. Internal controls are neces sary
management functions in an MFI’ s ac counting s ystems and process es. The MicroSave toolkit on
“Internal Audit and Controls for MFIs” (Dueck Mbeba 2007) provides additional resources in this
topic.

The next sect ion addresses specific procedures and topics for ac counting in MFIs. It is i mportant for
both MFI m anagers and accountants to un derstand the ke y con cepts. Most of the concepts and
approaches used relate to International Accounti ng Standards, but MFIs should check with local
accounting bodies to see if there are special procedures recommended in their contexts.

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6. Accounting Procedures for Microfinance

This section of the toolkit addresses specific a ccounting proc edures for microfinance. Wherever
possible, MFIs are reco mmended to establish sound accounting policies consistent with inte rnational
standards an d best practi ces for the sector. This includes the ap plication of the accrual method for
accounting. However, in establishing accounting policies and procedures for recording and classifying
financial transactions in an MFI, the institution also needs to look at several other issues.

 First and foremost, the MFI should consult with the local accounting standards body to determine
the policies and standard s in the national context. This is primary. In m any countries local
accounting standards are in a state of rapid change and development, so they should be consulted
regularly to determine any updates important for MFIs.
 Secondly, the MFI shoul d consult with l ocal statutory and regulato ry bodies, such as the Central
Bank or the relevant Companies legislation, to determine if there are unique accounting standards
that would d etermine practice and procedure in the MFI. Reporting expectations may well be
there, but in some cases there are also specific accounting standards
 Thirdly, an MFI should confer with its local taxation legislation and departments to determine any
relevant issues in reporting for tax purposes. For example, many tax laws pres cribe depreciation
rates, prohibit provisional expenses, or mandate required expenditures for companies. MFIs need
to be aware of the taxation issues that affect th em, and if t heir own policies vary from applicable
taxes levied, will need to adjust their accounts for fi ling tax retur ns. Financial statements for tax
purposes generally do not have a large bearing fo r the MFI stakeholders, unle ss there ar e larg e
differences from the audited financial statements, or there are unusual amounts of liable taxes.
 Finally, in th e absence of national accountin g sta ndards or relevant statutory or tax gui dance,
MFIs should consult with Intern ational Accounting Standards to deter mine the proper accounting
treatment of transactions. This may be particularly important for areas whe re there is no loca l
standard, or for unusua l item s that require sp ecialised treatment or disclosure. A solid
understanding of International A ccounting Standards is useful i n any case, since the general
global tren d is converge nce and ado ption of I nternational Accounting Sta ndards (IAS) and
International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).

The following sections ill ustrate the accounting treat ment of the most common topics and procedures
needed for recording and classifying transactions in an MFI. Appropriate references ar e included in
the bibliography and should be referred to periodically as standards evolve and change over time.

Cash vs. Accrual Accounting

Accrual accounting is the method of accounting that recognises and books re venue or expense
transactions when they ta ke place, wh ether or not cash changes hands. Acco rding to Inte rnational
Accounting Standards, financial stat ements should be based on accrual accounting. However,
International Accounting Standards also encourage the “exercise of prudence” when it comes to
recording revenue or expenditures for item s that s how signs of ri sk or the possibilit y of not being
realised.
Example of Accounts Payable:
When expenses ar e incurr ed in the current period, but pa yable or pa id in another period, they are
recorded as accounts pay able in the current period. It is im portant to record ex pense accruals at the
financial year end:

Debit: Expense
Credit: Accounts Payable

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Estimated expenses can also be re corded as accrued expenses. An example is the case of audit fees.
Rather than record a large expense at y ear end in one period, the expense can be estimated in advance
and pro-rated or allocated monthly.

Debit: Expense
Credit: Accrued Expenses Payable

Example of Amortisation of Prepaid Expenses:

Payments that cover expenses for more than one future accounting period should be recor ded as a
prepaid expense, an asset account on the balance sheet. Annual insurance pr emiums, prepaid rent
advances, or housing advances are such examples. The periodic expense (e.g. monthly or quarterly) is
then amortised until the prepaid expense account is reduced to zero.

Debit: Prepaid Expense

Credit: Bank account

Debit: Expense
Credit: Prepaid Expense

Accounting for Client Transactions

Accountants should be able to handle the basic accounting related to client transactions. Most are
straightforward, but it is worthwhile to note specific variations.

Example of Loan Disbursements:

Debit: Loan Portfolio Receivable
Credit: Bank

Example of Loan Receipts:

Debit: Bank or Cash
Credit: Interest
Credit: Loan Portfolio Receivable

Example of Partial Payments:

The key issue with partial pay ments is to allocat e the pay ment to penalties and interest first. Any
remaining funds in the payment are credited to Loan Portfolio Receivable.

Example of Prepayments:
Generally, prepayments are posted to an account called prepayments.
Debit: Cash or Bank
Credit: Prepayment (a Liability)

When the loa n becomes due, it is handled in the fo llowing way. The am ount of interest will be as
scheduled if flat interest is charged. If clients are charged interest on a declining balance basis, interest
must be calculated as of the day that the client prepaid.
Debit: Prepay ments
Credit: Interest
Credit: Loan Portfolio Receivable

Example of Savings Deposits:

Debit: Cash or Bank
Credit: Client Deposits

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Example of Savings Payments to Clients:

Debit: Client Deposits
Credit: Cash or Bank

Accounting for Accrued Loan Interest Revenue

International Accounting Standards recommend that MFIs use the accrual based system of accounting
for all transactions, including the recognition of loan interest revenue. Accrual- based accounting is a
system in which revenues and expenses are recognised and booked in t he period in which they arise,
regardless of when the c ash is re ceived or paid out. Although many MFIs use a ccrual-based
accounting methods, the y often revert to the cash basi s for loan collections. This may be appropriate
in a start-up stage, though it is very important to re member that any ex ception from accru al based
accounting must be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.
If the accrual principle is not applied to an MFI’ s loan repay ments, the financial stat ements will be
affected in t wo situations. The first situation is wh ere the period reportin g d ate falls between the
client’s scheduled repayment dates. Consider, for example, an MFI which has loans outstanding with
monthly instalments due mid-month. However, the fi nancial statements are prepared as of the end of
the month. In accordance with accrual based accounting, the MFI has earned 1 5 days of int erest by
month-end, even though payment will not be received for another 15 days. This accrued interest needs
to be recorded to properly state the MFI’s financial position as of the end of the month.
The second situation is in accounting for loan inte rest revenue on delinquent loans. In accordance
with accrual based accounting, loan i nterest should be recognised when it becomes due, reg ardless of
when payment is received . For exa mple, a monthly loan payment that was not paid on June 15, and
remains outstanding on June 30, has e arned 46 days of accrued interest (31 days from May 15 to June
15 and 15 days from June 16 through June 30). Consistent application of the accrual approach actually
requires two adjustments for the period reporting date. The first adjustment is to recognise the interest
due on the delinquent loan. The second adjustment is to record an estimate for the amounts deemed to
be uncollectible. This second adjust ment app lies the prudence principle, and accounts for th e
possibility that this delinquent loan, and its accrued interest revenue, may not be collected.

Accounting for accrued loan interest revenue is time-consuming and the additional revenue booked in
the financial accounts may in fact be immaterial for many small MFIs. Accruing loan interest revenue,
providing for any uncollectible amounts due to delinquency, and de-recognising interest when writing
a loan off are complicated procedures that are further discussed in Advanced Accounting resources.

Small MFIs may choose to record loan interest on a cash basis , and disclose this deviation from
accrual accounting i n the notes to the financial stat ements. However, be sure to know what the legal
requirements may be for your type of MFI!

When your MFI is required to strictly adhere to accrual accounting for loan interest re venue, the
following explanation provides the rationale and background on the issues involved.
 When financial reporting dates fall between repa yment dates, cal culating and recording acc rued
loan interest revenue for am ounts ear ned durin g t he accounting period sh ould be conducted.
Previous period accruals must also be revers ed. The overall i mpact to tota l revenue might be
insignificant, but m onitoring Accrued Interest Receivable on the balance sheet could provide
helpful information to management, particularly if the account increases rapidly.

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 In order to arrive at this calculation, the ins titution’s loan tracking sy stem (i .e. auto mated or
manual) should be able t o provide this information. In an autom ated system, a demand collection
report generated for t he r eporting period date, ra ther than the actual instalment date, should
clearly show the amount of interest and principal due.
 International Accounting Standards recognise that some situations – specifically delinq uency --
may reduce the likelihood of collecting both interest and principal of so me loans, and advise “the
exercise of p rudence.” Therefore, accrued inter est revenue should be adjusted to reflect a more
accurate value of the interest receivable, which follows the same logic as when providing for loan
losses. The Balance sheet should reflect the pruden ce principal and interest receivable should not
overstate thes e as sets. The effect of the adjust ment to provide for uncollectible interest revenue
would reduce both the interest receivable account and interest revenue on the income statement.
 MFIs should not indefini tely continue accruing interest on delinquent l oans. Deter mining an
appropriate time period to accrue interest revenue will be based on the ty pe of loan and its
repayment period, for exa mple agricu ltural or seasonal loans with balloon pay ments. After
selecting an appropriate and pr udent period, MF Is should recog nise interest on n on-performing
loans on a cash basis – when the repayment is actually received. These policies must be disclosed
in the notes to the financial statements.
 When accrued loan interest revenue is considered uncollectible, it should be “de-recognised” and
recommended for write-off. Any de-recognition of loan interest should be disclosed. When the de-
recognition takes place on interest recorded in th e current year, it m ust be passed through the
Income and Expense State ment, but disclosed separately for full tr ansparency. When de-
recognition of interest relates to interest recogni sed in previous periods, the entry must be passed
through the Prior Period Adjustment account.

Accounting for Impairment Loss Allowance and Provision for

Loan Impairments
In accordance with the principle of conservatis m and prudenc e, financia l statements should not
overstate the assets and revenue of an entity, nor understate the liabilities or expenses. In the financial
sector (e.g. banks and MFIs), this i mplies that loans receivables should reflect a reasonable estimate
of amounts that may not be collected in the futu re. An accounting entr y, based on the MFI ’s policy,
creates the Impairment Loss Allowance. This is a contra-account to the Loan Portfolio on the Balance
Sheet. In the past, MFIs have also called this the Allowance for Loan Losses or the Loan Loss
Reserve.

The basis for developing the policy and the accounti ng entries are derived from a variety of sources –
the portfolio quality in an Aging Report, an analy sis of historical trends and historical write-offs.
Young MFIs do not have the experience or history to shape the policy. In that case, MFIs ar e advised
to apply published industry standards in setting policies. It is better to err on t he side of prudence and
conservatism.

How Old Are the Overdue Payments?

Loan aging allows the management to know h ow much of a delinquent l oan is overdue and also for
how long it has been overdue. The lo nger a loan p ayment is overdue, the higher the risk of never
receiving the overdue payment, and al so future pa yments. When loans beco me delinquent, they are
referred to as the portfoli o at risk. The total am ount of delinquent loan balances is at risk, and not
simply the late pay ments. Aging of past due amo unts also all ows MFI managers to det ermine if
delinquency management strategies are effective. Are loans still slipping into l ater categories, or are
they being contained in the 0 - 30 day category?

Formal financial institutions norm ally “age” the loan s and pr ovide allowances for loan impairments
according to the num ber of day s that have passed since the firs t pay ment w as missed. T he actual

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number of day s in an agin g schedule may be regulated by legal o r banking standards of the country.
Most MFIs group p ortfolio at risk in in crements of 30 da ys, e.g. 1 – 30 days, 31 – 6 0 days, 61 – 90
days, etc. Each category of portfolio at risk is multiplied by a rate that represents the perceived
possibility of the loans in that category not being repaid. The categories are added together to arrive at
the total Impairment Loss Allowance on the portfolio. A sample aging report follows.

International best practices in m icrofinance (“Measuring Performance of Microfinance Institutions: A

Framework for Reporting, Analy sis, and Monitor ing.” SEEP Network) su ggest the following
categories and amounts for calculating risk and the Allowance:

(A) (B) (C)

Portfolio Aging Number of Outstanding Impairment Loss Allowance (%)
Schedule Loans in Arrears Loan Balance
1. 0 days 3,700 350,000 0% 0
2. 1 - 30 days past 105 3,750 10% 375
due
3. 31 – 90 days past 100 5,000 30% 1,500
due
4. 91 – 180 days past 75 5,000 60% 3,000
due
5. Over 180 days 60 2,500 100% 2,500
past due
6. Rescheduled 20 1,750 100% 1,750
7. Total 4,060 368,000 9,125

Many MFIs require clients to m ake weekly or fort-nightly repayments. Therefore a client who is 3 0
days late may already be 2 – 4 instal ments behind in repayments. The actual risk in this case may be
much more than the 10% suggested for MFIs in the above table. It is important for MFIs to track their
history to determine realistic levels of risk on their delinquent loans.

Another common issue for many MFIs is to take a general allowance of 2% of the portfoli o, simply
because that is the suggested am ount made by many Central Banks. However, it is m ore prudent and
useful to the reader of fi nancial state ments fo r the MFI to record an Im pairment Loss Allowance
based on the actual quality of the portfolio – based on aging of delinquent loans.

In setting the policy for providing for l oan impairments through an Allowance, the objective is to be
fair, but con servative. The method and determ ination of t he Allowance, provisions, write off
procedures and recovery of losses m ust be fully disclosed in the financial state ments of the
organisation.

The following chart illustr ates the definitions and inter-relationship between key terms in accounting
for non-cash adjustments to providing for possible future losses of the loan portfolio.

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Provision for Loan

Impairment Loss Allowance Loan Write-Offs
Impairments
 An account that represents an  Amount expensed on the  Occur as an accounting entry
estimate of the amount of income and expenses  Do not mean that loan
outstanding principal that the statement. recovery should not continue
MFI does not expect to  The provision is used to to be pursued.
recover in the future increase or decrease the  A write off decreases the
 Negative asset on the balance Impairment Loss Allowance Impairment Loss Allowance
sheet that reduces the and the outstanding portfolio
outstanding portfolio.

Notice that the “Allowance” is a balance sheet account that effectively reduces the value of t he Loan
Portfolio. The “Provision for Impairment Losses” is a current period expense in the income statement.
The Provision expense increas es or de creases the A llowance based on the perceived risk after aging
the portfoli o. Each period , an entr y is made to adjust the Allowance account and bri ng it to the
appropriate level for the period. If the A llowance decreases from the previous period, which is highly
unlikely, the “provision” will be a credit expense on the income statement. In most cases, MFIs do not
make a cr edit entry to the expense if the Allowan ce decrea ses. The effect is si mply to report an
Allowance that is more conservative than the defined policy.

The I mpairment Loss All owance is an accounting entry that presents the Loan Portfolio m ore
conservatively. Generally, MFIs do not set aside special funds or cash reserves for this Allowance.

Figure 6.1: Illustration of Accounting for the Impairment Loss Allowance and Provisions

Before making any accounting adjustments, make sure the following steps take place.

1. Prepare the Portfolio Aging Schedule according to the MFI’s policy.

2. Calculate the Impairment Loss Allowance based on the MFI’s policy for each category.

3. Compare the Allowance for the current period with the previous period’s balance. To increase
the Impairment Loss Allowance, make the following accounting entry:

DR Provision for Loan Impairments (Expense)

CR Impairment Loss Allowance (Balance Sheet)

4. To decrease the Impairment Loss Allowance, make the following accounting entry:
DR Impairment Loss Allowance (Balance Sheet)
CR Provision for Loan Impairments (Expense)

Note: There is rarely a decrease in the Impairment Loss Allowance. Many MFIs make NO adjustment
to the account if the Allowance decreases, ensuring that there is more than adequate provision
established.

Accounting for Loan Write-Offs and Write-Off Recoveries

A write-off represents an accounting adjustment to remove a loan that is no longer considered
collectible from the accounts. Clients are not generally informed of write-offs, as some MFIs continue
collection efforts, depending on the circumstances of the write-off. Certainly, information about write-
offs should be maintained by the MFI, since the cl ient should not be allowed to apply for a n ew loan
in the future.

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The following illustration reflects International Acc ounting Standards for write-offs. Write-offs must
be disclosed in a schedule to the financ ial statements that shows t he changes and movements in the
Allowance for Loan Losses account for the period.

Figure 6.2: Illustration of Accounting for Loan Write-offs and Write-off Recoveries

International Accounting Standards

1. When a loan loss is recognised based on the write-off policy:
DR Impairment Loss Allowance (Balance sheet)
CR Loan Portfolio (Balance sheet)

2. After writing off a loan or collecting a written off lo an, re-do the Portfolio Aging Schedule,
calculate the Allowance again, and adjust th e Impairm ent Loss Allowance to reflect the
change in the Aging Schedule made by the Write-off.

3. To record a collection on a loan that has been written-off:

DR Cash (Balance Sheet)
CR Value of Loans Recovere d (Incom e Statement – within the P rovision f or
Loan Impairment section)

Note: This approach varies slightly from common banking practice where the recovery of a loan
previously written off signals the reinstatement of the loan contract from a legal perspective. The
collection of any portion of a previously written off loan triggers a re-entry of the entire loan into the
books again, offset by the Allowance in its entirety.

Accounting for Deferred Expense on Group Formation

In general, b est practice and Internatio nal Acc ounting Standards suggest to s imply write-off gro up
formation expenses as they are incurred. However, some countries do allow MFIs to defer expenses
on group formation. This means that in stead of writing off these developmental expenses, they are
charged to a Deferred Expense on the balance she et and amortised in future periods. This i llustrates
the principles of accrual accounting and matching.

For exa mple, so me MFIs charge direct costs such as s alaries and benefits, trai ning and travel costs
related to the formation and training of Self Help Groups as a deferred expense. Those expenses ar e
recognised in periods when those Groups beco me mature and are full y functioning within t he MFI’s
operational network and ge nerate inte rest revenue. These prep aid expenses are then gradually
expensed in order to match against the loan inter est revenue that the Groups generate for the MFI.
Should the MFI conclude that the Group will not become functional and perform well (although the
standards do not clearly outline specific criteria), th e MFI may write off the tota l of these expenses at
any time.

Without a written MFI policy or clear documentati on, this pol icy m ay be abused resulting in
inaccurate or inconsistent financial stat ements. In actual practice , given the current trends of rapid
growth and c ompetition in the m icrofinance sector, an auditor’s bias is toward conservatism , and to
simply write-off group formation costs.

If an MFI elects to defer group f ormation costs, th e same accounting treatm ent applied to Prepaid
Expenses would be applied. Full disclosure and rationa le for the policy is required in the notes to the
financial statements.

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Figure 6.3: Illustration of Deferred Expense on Group Formation

MFI For The Poor spent 240,000 in the past year on the formation of groups with the expectation that
they would lend to the groups for many years to come. The various costs were incurred through
salaries and transportation expenses in visiting the groups for training and monitoring.

DR Deferred Expense – Group Formation 240,000

CR Bank 240,000

Monthly journal adjustments in the following year, assuming a 2 year amortisation period would be as
follows:

DR Group Formation Expenses 10,000

CR Deferred Expense – Group Formation 10,000

Accounting for Software Development and Amortisation

Many MFIs choose to pur chase a commercial “off-the shelf” software for thei r accounting and loan
tracking purposes, even if it must be custo mised to some exte nt. However, the development of
customised s oftware for t he MFI is al so considered an investment to be used in future p eriods in
operations and is eligible to be capitalised and am ortised in future periods. Costs must be clearly
documented, and the estimated useful life should be reasonable, considering the pace of technological
and software changes. These capitalis ed costs are classified as a n Intangible Asset on the balance
sheet are might be amortised between 3 – 5 years. In reality, most software is not projected to have a
very long shelf life.

Figure 6.4: Illustration of Accounting for Software Development and Amortisation

Accounting software development and customisation
Community MFI invested in the development of their own software for their rapidly growing MFI.
They dedicated staff to this project and in 2 years, incurred 3,600,000 in costs toward software
development that they estimated to serve them for the following 3 years.

The following accounting entries are made for various operating activities:

Investment of the software

DR Software Development Capitalised (Balance Sheet Asset) 3,600,000
CR Bank (Balance Sheet Asset) 3,600,000

Monthly amortisation in the first year’s use

DR Amortisation of Software (Expense) 100,000
CR Accumulated Software Amortisation (Bal Sheet) 100,000

Accounting for the Purchase and Depreciation of Fixed Assets

Fixed Assets are not recorded as expenses, but are capitalised to the balance sheet because they have a
life and usefulness to the MFI beyond one year in the future. MFIs should have a capitalisation policy
that guides the am ount or value of the asset that is eligible for capitalisation. Item s under this value
are generally expensed in the period in which th ey are purchased. The amount to capitalise may also
be prescribed by l ocal accounting standards and must be disclosed as a policy in t he notes to the
financial statements.

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A fixed asset ledger shoul d be maintained, reflec ting purchase date, serial and identification number,
depreciation rate, accumulated depreciation and the net book value of the asset.

Common fixed ass ets in MFIs include: co mputers, office equipment, office furniture, m otorcycles,
vehicles, and bicycles. Some MFIs own their own building and property used as office premises.
On making a fixed asset purchase:
Debit: Fixed Asset
Credit: Bank Account

As the asset is used, accounting entries are made to record the wear and tear on the asset by entering a
depreciation expense. The corresponding entr y is ma de to accu mulated depr eciation, and deducted
from the cost of the asset to disclose net book value of the asset on the balance sheet.

Debit: Depreci ation Expense

Credit: Accumulated Depreciation

Accounting for the Sale or Disposal of Fixed Assets

When a fixed asset is sold, the MFI will usually receive cash in exchange for the asset that reflects the
market value of the item. However, the market value may be more or less than the net book value that
sits on the book.
On selling a fixed asset:
Debit: Cash or Bank Account
Debit: Accumulated Depreciation for that Fixed Asset
Credit: Fixed Asset
Debit/Credit: Gain or Loss on Sale of Fixed Asset

Similar treatment is given to the disposal of fixe d assets, whether they are no l onger working, broken
or stolen. In this case, ther e is no exchange of cash, and the entire net book val ue must be written off
as a loss, unless there is r ecovery from an insurance policy. Any proceeds for the sale or disposal of
fixed assets are shown as non-operating income on the financial statements.

The details o f re-valuing fixed asset s f or fair market value ar e n ot included in this toolkit, but it is
recommended that this standard be ap plied to MFIs . For the most part, MFIs only carry computers,
vehicles and other depreciable asset s with little residual value. However, l arger MFIs purchase
property and buildings that should be assessed for re-valuation from time to time.

Accounting for Grants and Donations

International Accounting Standards clearly reco mmend the application of accrual a ccounting in
recording and recognising grants. As grant-related expenditures are incurred, the related grant income
is recognised by transferring the same amount from deferred grant income to g rant income. This is a
clear applica tion of the matching principle. In MFIs, grants and donations are always recorded
separately from operation al activities. They are shown “below” the operating line on the Income
Statement, together with non-operating incom e a nd expenses and taxes. When transferred to t he
Balance Shee t, the y are not includ ed i n the Retained Earnin gs fr om operations, but in C ontributed
Capital (or Donated Equity).

MFIs or organisations often receive grants or donations in lum p sum advance instal ments. The
application of the accrual accounting method means that the amounts are recorded as deferred revenue

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when receive d. The y are only transferred to re venue as the r elated project expenses ar e incurred
(generally one entry at the end of the reporting period).
On receipt of the grant or donation:
Debit: Bank
Credit: Deferred Grant Revenue

On making expenditures related to the grant:

Debit: Expense
Credit: Bank Account

Debit: Deferred Grant Revenue

Credit: Grant Revenue

Figure 6.5: Illustration of Accounting for Grants and Donations

Operating subsidies
MFI For The Poor has received a one year grant for 500,000 as operating subsidies. They expect to
use most of the funds in the current year, but not necessarily all of them. MFI For The Poor applies
the accrual accounting approach, and prepares financial statements monthly.

The following accounting entries are made for various operating activities:

Receipt of the grant of 500,000

DR Bank Account (Asset) 500,000

CR Deferred Revenue (Other Long Term Liability) 5,00,000

Funds are used for various operational activities (as per the grant agreement) for 80,000 in the month

DR Expenses (Income and Expense Statement) 80,000

CR Bank Account (Asset) 80,000

At the end of the month, all the grant related expenses are totalled, and an accounting journal entry is
prepared to recognise the related revenue. Note that at this point, the entry is NOT about the original
amount of cash received, but recognising income only on the amount that was actually spent.

DR Deferred Revenue (Liability) 80,000

CR Grant Revenue (Income and Expense Statement) 80,000

T Account Example:

Deferred Grant Revenue Debit Credit Balance

A. Opening Balance 0 CR
B. Receipt of Grant Funds 500,000 500,000 CR
C. Recognition of Grant Income 80,000
D. Ending Balance 420,000 CR

Accounting for Fixed Asset Donations

Many MFIs receive grant s or donati ons for fixed assets – eit her through cash contributions or
donations i n-kind. T he accounting tre atment for c ash contribut ions follows below. Accounting
procedures for in-kind donations are described in a later section, but would foll ow the same patterns

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of revenue recognition that is described in this sec tion. The only distinction would be to ide ntify the
Grant Income as In-Kind.

The key issue in accounting for cash donations for fixed assets is when to recognise the am ount on
your Income Statement. Is the grant recognised as in come when it is received, when the fixed assets
are actually purchased, or over the life of the asset? While it is im portant to re view your policy with
your external accountants, the description below is a generally accepted practice in the industry.

International Accounting Standards recommend that donations and grants be treated on an accrual
basis. Using an incom e approach to grants for fi xed assets implies that the funds are first recognised
on the Balance Sheet when received, either as Deferred Grant Revenue in the liability section or in the
Reserve for Fixed Assets in the equity section. The fixed assets a re then record ed at their cost, as in
the normal fashion, when purchased. The grant funds, however, are recognised as revenue onl y when
these assets are depreciated in acco rdance with the matching principle. Revenue recognition w ill take
place, pro rata, over the useful life of the asset s acq uired, by reducing Deferred Grant Rev enue (or
Reserve for Fixed Assets). The net effect to the In come and Expense statement will be zero, since the
same amount of grant revenue and depreciation rela ted to the asset will be recorded in each period.
Please refer to the following figure to illustrate this approach.

Figure 6.6: Illustration for Donations and Grants for Fixed Assets
MFI For The Poor received 125,000 for purchasing motorcycles for their rural work with
microfinance Self Help Groups.

The following accounting entries are made for various operating activities:

On receiving the grant of 125,000

DR Bank Account (Balance Sheet Asset) 125,000

CR Deferred Grant Revenue or Reserve for Fixed Assets 125,000

On purchasing the motorcycles for operational use

DR Fixed Assets (Balance Sheet Account) 125,000

CR Bank Account 125, 000

On recording depreciation of 1,000 for the month:

DR Depreciation (Expense) 1,000
CR Accumulated Depreciation 1,000

Recognition of grant revenue:

DR Deferred Grant Revenue or Reserve for Fixed Assets 1,000
CR Grant Revenue (Income Statements) 1,000

Accounting for Donations of Loan Capital

In the past, MFIs have frequentl y posted Donations of Loan Capital (also called Contributed Capital
for Portfolio Expansion) directly to the Balance Sh eet at the tim e the amount is received. Ho wever,
International Accounting Standards r ecommend th at these donations be included in t he Inco me
Statement as Donations of Loan Capital before bein g transferred to the Balance Sheet at period end.
There are two accounting approaches are illustrated following.

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Figure 6.7: Illustration of Donations for Loan Capital

MFI For The Poor has received a grant for 1,000,000 designated strictly for portfolio expansion in the
MFI. They expect to release the funds quarterly for the next two years to grow the portfolio. Financial
statements are prepared quarterly. The quarterly recognition of revenue will be 125,000 as it is an
estimate of the amount invested in the portfolio during that period.

Receipt of the loan capital grant of 1,000,000

DR Bank Account (Balance Sheet Asset) 1,000,000

CR Deferred Revenue (Other Long Term Liability) 1,000,000

Funds are invested in portfolio growth each quarter for two years and the quarterly revenue
recognition will be:

DR Deferred Revenue 125, 000

CR Donations for Loan Capital (Income Statement) 125,000

At year end, the Donations for Loan Capital will be posted to the Donated Equity in the Balance
Sheet.

Accounting for In-Kind Subsidies and Grants

Many MFIs receive material am ounts of subsidies in -kind, such as office rent , the use of vehicles,
technical assistance, or the salaries of key personnel. Receipts of in-kind d onations and subsidies fo r
MFI operations follow the same accounting treatm ent for other grants as outlined in Inter national
Accounting Standards.

However, since the in-kind contributions do not flow through the operations of the MFI in the form of
cash, they must be recog nised through journal ad justments that are supported by appropr iate and
objective documentation (e.g. agreements, form al letters or memos, Memorandum of Understanding).
In some cases, it may be necessary to record the in-kind costs at their best esti mates if the act ual cost
is not known. The challenge that this poses is th at esti mates may be highl y subjective, and without
any relevant comparisons, may not realistically reflect the value of the goods and services.

The expenses are include d in general operating expe nses, and the related revenue is included in
donations for operations.

In MFIs analy tical financial state ments, grants and donations, including in-kind grants an d
donations, are alway s recorded separately from the financial revenue of
operations. They are shown “below” the operating line on the Inco me
Statement, together with non-operating income and expenses and taxes. When
transferred to the Balance Sheet, they are not included in the Retained Earnings
from operations, b ut i n Donated Equ ity. Some M FIs show in- kind subsidie s
separate from grants and donations received in cash.

Loans made to MFIs at less than ma rket rates of interest are c alled subsidised loans, soft loans, or
concessional loans. They are recorded separately from commercial loans on the balance sheet in order
to identify the eff ects of “subsidy” in analy sis. Full disclosure of loan terms, conditions and security
for all ty pes of borrowing is a standard reporting e xpectation. Normally, the additional cost of these
subsidised funds is not inc luded with in -kind donations and subsid ies. However, they are included i n
analytical adjustments.

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Figure 6.8: Illustration of Donations of In-kind Subsidies and Grants

MFI For The Poor will receive the following in-kind subsidies from the parent international NGO in
the fiscal year ending December 31, 2006, as documented in a Memorandum of Understanding signed
in December 2005. The MFI would like to record the effects of these subsidies monthly in the
accounting records to reflect the actual costs of operations.

Annual office rent space: 12,000 (monthly charge of 1,000)

One full-time manager (salary and benefits): 60,000 (monthly charge of 5,000)

Monthly journal adjustments would be as follows:

DR Office Rent in-kind (Expense) 1,000

DR Management Salaries in-kind (Expense) 5,000
CR In-Kind Donations Income 6,000

These amounts and the details of the Memorandum of Understanding would be fully disclosed in a
Note to the financial statements.

MFIs are encouraged to record all donated fixed assets at their fair market value on the books of the
MFI for true and fair presentation of their fina ncial position and related operational costs (i.e.
depreciation). Regardless of the m ethod used, the poli cy and treatment of in-ki nd donations of fixed
assets should be fully disclosed in the notes to the financial statements.

Accounting for Financial Costs

An MFI’s fi nancial costs include the following components in the category of Financ ial Costs:
interest costs on funds borrowed; commitment cost for funds or facilities availed (i.e. Lines of credit);
processing fees charged b y the lender; bank charges in curred to get the fund t ransferred to the bank
accounts of the MFI; guarantee fees o r co mmission paid to pr ocure the loan fund and i ncidental
expenses arising from the terms of the l oan agreement. Processing fees for making various financial
arrangements are considered on time expenses and recognised in the financial y ear in which the fund
is obtained.

Net exchange gains or losses on foreign currenc y tr ansactions a re also included in the category of
Financial Costs. These costs might be i ncurred through transactions conducted in f oreign currencies,
or through re valuing f oreign assets or liabilities on the balance sheet, e.g. a bank account held in
foreign currency.

Financial costs could be s ummarised on one expen se line in the Income an d Expense state ment.
However, a schedule in the financial statements should show a detailed break down of financial costs
incurred.

Translation of Foreign Currency

Sometimes an MFI is expected to report in a currenc y other than the one used to record the general
ledger (called the functional or local currency ). An exam ple would be a general ledger in t he local
currency, and reports in Euros. In general, the prin ciple is to use an average exchange rat e for the
revenue and expenses of the period, and the ending exchange rate for balance sheet items. Fixed assets
are usually recorded at hi storical cost. Gains or los ses on the Tr anslation of Foreign Currency are
reported on t he Income and Expense Statement as non-operating revenue or expenses. Remember,
translation of foreign currency for reporting purposes is different than accounting for foreign
currency transactions as discussed above. Gains or losses on transactions are not posted to the
accounts, since the general ledger accounts are still carried in the local currency.

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Accounting for Bank Partnerships

There are co mmercial banks which pr ovide capital and legall y own a m icrofinance loan portfolio
managed by an MFI. This “partnership m odel” is guided by an agreement that outlines the
responsibilities of the parties, and the operational de tails. Usually, the bank wil l advance funds to the
MFI for a stated rate, wh o then lends to m icro-borrowers at a hi gher rate and collects repa yments
from them for an agreed u pon fee from the bank. This type of portfolio is legally owned by the bank;
the MFI acts as an agent, and handles transactions with micro-borrowers on behalf of the bank.

From an accounting perspective, transactions can be passed through the accounts as a Loan Payable to
the Bank. However, loan collections from clients include the MFI’s fee that is retained by the MFI, as
in the illustration below.

Example: A repayment of 3,000 is received where 2,900 is principal and interest pay ment, passing
through the MFI to be repaid to the b ank. The MFI retains 100 as their fees for managing the loan.
Only the fee is booked in the MFI as Other Income.

Transactions in these partnership m odels are very si milar to agent m odels in ter ms of accounting.
They do need to be handled differently from the MFI’s usual disbursements and collections processes:
 Loan collections will be credited to Loa n Payable t the Bank for t he principal and the bank’s
portion of th e interest. This detail must be discl osed in the MFI’s transfer of funds to the
bank.
 The MFI’s portion must be credited to Fees from Bank partnerships (Other Income).
 Accounts with the bank s hould be regularly r econciled and avai lable for clear and accurat e
confirmation for interim or year-end audit purposes.
 The Notes to the financial state ments m ust clearly disclose any partnership with leading
banks, the legal status and nature of the arrangement, the details of interest and fees, and the
term of the agreement.

Accounting for Applications in Technology Services

Today, the world in which MFIs operate is fast adopting technology that can increase penetration and
expansion of services, and reduce delivery costs si gnificantly. Regardless of the reasons for adopting
technology a nd for the service results, the integra tion of advanced technol ogy will have its own
implications for the MFI accountant.

A co mmercial bank established a partnership with an MFI to manage a variety of p ortfolio and
banking services for its clientele and micro-enterprise sector. The b ank agreed to open bank accounts
for clients.

The bank offered Auto matic Teller machines (ATM) services to these clients using Smart Cards with
which clients could m ake deposits on l oans and deposit and withdraw savings. The ATM service s
were managed by an Information and Communications Technology provider (ICT). The bank held the
accounts, and the MFI worked with and processed clients in order to provide the financial services.

The ICT com pany servicing the ATM held all the information transacted at t he machines, in daily
batch reports. The reports showed the withdrawal s and deposit s to accounts. However, the batch
reports were not issued to the bank regularly for cash updates to accounts. The reports were not issued
to the MFI either, and without tim ely, accurate information, the MFI was not able to updat e its MIS
on client accounts, and more importantly make immediate follow up on delinquent accounts.

Use of Perso nal Data A ssistants (PDA’s), smart cards, debit car ds, cellular phones, or Point of Sale
(POS) technology have all been tested and are gain ing broader acceptance in the microfinance sector.

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They can increas e growt h and scal e in the se ctor (particularly in re mote r ural are as), i ncrease
efficiencies, and provi de additional access and serv ices for clien ts. In many c ases, t echnologies are
still under de velopment. However, the process of el ectronic data transfer, and managing information
exchange must be managed. Daily updates, we ekly or m onthly reconciliati ons, and independent
verification are critical co ntrol m easures that cannot be abandoned in accounting and financial
controls by the MFI.

All technological tools have major accounting a nd internal control issues for m anagement and
reporting in an MFI.
 Regular reco nciliations of information and tran sactions between the parties are essential to
good control. The ICT provider should provide daily reports to the MFI of any transaction s
taken place. This will inform the MFI of any delinquency in a timely manner.
 The ICT provider should also provide daily transaction reports to the bank so that cash and
other balances can be updated promptly.
 Transactions m ust be entered and an y reporting cut-off dates, fo r exam ple, month end an d
year end, must be strictly observed.
 The Notes t o the financial state ments must clearly disclose the use of an y technology,
agreements with any IC T providers, or part nership banks and confirm ation of period end
balances.

Accounting for Agency Relationships

MFIs often look to diversify services for their clients, but may be limited because of regulatory issues
or technological infrastructure. Typical examples are micro-insurance and money transfer services. A
strategic alli ance with We stern Union, for exa mple, can provide a valuable, high-dem and service to
the MFI’ s clientele, without the MFI s etting up t he necessary infrastructure to facilitate transfers.
Rather, the MFI will receive an agent fee for providing the service on behalf of Western Union.

In m ost countries, MFIs are not allowed to car ry out commer cial insura nce business and services.
However, they are able to act as a corporate agent between the insurance company and clients. The
MFI will collect prem iums and rem it premiums to the insurance provider. T hey will also collect,
reconcile and subm it claim s to the insuran ce provider, and on approval and pa yment from th e
insurance company, will settle claims to clients. The insurance company will pay a fee to the MFI, but
will retain the responsibility for indemnification of policy holders.

In this case, the transactions are processed through the MFI’s accounting records as a “flow through.”
Funds flow in and out of the MFI, but do not pass through the inco me and expense stat ement. Agent
fees ar e booked as revenue in the MFI’ s accounting sy stem and reflected as such on the f inancial
statements.

Specific accounting tips include:

 If may be he lpful to set up several control accounts through whi ch to pass transactions, for
example, premiu ms collected, prem iums re mitted, settlements received, and settlem ents
issued. This would facilitate basic r econciliation of accounts to pay ments and docum ents
submitted to the insurance provider.
 Accounts would be aggregated and nett ed out in financial statement presentation, as needed.
The nature of the agreement and details of fees earned should be d isclosed in the Notes to the
financial statements.
 These accounts could be set up through the Income Statement, if clearly disclosed. It might be
more prudent to have the transactions pass through the Balance Sheet, and onl y book fe e
income to the Income and Expense Statement.

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7. Financial Statements and Reports

The financial statements are the final tangible ou tput of the accounting system. The balance sheet and
the incom e statement are produced from the gener al ledger. The cash flow st atement analy ses the
sources and t he uses of cash in the period. It is th e financial state ments, together with portfolio and
operational reports that pr ovide what is needed for financial analy sis in MFIs. Financial statem ents
and portfolio reports allow for the calculation and an alysis of financial performance ratios. Financial
statements, particularly when com pared to budge t, or co mpared to previou s periods, beco me a
barometer of measuring change and growth, and performance according to plans.

Usually, draft statements are prepared firs t, allowing accountants to conduct the necessary
reconciliations and m ake the corrections needed to ensure that information is accurate. However,
financial statements should also be produced in a timely fashion, very shortly after the month end. It
may be necessary to sacrif ice 100% accuracy in or der to produce reasonably reliable statements for
analytical purposes.

MFI Financial Statements Characteristics:

Financial reporting standards for MFIs in India have been designed to promote the
following standards of excellence:
 Clarity and understanding: the info rmation prov ided in finan cial statemen ts should be
readily understandable by users. This does not m ean that inform ation about intricate matters
that is im portant for decision-m aking should be excluded merely on the gro und that it m ight
be too difficult for certain users to understand.
 Relevance (i.e. materiality): Inf ormation provi ded by the financial state ments must b e
relevant to the users of those statements. This implies that MFI financial statements should be
structured and produced to be useful and relevant to all stakeholders such as funding agencies,
government agencies, etc.
 Reliability: To be useful, information and reports m ust also be reliable. Information has th e
quality of rel iability when it is free fro m material errors, misstatements and bias and can b e
depended upon by internal as well as outside users.
 Comparability: The fina ncial statement of t he m icrofinance institutions should be draw n
based upon principles and policies that are follo wed consistently and uniformly through out
the institution. This is necessary to make th e information generated by the financial s
comparable over the years, within the same institution, as well across institutions. A co mmon
“Chart of Accounts” is meant to meet this purpose. Reports that show actual performanc e
against budget also provide a means to evaluate performance.

Who uses financial information?

The key stakeholders of t he organisation all need a ccess to fina ncial information. Key stakeholders
include: board of directors, executive director, ma nagers, and loan staff (supervisors and credit
officers).

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What Financial Information and Reports?

Generally, an MFI's financial status can be determin ed by three types of financial reports that have
their basis in two separate, yet interdependent systems:
 Financial statem ents (fro m the accounti ng gene ral ledger) – the Balance Sheet, the Inco me
and Expense statement
 Cash flow statements (from the accounting s ystem) – Cash Flow Statements; Cash Flo w
Projections can be prepared from the statements as well in order to plan for smooth operations
 Portfolio reports (from the client portfolio system, essentially the sub-ledger of the accounting
system) and operational reports

The Financial Statements

The starting point for sound financial management is the ti mely and accurat e production of financial
reports. This is absolutely critical to the health of a microfinance programme. If financial records are
not produced accurately and punctu ally, the ratio a nalysis becomes misleading and unreliable. A
microfinance organisation should prod uce financ ial statements from its accounting s ystem on a
monthly basis if at all po ssible. Though the particular format varies so mewhat fro m countr y t o
country, financial statements include:

 the Income Statement, also called Profit and Loss State ment, or State ment of Revenues and
Expenses, and
 the Balance Sheet (including a Statement of Changes in Equity)

Handout 7.1 Sample Financial Statements include sample balance sheet and income statements
commonly used in MFIs.

The Income and Expense Statement

The prim ary indicators o f an organisation' s capaci ty to generate inco me are found in its Income
Statement. The Incom e Statement provides an ove rview of financial performance and activity over a
given period of time, such as a month, quarter or year. While the balance sheet is like a photograph at
a point in time, or a “stock” statement, the inco me statement covers a period of ti me. It is a “flow”
statement. The incom e st atement summarises the total revenue earned in the period and t he total
expenses incurred in the period. An excess of r evenue over expenditure is ca lled a profit or surplus;
when expenses are greater than income, the MFI will report a loss or deficit.

Income Statement presentation generally includes two or even more columns of data. It will show the
current period’ s activity , and also a co lumn that shows the pa st period’s activity. Som e M FIs show
budget colu mns, percentage of budg et, current quarter activity, year to date activity and so on.
Information on the Inco me Statement is normally divided bet ween revenu e accounts and expense
accounts. It also generally segregates operatin g fr om non-operating account s. Operating accounts
relate to the core business of an MFI – its fi nancial service activity. Non-operating accounts include
any revenue and expenses from other activities, donations and grants, the disposal of fixed assets, and
from Extraordinary Items.

Income
Income is w hat a microfinance organisation receives for what it does -- provide financial services,
including lending money. MFIs also generate income from non-operating activities – such as training,
the sale of merchandise or books, and from external sources. Most MFIs generate the
following internal income from their financial service activity:
 interest income
 fees for services
 penalties for late loan payments
 registration and application fees

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External income is the amount received as grants from donors in support of the MFI. It is generally
considered as non-operating activity and reported on separately in the Income and Expense Statement.

Expenses
Expenses are costs the MFI must incur to carry out its activities. Expenses are broken down into
different categories such a s salaries, rent and transportation. Expenses ar e usually considered direct
or indirect. Direct expenses are those which relate to a particular activity , pr oduct or service. For
example, salaries for credit officers are the direct expense of the credit department. Indirect expenses,
also called overhead, are those expenses which can not be tied e xclusively to a single activity . For
example, the salary of the executive director is cons idered overhead when he/she is part of an MFI
that has many pr oducts and services, and may also provide non-financial services to its clients.
Typical expenses for the MFI include:

 Financial costs (interest on loans or de bt investments, interest paid on deposits or an y other

client savings)
 Provision for loan impairments (the estimate of future loan losses incurred)
 Operating expenses (all other operational expenses incurred in conducting the activities of the
MFI)

The Balance Sheet

The balance sheet is a state ment of financial position of the MFI at a particular point in time. It is like
a stock statement, giving account for the MFI’s structure. It reflects the state of affairs on a given date,
usually at the end of a part icular period, a month or a year. Most MFIs produc e a balance sheet on a
monthly basis at a minimum, giving the ending balance of all asset s, liabilities and equit y accounts –
the three balance sheet components. Equity is also referred to as net worth or capital at times.

A balance sheet always balances, meaning that the debits must equal the credits. The basic accounting
equation applies to the balance sheet:

Assets = Liabilities + Equity (Revenue – Expenses)

As in any mathematical or algebraic equation, this above equation can also be expressed as follows:

Liabilities – Assets = Equity

OR

Equity = Assets – Liabilities

The presentation of the balance sheet may var y fro m country t o countr y, and from instit ution to
institution. International Accounting St andards do not recommen d any particular format; as long as
the accounts are in balance and the above equations are in agreement, an y t ype of f ormat is
acceptable.

Assets
Assets are what a MFIs organisation has or is owed. For an MFI these typically include:

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 cash
 investments – short and long term
 client loan p ortfolio (an I mpairment Loss Allowance, known as a “contra” account, reduce s
the balance of the loan portfolio by an amount set aside to cover future losses), and
 fixed assets -- equipment, property, vehicles (the Accumulated Depreciation account is also a
“contra” account since it reduces the value of th e assets based on their wear and tear, and
provides a “net value” of assets that is more in line with their fair market value, as used items)

Assets also i nclude other items like pr epaid expenses, miscellaneous accounts receivable, intangible
assets (e.g. software developm ent and goodwill). Fr om a financi al perspective, asset s represent an
investment f or the genera tion of future receipts of c ash and reve nue for the MFI. For exa mple, a
microfinance organisation lends out funds with the expectation that the funds will be rep aid with
interest. In order to purchase or build the ass et base, an org anisation either borrows money (a
liability), invests its own m oney (accumulated surpluses), or attracts investors who contribute capital
or equity.

Assets are generally classified on the balance by type and then by maturity of their liquidation to cash.
Traditionally, the reporting emphasis has been on asset maturity – and to report and list assets by their
cash or near- cash value. This created t he e mphasis on long-term and short-te rm as sets. A ssets that
were readily liquidated were reported first on the Balance Sheet. The current trend in International
Financial Reporting Standards is to report the assets according to their use or intended use. However,
for ratio calculation purposes, specific ally, the liqui d ratio, MFI financial state ments do encourage
reports that segregate assets between those that mature in less than 12 m onths from those that mature
in more than 12 months.

Liabilities
Liabilities are what an MFI owes to others. Liabil ities are debts the m icrofinance institut ion has
incurred and must pay off in the future. The balance sheet records the amount payable – principal and
interest as of the date of the balance sheet. For MFIs these typically include:

 client savings and deposits

 trade accounts payable
 bank overdraft accounts and lines of credit
 borrowed funds

Liabilities are an important source of funds for MFI operations. Debt can be an efficient and effective
way to generate revenue. For exam ple, an MFI w ill often borrow money (either from clients in the
form of savings or from a bank, donor or other fina ncial institution) and lend this money to their
clients at a higher rate of interest than the y pay fo r the b orrowed m oney. Without this source of
borrowed funds, the MFI will have fewer asset s ( specifically, less cash to lend to its
client base) and therefore lower potential for generating future income.

Liabilities, like asset s, are also classified on th e balance sheet by type and then by their
maturity and obligation t o repay . Tra ditionally, t he reporting d istinction has been on
liability maturity – short-t erm being liabilities that mature within 1 year and long-term
being liabiliti es that mature beyond 1 year. This f ormat is retai ned to accommodate
liquidity ratio analy sis for MFIs. The sa mple bala nce sheet in Handout 7.1 Sample
Financial Statements is typical of the current microfinance reporting formats.

Equity (Net Worth or Capital)

An MFI’s equity or net worth represents what the organisation owns. Capital is made up
of two co mponents: contributed or paid-in capital such as grant funds, share capital, or
privately invested contributed capital. It is also made up of the a ccumulated

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earnings/deficits from operations. Unlike liabilities, the equity or net worth does not have t o be paid
back. Payment of dividends to shareholders will re duce the value of the capital that is accu mulated in
the MFI.

An institution, whose assets have been financed largely by debt, will have high liabilities compared to
its capital; one might wonder about its ability to pay off its debts or to m eet its cash flow or liquidit y
requirements. On the other hand, an MFI that h as high net worth compared to its liabilities may not
be leveraging its resources adequately to access external funding sources, assuming they are available.

The advantage of funding asset s through equity rather than liabilities is that the money does not need
to be repaid. Therefore the cash earned from assets can be used to cover operating expenses, or it can
be reinvested. A strong equit y base is critical to building an insti tution that will survive and grow.
Finding the appropriate structural balance between liabilities and equity is an ongoing process;
there is no simple or magic solution, as there are many variables that enter into this analysis.

 The availability of funds and the t ypes of funds are critical factors. Are funds available at
concessional rates or market rates? Concessional rates will help to maximize cash flows in the
short term.
 The methodology deployed by t he MFI will pl ay into the de cision as well. Is the MFI
involved in retail or wholesale lending (i.e. lending to fairly independent Self Help Groups)?
 MFI competition will affect the decisions on t he balance sheet capital structure. What interest
rates are MF I borrowers willing and a ble to pa y for credit products? What are other MFIs
offering? A highl y com petitive MFI market will drive down borrowing c osts to client s,
forcing the MFI to use the lowest possible cost o f funds available in order to allow for
adequate margins to cover their operating costs.

Handout 7.1 Sample Financial Statements provides one example of MFI financials, using on e
international approach for presentati on. The sam ples are adapted from the SEEP produced
“Measuring Perfor mance of Microfinance Institutions: A Framework for Reporting, Analy sis, and
Monitoring.” MFIs and au ditors often use other pr esentation styles that ar e perfectly acceptable and
may be m ore common in the local context. Handout 7.2 Sample Audited MFI Statements provides
such a format.

The primary issue with financial state ments is th at they provide meaningful and easy to understand
information, and that the y balance – that in som e way, the accounting equation is clearly in balance.
MFIs should also remember that auditors will need to produce a Statement of Changes in E quity as
part of the complete financial statement package.

Cash Flow Statements

Cash Flow statements are useful tools in the analy sis of liquidit y (co mparing actual liquidi ty to the
policy set b y the MFI), in reviewing external liquidit y requirements (e.g. for the Central Bank or for
other regulatory bodies), for analy sing the sources and uses of cash, and for efficient manag ement of
operations.

The traditional Cash Flow Statem ent is included i n the organisation’s audited financial statements. It
shows the sources of changes in cash balances th roughout the year, the sources and uses of funds,
through operations, through increases and decreases in invest ments, receivables, and liabilities, and
the resulting cash balances at the end of the fiscal year. In actual practice, the Cash Flow Statement is
used the least by most MFI practitioners, particular ly those in young MFIs that are focussed on the
bottom line performance of the operations.

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Figure 7.1 Understanding Relationships between Financial Statements

Previous Year Current Year

Changes
Balance Sheet Balance Sheet

Profit / Loss
Donations
Loan Loss
Depreciation

Profit / Loss
Current Year Current Year
Cash Flow Income Statement
Non-Cash Items

The above diagram may be helpful t o full y u nderstand the relationships between the financial
statements, and especially the role of the Cash Flow Statement with other statements. Changes in cash
balances of the MFI are brought about through a variety of activit ies. These activities are captured
from both the Income Statement and the Balance Sheet.

The Income Statement is co mprised of cash ac tivities and non-cash activities if the MFI applies
accrual accounting. The non-cash activities need to b e extracted in order to understand the in creases
and decreases in cash ari sing from In come Stat ement activities. This would include items like
depreciation, accrued expenses and the provision fo r loan im pairments for e xample. The Balance
Sheet is al so co mprised o f changes due to cash an d non-cash activities brought about thr ough the
application of accrued accounting.

The Cash Flow State ment su mmarises the transactio ns or events that cause c ash to increa se (which
become the sources of cash) and the transactions or events that cause cash to decrease (which become
the uses of cash). The following three paragraphs are adapted from the SEEP Framework. 2

The sources of cash can include events that cause the following changes:
 A decrease in assets other than cash, such as receiving loan repayments from clients;
 An increase in liabilities, such as accepting a deposit or borrowing from a bank;
 An increase in Paid-In Capital, such as selling shares to investors or members; and
 An increase in retained earnings through generating net income.

The uses of cash can include events that cause the following changes:
 Increases in assets other than cash, such as making loans to clients;
 Decreases in liabilities, such as repaying a deposit or paying the principal on borrowed funds;
 Decreases in Paid-In Capital, such as re-purchasing shares or reimbursing member shares; and

2
“Measuring Performance of Microfinance Institutions: A Framework for Reporting, Analysis, and
Monitoring”, SEEP Network, 2005, pg. 23.

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 Decreases in retained earnings throu gh genera ting a net loss (after taxes and donations) o r
payment of dividends to shareholders.

A Cash Flow Statement classifies these inflows and outflows of cash into the following three
major categories:
 Operating Activities, the cash receipts a nd payments related to the MFI’s ongoing provision
of financial services, including lending and deposit services;
 Investing Activities, the cash receipts or outla ys for acquiring or selling Fixed Assets or
financial investments; and
 Financing Activities, the borrowing and repayment of borrowings, the sale and redem ption of
Paid-In Capital, and the payment of di vidends. This does not include the fina ncial activities
related to regular operating activities.

There are two approaches to prepare a Cash Flow Statement. One is the called the “direct method”
and it is probabl y the m ore intuitive of the two a pproaches. The Direct Cash Flow Statement in a
sense reconstructs the Income Stat ement and tracks al l operational events that have caused an inflow
or outflow of cash. It also captures all i nvesting and financing events that have created an inflow or
outflow of cash.

The Indirect Cash Flow S tatement take s a deductive approach to preparation and format. It begins
with the Net Income reported on the In come and Expense Statement and then adds back all non-cas h
expenses fro m the Inco me State ment. It also then a dds or subtracts all cash i ncreases or d ecreases
from operational events, including loan disbursements and loan re payments, increases and decreases
in trade payables and other liabilities, and increases and decreases in client deposits and in other assets
or Trade Investments. Then it shows all increases and decreases in cash due to investing activities and
also financial activities. Again, financial activ ities are those related to borrowings and debt
investments with the MFI, and not regular opera ting activities that relate d to providi ng financial
services.

Handout 7.1 Sample Financial Statements illustrates a both Direct and Indirect Cash Flow Statements.
The sam ple is also taken from the SEEP doc ument “Measuring Perform ance of Microfinance
Institutions: A Framework for Reporting, Analysis, and Monitoring”, 2005.

As MFIs grow and divers ify – an d include the m obilisation of deposits as a financial service and a
means to generate capital, and ac cess debt financ ing, the Cash Flow State ment takes on increasing
importance. It is an i mportant tool for m onitoring and managing the changes in cash positi on of the
MFI, and may signal issues to address in the debt and equity balance and capital structure of the MFI.

The Portfolio and Operational Reports

The information on the portfolio report is technically not part of the general ledger accounting system,
but part of the subsidiary ledger that manages client loans and savings transacti ons. The summaris ed
Portfolio Report provides the status of loan dis bursements and co llections during the current month
and the current y ear. G ood p ortfolio tracking s ystems also report the total am ount of loans
outstanding, the amount of loans late, the am ount at risk, and the aging of the loans. Most sy stems
also track the number of loans and/or clients in these categories.

Many MFIs l ook to the po rtfolio tracking systems to provide much more information on im pact, and
to segment portfolio by Loan Officer, by product, by Branch, and so on. The financial information on
portfolio reports is consi dered the most i mportant for financial management and ratio analy sis
purposes. Certain operational and non-financial data is also used in ratio analysis.

Together with the financial statements, the inform ation on the P ortfolio Report is used to calculate
key financial ratios that h elp to measure the progres s and health of the financial institution. For this

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reason, the focus of the Portfolio Re port in th is toolkit is o n actual output of financi al service
operations, a nd n ot client im pact. Some portfolio tracking s ystems ar e very extensive, and include
options for generating the Im pairment Loss Allowa nce, and Hu man Resource data reports. Other
systems are l ess sophisticated and si mply provide the raw data with which to collate and prepare
Portfolio Reports.

Handout 7.3 Sample Portfolio and Non-Financial Data Reports illustrates the ke y data ne eded for
MFI ratio analysis.

Disclosure of Financial Information:

Full financial disclosure is a mandatory part of financial reporting standards according to International
Financial Reporting Stan dards and b est practic es in m icrofinance. Full disclosure prom otes
transparency and accountabilit y i n fina ncial reportin g, and m ay s trengthen i nvestors’ understanding
and confidence in the MFI and its management.

Notes to the financial state ments are normally part of the MFI’s report to the Board of Directors, and
must be part of t he audi ted financial statem ents. T ypically, t his includes an o verview of ke y
accounting p olicies, operational de tails, and supp orting sched ules that have been part of t he
accounting process that p roduced the financial st atements. Co mmon disclosu re expectatio ns and
practice in preparing and presenting financial statements are listed below. Further items are elaborated
in the CG AP resource “ Microfinance Consensus Guidelines: Disclosure Guidelines for Financial
Reporting by Microfinance Institutions” (Rosenberg, 2003).

Notes to the Statements:

The Account ing Policies applied in the preparation of the acco unts are detailed in the Notes. For
example, they include, but are not limited to, the following:
 Notes on the MFI’s Business Activities: The Notes will briefly outline the core activities o f
the MFI, its business approach, objectives, and methodologies used in its operations.
 Ownership, Board composition, and governance: The Notes provides details about the
legal structure and registration of the MFI, the Board of Directors, where they come from, and
their terms on the Board. The Notes also list the structure of the Manage ment Committee,
which is the executive management team of the MFI.
 Historical cost basis of accounting: One of the fundamental policies is the basis of
accounting – and for the most part, th is continues t o be historic al cost basis. International
Accounting Standards pr omote fair value accoun ting, but application to MFIs is rather
limited. MFIs who engage in m ore sophisticated invest ments, r eal est ate transactions or
mergers and acquisitions should refer to Inte rnational Accoun ting Stan dards for specific
details in fair value accounting.
 Accrual basis of accounting: This poli cy is anot her one of the f undamentals of accounting
practice, and m ust be dis closed. Very few MF Is practice a cash basis of accounting, since
most national accounting standards r ecommend that they apply accrual accounting. T he
policy on loa n interest accruals should be describ ed, particularly if there is an exception to
accrual accounting for loan repayments. Any policies on when to stop accruing for delinquent
loans, or a r eversal of interest on del inquent loans previously accrued should be clearly
described.
 Fixed asset capitalisation policy: Assets over a stated value will be capit alised on the
balance sheet and depreciated in future periods. Those under the stated value will be expensed
in the current year, and the Notes must disclose the policy.
 Depreciation rates: The Notes al so li st the depre ciation rates applied to various clas ses of
assets. They may refer to the rates acceptable by local tax laws, but not necessarily.
 The Impairment Loss Allowance policy: The MFI’s polic y for the Im pairment Loss
Allowance m ust also be disclosed, whether it is a general rese rve of sa y 2%, a specific

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reserve bas ed on the MFI’ s history of write-o ffs, or on international best practices fo r
microfinance.
 The Write-off policy: The Write-off policy is disclosed in a note.
 Loans and Borrowings: The details of all l oans should be disclosed, in cluding terms,
conditions, currency , maturity, repayment sche dules, restrictions, security on all borrowings
from banks, investors, and overdraft ag reements must be disclosed in detail. T he supporting
schedules (see below) will outline the specifi c values of both secured and non-secured loans,
but the basic agreements will be outlined in this Note.
 Contingent liabilities: Contingent liabi lities are possible lia bilities that may arise in future
periods, but have not yet been declared or c onfirmed to the MF I. Exam ples could inclu de
potential law suits, any third party financial guarantees, or tax re-assessments in process.
 Guarantees: Any guarantees that the MFI itself or directors have provided to third parties
must be disclosed in the Notes to the financial statements.
 Shareholdings and capital accounts: The Notes should disclo se the details and specific
types of shar eholding and capital accounts – incl uding contributed capita l, d onated capita l,
paid up capital and the types of shares allowed and already issued.
 Details of Prior Period Adjustments, if any: If the MFI has posted any Prior Period
Adjustments in the year, these details must be discl osed in the Notes, if not in the details of
the Equity Statement.
 Post-balance sheet events: Any m ajor events that take place following the date of the
balance sheet and before the date of the Audito r’s Report should be highlighted in the Notes.
This might include a lawsuit, the effects of a natural disaster, a major fraud expected to have a
material effect on the MFI’s financial position, a change in legal registratio n, a major n ew
grant or investor, or a change in ownership or controlling interest.
 Related party transactions: The Notes should outline any related party transactions
undertaken by the MFI, f or example, advances or loans to Board of Directors, agreem ents or
transactions with related NGOs, parent companies or organisations, and the like.
 Relevant details of any legal obligations: An y legal obligations, bot h confirm ed an d
pending must also be disclosed in the Notes.

Supporting Schedules to the Financial Statements

The supporting schedules provide additional detail a nd breakdown of aggregated figures reported o n
the balance sheet. Typically, this includes:
 Fixed Asset schedules: The Fixed Asset schedules will show the su mmarised asset cl asses
taken fro m t he ledger, ad ditions and disposal of as sets, historical accu mulated depreciation,
adjustments to accumulated depreciation from disposals, current year depreciation and rates,
current y ear accu mulated depreciation, and the net book value of assets. The balance sheet
usually shows the total of all net fixed assets.
 Provision for Loan Impairments: These schedules will vary depending on the method used
in making provisions and write-offs. First, the movements in the Loans Receivable account
are usually detailed, opening balance, disbursements, less collections, and the ending balance.
If write-offs are made against the Im pairment Loss Allowan ce, a schedule showing the
changes in the Allowance (Balance Sheet) and Provision accounts (Income and Expense
Statements) is expected.
 Aging Schedule: The portfolio agin g schedule is a standard schedule to be produced. It
should disclose the late l oans in categories s uggested by inter national best practices fo r
microfinance. This is gener ally 0 – 30 days, 31 – 60 days, 61 – 90 days, 91 – 180 days, over
180 days (and in some cases over 365 days late).
 Cash and Bank: The details of the M FI’s ban k account s are also disclosed in a schedule ,
including the currency of the account, the deta iled balances, and where held. Various cash
accounts are also detailed, including any Cash in Transit.
 Accounts Receivable and Accounts Payable schedules: Details of various account s
receivable an d pay able are also listed in va rious schedules, specify ing the vendor and the

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amount. Any loans and advances to staff, management or the Board of Directors must be
disclosed in these schedules.
 Accumulated grants and donations in equity: Although no t alway s required b y natio nal
accounting standards, it is good practice for MFIs to highlight the source of various donors in
their accu mulated grants and donations. The m ost im portant disclosure is to ensure tha t
retained earnings or deficits show the am ount of earnings or losses related to operations, and
the amount from donations.
 Liabilities: Any type of invest ments, bank loans – whether secured or unsecured should be
disclosed in detail. This would include the loan term, interest rate, interest pa yable, security
and other relevant details.
 Income and Expense schedules: Since the financial statements usually aggregate accounts,
both income and expense accounts are usually detailed in a variety of schedules.

Consolidating Financial Statements of Branches

To consolidate the financia l statements of several branches with an MFI’s Head Office, may require
additional work, and a few adjustm ents. Ideally, the accounting software should enable consolidation.
If consolidating manually, use a large spreadsheet, laying columns of each Branch side by side – both
debits and cr edits. Creat e a debit and c redit column called “Eli minating Entries.” These ent ries will
NOT be posted to any ge neral ledgers ; however, because the various branches and Hea d Offic e
accounts may reflect “inter-company” or “inter-departmental” entries (e.g. Branch Advances, Payable
to Head Office), they need to be “eli minated” w hen presenting a consolidated picture of the
organisation. Otherwise, so me accounts may be overstated. Co mmon “inter -company” accounts
include:

• Head Office Subsidies (income in the Branch, and an expense in the Head Office)
• Inter-company payables and Receivables (Advances to Branch, and Payable to Head Office)

Handout 7.4 Sample Consolidated Financial Statements is a very sim plistic illustration of how
eliminating entries would be applied when consolid ating the fi nancial statements of an MFI with
those of its one Branch. Note: Eliminating entries when consolidating financial statements are not
passed through the books of account. They are for analytical and consolidation purposes only!

Closing Entries
At the end of the accounting year, accountants must close revenue and expense account by
transferring their balances to the current year profit/loss account. Closing entries:
• Are prepared after the final financial statements are completed.
• Leave revenue account with zero balance by debiting the account and crediting current y ear
profit/loss account.
• Leave expense accounts with zero balance by crediting the account and debiti ng the current
year profit/loss account.

The current year profit/loss account in the Inco me Statement is posted to and equal to the current year
profit/loss in the Balance Sheet (i.e. current y ear retained earnings). An MFI may hold several equity
accounts, so me related to operations and others to donations and grants. If this is the case, the
donations and grants for t he y ear are first posted directly to t he donated equit y account . T hen the
remaining operational profit and losses are closed to the general retained earnings account. MFIs may
also hold special reserve accounts, or restricted equity accounts. Posting prof its or losses to these
accounts, or transferring between accou nts generally takes place according to t he MFI’s policy, or to
specific Board or member resolutions.

If you are using an automated accounting general ledge r softwar e, the key thing is to know y our
software well. Know how the closing process works; know how the equit y accounts function. Non-

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operating items and grant revenues should be posted to specific equit y accounts first before closing
the year through an automatic software co mmand. If your soft ware does not acco mmodate special
postings to e quity account s, creat e a simple spr eadsheet that clearly shows the sources of donated
equity or special reserves.

Other External Reports

MFIs are generally required to report to some external regulatory bodies. This could include:

 the Income Tax department

 the Companies Registrar
 the Charities Register (if an NGO)
 the Central Bank of the country

Most, if not all will require the MFI’s audited fina ncial stat ements, including notes to the financial
statements. However, income tax returns generally include some adjustments to a company’s accounts
for specific income tax re gulations. A charity return may require specific and detailed infor mation on
cash disbursements.

A Central Bank will require additional reporting fro m banks and regulated M FIs on deposits, cash
reserves and capital adequacy. These reports vary in frequency and the type of information required.

Emerging Trends
The microfinance sector is growing very rapidl y i n so me countries, and much more grad ually in
others. As it does, the issues become more complex for governance, management and accounting. The
following lists a number of the trends emerging in the sector today.

 Transformation of MFIs generally ref ers to a legal restructuring from an NG O status to a

registered co mpany or bank that falls under som e supervisory re view of a regulator y b ody,
like the Central Bank.

 International investors for the MFI sector have rapidl y outpaced donor investors in the past
5 years, and their potential is significant and ha rdly tapped. Both the business a nd the social
opportunity have attracted investors – prim arily fo reign – to th is market. The absorptive
capacity of MFIs to take on this debt has not kept pace, and as a result, any investments that
are made, in debt or equity, require fairly in depth analysis and due process.

 Securitisation, also called factoring, includes the “s elling” of portfolios to larger banks, with
the MFI retaining an agent’s role for the bank in providing financial services to the sector.

 Taking MFIs to capital markets, an d raising capital thro ugh publ ic offerings on stoc k
markets is another emerging trend, involving considerable analysis, valuation and accounting
implications.

 Mergers and acquisitions ar e likely to increa se in the microfinance s ector, as it beco mes
more co mpetitive, and smaller, weak er institutions are unable to compete for client services
and loyalties when larger, financially stronger institutions offer more innovative products and
client-focussed services. The pace of mergers and acquisitions will vary for different
countries and contexts, depending o n the maturity of the financial sector, the microfinance
sector, and the business growth opportunities.

 Technological innovations are rapidly becoming part of the financial services sector. The use
of cell phone s and wireless data exchange has e normous potential, particularly in countrie s

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with a highl y developed i nformation technology infrastructure an d with hi gh cellular phone

adoption i n the general population. The i nvolvement of the ICT industry as both t he
carrier/mode of financial t ransactions and the information provi der, changes the scope and
nature of traditional MFI work, including their accounting processes.

Each countr y context varies with resp ect to the st ate and development of the financial sector and
banking regulations. Additional resources for these topics are gene rally best sourced fro m country or
regional cont exts. This is because the legal, ta x, banking and a ccounting issues are very countr y
specific and may vary greatly from country to country. Typically, MFIs must be prepared to consider
any or all of the following issues when moving ah ead with e merging changes in the microfinance
sector.

Issue: Considerations:
Type of legal registration Legal and financial expert advi ce and counsel is generally
needed to consider the most appropriate ty pe of legal
structure for MFIs. In I ndia, this co uld be a N on-Bank
Finance Company, a Section 25 company, a Trust or Society.
The ty pe of legal entity may restrict or prohibit a n MFI’s
operational p lan, so decision- makers must understand the
consequences and outcomes of various possibilities.
Valuation, Rollover and Capital Transformations, mergers and acquisitions, securitisation and
structuring raising funds throu gh cap ital market offerings all invol ve
financial and legal consul tation to answer key questions. Is
the MFI bein g “sold” or valued in its entirety , or will only
some assets or liabilities be considered in the tran saction?
Regardless of the approach, objective, independent opinion
must make a fair market valuation of assets and liabilities and
a justifiable estimation of goodwill and potenti al future
earnings.

This valuation is a critical process for an accounting

“rollover” to a new legal entity, for planning t he capital
structure of the new c ompany, and for prepa ration in
securitisation or entrance into capital markets. There may be
income tax i mplications i n any or all of the transactions,
depending on the tax legislation and the specifi c leg al entity
under deliberation.
Due Diligence and Ratings Investors – international or local – typically subject the MFI
to some ratin g or due dili gence exercise before investing in
the MFI. There is a cost for these activities, both financial and
in staff time as the evaluator looks at k ey components of the
institution – financial performance, management, governance,
systems, and an assessment of risks.

A due diligence exercise is generally undertaken prior to or as

part of the valuation proce ss for an amalgam ation, merger, or
an investment – either debt or equity.
Costs and Investments A range of c osts can be expected for m ost of the emerging
trends, particularly transformation:
• Legal costs
• Accounting costs
• Audit fees
• Incorporation fees

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• Bank license fees

• Rating fees
• Additional due diligence costs (if not included)
Other Issues One of the main issues in transformation and investments i s
that of governance structure. Central B anks generally restrict
a single shar eholder to less than a pr escribed perc entage.
Others have restrictions for foreign interests or shareholders.

Central bankers, investors and equity stakeholders will all

evaluate the com position and experti se of the Board to
determine their capacity to govern the institution.

Some loans are guaranteed through personal guarantors; upon

transformation, the questions need to be asked: i s the liability
a part of the sale? Does the guarantee follow the liabilit y to a
new legal entity?

Finally ther e are legal docum ents to be dr awn up:

Memorandum of Understanding, transfer agreements, and t he
details of share certificates.

Where to Go From Here

This toolkit has established the basic com ponents and foundation of an MFI accounting structure and
system and the documents, policies and procedures need to manage the accounting process. Numerous
tools and examples have been provided for your MFI to take and further develop its systems.

1. The first reminder is to:

Know what you don’t know!

Be familiar with the various issues in accounting and reporting for MFIs, even if you are not an
accountant and lack the technical knowledge and experience in accounting itself. Know t he basic
accounting and reporting standards that are changing at an increasing pace in our globalised world. It
is very important that MFIs refer to ongoing developments in both the accounting and banking sectors
in their count ry contexts. In the absence of str ong guidance, it is highl y recommended to refer to the
International Accounting Standards outlined in this toolkit, and to international best practices for
microfinance.

2. The second thing to remember in structuring, setting up or adapting your current accounting system
is:
Begin with the end in mind!

Clearly u nderstand the in formation ne eds of your MFI’s stakeholders and report read ers. This
includes y our Branch staff and management, MFI Head Office management, y our Board, investors,
and regulatory and indus try stak eholders. Underst and what automated proc esses must be well-
managed in order to get go od data. Know how that data is used to create meaningful information for
your users.

3. Finally,

Hire the qualified, experienced accounting staff to implement and manage a good accounting
system. Get professional advice and guidance when needed!

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A strong general ledger system, policies and procedures, a Chart of Accounts, control procedures, and
qualified and trained staff are essential to basic acc ounting s ystems that provi de the foundation for
sound financial reporting and management!

This toolkit has provided the basic tools, guidelines and sam ples common to many MFIs. Remember
that they nee d to be edited and adapted to your specific situation! Advanced topics have not been
discussed in depth, but are referr ed to generally . References or handouts provi de links to a dditional
information for advanced topics.

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Resource Bibliography
Anthony, Robert N.’ “Essentials of Accounting – Fifth Edition.” Harvard Busi ness School. Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company. 1993.

Cracknell, David, Henry Sempangi, Graham A.N. Wright. “Costing and Pricing of Financial Services
– A Toolkit.” MicroSave Africa, March 2004.

“External Audits of Microfinance Institutions: A Handbook.” Volumes 1 and 2. Consultative Group to

Assist the Poorest. Technical Tool Series No. 3. December 1998.

van Greuning, Hennie. “International Financial Reporting Sta ndards – A Practical Guide.” The
World Bank. 2004

Helms, Brigit. “Cost Allocation for Multi-Service Microfinance Institutions, Occasional Paper No.2
Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest. April 1998.

International Accounting Standards and International Financial Reporting Standards.

www.iasplus.com

Ledgerwood, Joanna, Kerri Moloney . “Finan cial Management Training for Micro-finance
Organisations: Accounting.” Calmeadow. 1996.

“Measuring Perfor mance of Microfinance Institutions: A Framework for Reporting, Analy sis, and
Monitoring.” Developed by the SEEP Network Fi nancial Services Working Group and Alternative
Credit Technologies, LLC. 2005.

Nagarajan V. & Co. “Accounting Standards for Micro-Fi nance Institutions in India.” (Draft for
discussion). SIDBI Foundation for Micro-Credit, 2005.

Nagarajan V. & Co . “Accounting Guidelines for Micro-Finance Instituti ons in India.” (Draft for
discussion). SIDBI Foundation for Micro-Credit, 2005.
Rosenberg, Richard, Patricia Mw angi, Robert Pe ck Christen, Moha med Nasr. “Microfinance
Consensus Guidelines: Disclosure Guidelines for Fi nancial Reporting by Micr ofinance Institutions.”
Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest, July 2003.

Waterfield, Charles, Nick Ramsing. “Management Information Systems for Microfinance

Institutions: A Handbook.” Consultative Group to Assist the Poorest. Technical Tool Series
No. 1 February 1998.

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