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Instrumentation and Measurement

Lesson Plan

Course Coordinator:

Sub Code: Name of Instructor: Dr Sushant Negi, MED NIT Silchar, Assam
Sub: Instrumentation and Measurement Contact No: 9816111560;
ME 209 Email: [email protected]

Semester: 4th L T P C
Programme: B.Tech
Academic Session: 2021-2022 3 0 0 3
Unit Topics Total Hours/classes
Unit-1 Instruments and Their Representation: Introduction; Typical applications of Instrument systems; functional elements of a
measurement system; classification of instruments; standards and calibration. Static and Dynamic characteristics of
Instruments: Introduction; Accuracy, Precision; Resolution; Threshold; Sensitivity; Linearity; Hysteresis; Dead Band; Backlash;
Drift; Formulation of Differential Equations for Dynamic Performance- Zero Order, First Order and Second order systems; 12
Response of First and Second Order Systems to Step, Ramp, Impulse and Harmonic Functions.
Unit-2 Transducer Elements: Introduction; Analog and digital transducers; electromechanical, potentiometric, inductive self-
generating and non-self-generating type transducers; electromagnetic, electrodynamics, eddy current, magnetostrictive,
variable inductance, LVDT, variable capacitance and piezoelectric transducer; unbounded and bounded resistance strain
gages; strain gage bridge circuits; single double and four active arm bridge arrangements; temperature compensation;
balancing and calibration; ionisation transducers; mechano electronic transducers; opto-electrical transducers; photo 8
conductive transducers; photovoltaic transducers; digital transducers; frequency domain transducer; vibrating string
transducer; binary codes; digital encoders.
Unit-3 Motion, Force and Torque Measurement, Introduction; Relative motion measuring devices; electromechanical, optical, photo
electric, moire-fringe, pneumatic and absolute motion devices; seismic devices; spring mass & force balance type device and
their calibration; hydraulic load cell; pneumatic load cell; elastic force devices; separation of force components 6
Unit-4 Indicating and Recording Elements: Introduction Amplifiers; Mechanical, Hydraulic, Pneumatic, Optical and Electrical
Amplifying elements; Compensators; Differentiating and Integrating Elements; Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO). 2

Unit-5 Pressure and Flow Measurement : Introduction; Moderate Pressure Measurement; Manometers; Elastic Transducer; Dynamic
Effects of Connecting Tubing; High Pressure Transducer; Low Pressure transducer; Calibration and Testing; Quantity Meters;
Positive Displacement Meters; 6
Unit-6 Temperature Measurement : Introduction; Measurement of Temperature; Non Electrical Methods – Solid Rod Thermometer,
Bimetallic Thermometer, Liquid-in-Glass thermometer and Pressure Thermometer, Electrical Methods – Electrical Resistance
Thermometers, Semiconductor Resistance Sensors (Thermistors) and Thermo–Electric Sensors; Thermocouple Materials; 6
Radiation Methods-Total Radiation Pyrometer and Selective Radiation Pyrometer.
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Text Books:
1. Ernest O. Doebelin. Measurement systems Application and Design. Tata McGraw Hill Edition (2002).
2. Francis S. Tse and Ivan E. Morse, Marcel Dekker. Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering.
3. Alan S. Morris. Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation. Prentice Hall of India.

Reference Books:
1. T.G. Beckwith, W.L. Buck and R.D. Marangoni. Mechanical Measurements.
2. B.C. Nakra and K.K. Chaudhary. Instrumentation, Measurement and Analysis. TMH.

Course Outcomes (COs):

Upon the completion of this course, the students are expected to:
1. identify the fundamental theory of instrumentation.
2. correlate the theory of instrumentation with research and development and with the industrial situations.
3. know the fundamental theory for instrumentation.
4. prepare themselves for higher level instrumentation courses.

Instrumentation and Measurement

Unit-1: Introduction
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Contents

Definition
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Need for Measurement

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Need for Measurement

History of Measurement

Note: Your hand: The width of your palm is about 4 inches (10
centimeters). Your foot: An average foot is about 12 inches
long. Your forearm from elbow to fingertip: Your forearm is
about 1.5 feet (46 centimeters)
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History of Meter
The metre is currently defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum in 1/299 792
458 of a second.

The metre was originally defined in 1793 as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to
the North Pole along a great circle, so the Earth's circumference is approximately 40000 km.

In 1799, the metre was redefined in terms of a prototype metre bar (the actual bar used was
changed in 1889).

In 1960, the metre was redefined in terms of a certain number of wavelengths of a certain emission
line of krypton-86. The current definition was adopted in 1983 and modified slightly in 2002 to clarify
that the metre is a measure of proper length.

Closeup of National Prototype Metre Bar

No. 27, made in 1889 by the International
A copy of the "provisional" metre installed 1796–1797, Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
located in the wall of a building, 36 rue de Vaugirard, and given to the United States, which
Paris. These metres were based on the "provisional" served as the standard for defining all
metre, because the expedition to re-determine the metre units of length in the US from 1893 to
wasn't completed until 1798. 1960

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dvVCNhWJvvo
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Terminologies

Purpose of a measurement system

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Terminology

Why measurement ?
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Why instrumentation?
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Types of measurement
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Functional Elements of an Instrumentation System

Basic functional elements:

-Transducer element
-Signal conditioning element
-Data Presentations element

Auxiliary functional elements:

-Calibration element
-External power element
-Feedback element
-Microprocessor element

Terminologies
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Sensor and Transducer

A sensor is a physical element that employs some natural phenomenon to

sense the variable being measured

A transducer converts the sensed information into a detectable signal. This signal might be mechanical,
electrical, optical, or it may take any other form that can be meaningfully quantified.
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A familiar example of a complete measurement system is the bulb thermometer

Example of identification of functional elements in Instruments

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Typical example of transducer elements

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Classification of Measuring Instruments

• Active and Passive types

• Null and deflection types
• Analogue and Digital instruments
• Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output
• Smart and non-smart instruments
• Contact and non contact types

Types of instrument in measurements

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Active Instruments

Passive instruments
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Active and Passive instrument: Resolution

Deflection and Null type instruments

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Analogue instrument

Digital instrument
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Signal and Indicating type instruments

Smart and non smart Instruments

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Contact and Non contact types

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Units of measurement

Fundamental & Derived units

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Using SI Units

• The standards of measurement used in science are those of the metric system.

All metric units are based on multiples of 10. As a result, you can convert between units
easily.

The metric system was originally established in France in 1795.

The International System of Units (abbreviated SI after the French name, Le Système
International d’Unités) is a revised version of the metric system.

The SI was adopted by international agreement in 1960.

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Using SI Units

Units of Length
The table below lists the prefixes in common use.

Commonly Used Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Meaning Factor
mega M 1 million times larger than the unit it precedes 106
kilo k 1000 times larger than the unit it precedes 103
deci d 10 times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-1
centi c 100 times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-2
milli m 1000 times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-3
micro μ 1 million times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-6
nano n 1 billion times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-9
pico p 1 trillion times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-12
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Using SI Units
Units of Volume
The relationships among common metric units of volume are
shown in the table below.

Metric Units of Volume

Unit Symbol Relationship Example
Liter L base unit quart of milk ≈ 1 L
Milliliter mL 103 mL = 1 L 20 drops of water ≈ 1 mL
Cubic centimeter cm3 1 cm3 = 1 mL cube of sugar ≈ 1 cm3
Microliter μL 103 μL = 1 L crystal of table salt ≈ 1 μL

A liter (L) is the volume of a cube that is 10 centimeters (10 cm) along each edge
(10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm = 1000 cm3 = 1 L).

Using SI Units

Units of Mass
The relationships among units of mass are shown in the table below.

Metric Units of Mass

Unit Symbol Relationship Example
Kilogram
kg 1 kg = 103 g small textbook ≈ 1 kg
(base unit)
Gram g 1 g = 10-3 kg dollar bill ≈ 1 g
Milligram mg 103 mg = 1 g ten grains of salt ≈ 1 mg
Microgram μg 106 μg = 1 g particle of baking powder ≈ 1 μg
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Temperature Scales
• The figure below compares the Celsius and Kelvin scales.

• The zero point on the Kelvin scale, 0 K, or absolute zero, is equal to –273.15°C.

Celsius 100
divisions
0°C 100°C
Freezing point Boiling point
of water of water
273.15 K 373.15 K
100
Kelvin divisions

In a few countries, such as the United States,

metric units are not commonly used in everyday
measurements. What temperature units are
used for a typical weather forecast in the United
States? What about for a country that uses the
metric system, such as Australia or Japan?

In the United States, temperatures are usually given

in degrees Fahrenheit. Countries that use the metric
system forecast the weather in degrees Celsius.
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Standards of Measurement

The standards of measurements are very useful for calibration of measuring instruments. They help in
minimizing the error in the measurement systems. On the basis of the accuracy of measurement the standards
can be classified as:

• International standards
• Primary standards
• Secondary standards
• Working standards
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Example of Standard bodies

• ISO (International Organization for standardization

• Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
• ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
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Calibration

Calibration is the act of result of quantitative comparison between a known standard and the output of
measuring system measuring the same quantity.

• Primary calibration
• Secondary calibration
• Direct calibration with known input source
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Application

• The first of these is their use in regulating trade, applying instruments that measure physical
quantities such as length, volume, and mass in terms of standard units.

• The second application area of measuring instruments is in monitoring functions.

• Use as part of automatic feedback control systems forms the third application area of
measurement systems.
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Evolution of Instruments

a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.

MECHANICAL: These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But their
disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.

ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than mechanical methods.
But it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to 24 seconds.

ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak signal
can also be detected.

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Characteristics of measurement systems

• To choose the instrument, most suited to a particular measurement application, we have
to know the system characteristics.
• The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two groups, namely ‘static’
and ‘dynamic’ characteristics.

Static characteristics
• the performance criteria for the measurement of quantities that remain constant, or vary
only quite slowly.

Dynamic characteristics
• the relationship between the system input and output when the measured quantity
(measurand) is varying rapidly.

Performance characteristics
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Static characteristics

Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

• Application involved measurement of quantity that are either constant or varies slowly with time is
known as static.

 Accuracy and Precision

 Tolerance
 Repeatability and Reproducibility
 Threshold and Resolution
 Static sensitivity
 Linearity
 Range and Span
 Hysteresis
 Dead Band
 Backlash
 Drift
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Accuracy

% = x 100

% = x 100

Precision

Precision of an instrument is in fact, dependent on the repeatability.

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Accuracy vs Precision

Tolerance

Tolerance is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is related accuracy and
defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value.

Example: one resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value 1000W and tolerance
5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950W and 1050 W.
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Repeatability and Reproducibility

Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repeatability over a short period of time, with same measurement conditions, same instrument and
observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repeatability over a short period of time, when there are changes in the method of measurement,
instrument and observer, location and measurement conditions and time of measurement.

Range and Span

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Linearity

( )
=
( )

Where qo and qo are the values of output

and input signal respectively.

Sensitivity
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Threshold and Resolution

Note: The following factors could contribute towards the drift

in the instruments:
i) Wear and tear
System Disturbances ii) Mechanical vibrations
iii) Stresses developed in the parts of the instrument
iv) Temperature variations
v) Stray electric and magnetic fields
vi) Thermal emf
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Effects of disturbance (a) zero drift (b) sensitivity drift

Facts:

• Zero drift- the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient
conditions.
• This causes constant error that exist over the full range of measurement of instrument.
• Zero drfit is normally removable by calibration.
• It is usually found in instrument like voltmeters that are affected by ambient temp. changes.

• Sensitive drift- the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies with ambient
conditions change.
• It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how much drift there is for a unit change in
each environmental parameter.
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Problem:

Zero and sensitivity drift effects on instrument chharacteristics

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Hysteresis

Example
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Dead space or Dead Band

• It is de ned as the range of different input values over which there is no change in output value.
Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space.

Backlash
• It is de ned as maximum distance or angle through which any part of mechanical system may be
moved in one direction without causing motion of the next part.

• The error can be minimized if the components are aade to very close tolerance.

Dead band, sometimes called a neutral zone, is an area of a

signal range or band where no action occurs, that is, the system
is dead e.g. 10 g weight on a 10 kg balance. It is the largest
change in the physical variable to which the measuring
instrument does not respond. In other words it is defined as
the range of input values over which there is no change in
output value. It has also been referred to as Dead space or
Dead zone. In the analog instruments, it may occur due to
friction in the instrument which does not allow pointer to move
till sufficient force is developed to overcome the frictional loss.
It is shown in the figure..

Dead time is the time required by measuring instrument to

begin to respond to a change in the measured variable. It
represents the time before the instrument begins to respond
after the measured variable has changed. The units of dead
zone are the units of the variable, whereas, the units of the Dead band or dead space of measuring instruments
Dead time are the units of time.
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Error
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Problem: A pressure indicator showed readings as 79 X 10^5 pascals on a scale range of 0-100 X 10^5 pascals, but
the true value was 78.5 X 10 ^5 pascals. Find (i) static error (ii) static correction (iii) relative error

Problem: The dead zone in a pyrometer is 0.1% of span. Instrument is calibrated from 500 degree Celsius to
1000 degree Celsius. Find the minimum temp change for it to be detected.
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Statistical Analysis of Measurements Subject to Random Errors

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Problem: Calculate standard deviation and error for measurement sets A, B, and C discussed earlier.
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Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement System

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Terms used for Dynamic Characteristics

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Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement System

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Zero order Instrument

Zero order Instrument

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Note: All instruments behave as zero order

Wire Strain Gauge instruments when they give a static output in
response to a static input.

As a strain gauge is stretched, its conductors become longer

and thinner, thus increasing resistance. As a strain gauge is
compressed, its conductors become shorter and fatter, thus
decreasing resistance. The bridge circuit becomes more
unbalanced as the strain gauge’s resistance changes from the
neutral (resting) value.
The following strain gauge is shown connected in a “quarter-
bridge” circuit (meaning only one-quarter of the bridge actively
senses strain, while the other three-quarters of the bridge are
fixed in resistance):

First order Instrument

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First order Instrument

First order Instrument

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Problem:

Earlier in this course we considered first order measurements systems such as the Thermocouple. A transducer
was defined as a first order system if there was one dominating energy store. In the case of the thermocouple,
this energy store was the heat capacity of the thermocouple’s bead or crimp.

We now turn to second order transducers. A transducer is defined as a second order system if it has two
predominant energy stores. Consider, as an example, a spring balance. The spring can obviously store strain
energy. Additionally the mass of the system (the mechanism as well as the mass we are measuring) can store
energy – kinetic energy. When taking dynamic measurements (i.e. measuring something that is changing with
time), the energy in the system transfers back and forth between the two forms. In the spring balance
example, strain energy transforms to kinetic energy, which transforms back to strain energy, and so on. In this
section of the course, we investigate the effect this has on a transducer’s performance.
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Second order Instrument: (Due to presence of Mass or inertia)

The viscous damping ratio is a non-dimensional measure of energy

dissipation. A system with very low damping will continue to vibrate for a
long time after input is stopped or changed. Low damping may also cause
very large motion if sinusoidal excitation is close to the natural frequency.
Conversely, a system with very large damping will not have excessive
vibration at resonance, but it will take a long time to
respond to changes in input.

If ξ= 0 the system is under no damping condition.

ξ< 1.00 the system is called under-damped.
Ifξ > 1.00 the system is called over-damped.
The critical damping value is when ξ = 1.00 . It defines a ‘change-over’ in
our analysis strategy. When ξ < 1.00 we need different equations than if ξ >
1.00 (Overdamping) . It is most unlikely that you will come across a real
measurement system where the viscous damping ratio is exactly ξ = 1.00 .

Response characteristics of 2nd order instrument:

transient response to step change input
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Commercial second order instrument of which the accelerometer is a common example , are generally designed
to have damping ratio (ξ ) somewhere in the range of 0.6-0.8.

Example

Consider a door that uses a spring to close the door once open.
This can lead to any of the above types of damping depending
on the strength of the damping.
If the door is undamped it will swing back and forth forever at a
particular resonant frequency.
If it is underdamped it will swing back and forth with
decreasing size of the swing until it comes to a stop.
If it is critically damped then it will return to closed as quickly
Second order system when subjected to unit step as possible without oscillating.
response. Main difference lies in their Rise Finally, if it is overdamped it will return to closed without
Time and Settling time and final steady state oscillating but more slowly depending on how overdamped it
value achieved which dictate various design is.
parameters in control systems.