Chapter 34

The classical triangle centers

The following triangle centers have been known since ancient times. We
shall adopt the following notations. Let ABC be a given triangle. The
lengths of the sides BC, CA, AB opposite to A, B, C are denoted by a,
b, c.

34.1 The centroid

The centroid G is the intersection of the three medians. It divides each

median in the ratio 2 : 1.
A

F E
G

B C
D

The triangle DEF is called the medial triangle of ABC. It is the

image of ABC under the homothety h(G, − 12 ).
The lengths of the medians are given by Apollonius’ theorem:

1
m2a = (2b2 + 2c2 − a2 ),
4
etc.
1202 The classical triangle centers

Exercise
Calculate the lengths of the medians of a triangle whose sidelengths are
136, 170, and 174.

34.2 The circumcircle and the circumcenter

The perpendicular bisectors of the three sides of a triangle are concurrent
at the circumcenter of the triangle. This is the center of the circumcircle,
the circle passing through the three vertices of the triangle.

A A

F O E O

B C B C
D D

Theorem 34.1 (The law of sines). Let R denote the circumradius of a

triangle ABC with sides a, b, c opposite to the angles A, B, C respec-
tively.
a b c
= = = 2R.
sin A sin B sin C
Since the area of a triangle is given by △ = 12 bc sin A, the circumra-
dius can be written as
abc
R= .
4△
34.3 The incenter and the incircle 1203

34.3 The incenter and the incircle

The internal angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent at the incenter
of the triangle. This is the center of the incircle, the circle tangent to the
three sides of the triangle.
If the incircle touches the sides BC, CA and AB respectively at X,
Y , and Z,
AY = AZ = s − a, BX = BZ = s − b, CX = CY = s − c.

s−a

s−a

Z I
s−c

s−b

B C
s−b X s−c

Denote by r the inradius of the triangle ABC.

2△ △
r= = .
a+b+c s
1204 The classical triangle centers

34.4 The orthocenter and the Euler line

The orthocenter H is the intersection of the three altitudes of triangle
ABC. These altitudes can be seen as the perpendicular bisectors of the
antimedial triangle XY Z of ABC, which is bounded by the three lines
each passing through A, B, C parallel to their respective opposite sides.

A Y
Z

H G

B C

XY Z is the image of triangle ABC under the homothety h(G, −2).

It follows that H is the image of O under the same homothety. We
conclude that O, G, and H are collinear, and OG : GH = 1 : 2.
The line containing O, G, H is the famous Euler line of triangle
ABC.
34.5 The excenters and the excircles 1205

34.5 The excenters and the excircles

The internal bisector of each angle and the external bisectors of the re-
maining two angles are concurrent at an excenter of the triangle. An
excircle can be constructed with this as center, tangent to the lines con-
taining the three sides of the triangle.

Ib

Ic

B C

Ia

The exradii of a triangle with sides a, b, c are given by

△ △ △
ra = , rb = , rc = .
s−a s−b s−c

Exercise
1. Given a triangle ABC, construct a triangle whose sides have the
same lengths as the medians of ABC.
2. Construct the incircle of triangle ABC, and mark the points of con-
tact X on BC, Y on CA, and Z on AB. Are the lines AX, BY ,
CZ concurrent? If so, is their intersection the incenter of triangle
ABC?
3. Given three non-collinear points as centers, construct three circles
mutually tangent to each other externally.
4. Let D, E, F be the midpoints of BC, CA, AB of triangle ABC.
Construct the circumcircle of DEF . This is called the nine-point
1206 The classical triangle centers

circle of triangle ABC. Construct also the incircle of triangle

ABC. What do you observe about the two circles? How would
you justify your observation?
5. Construct the circle through the excenters of triangle ABC. How is
its center related to the circumcenter and incenter of triangle ABC?
Chapter 35

The nine-point circle

35.1 The nine-point circle

The following nine points associated with a triangle are on a circle whose
center is the midpoint between the circumcenter and the orthocenter:
(i) the midpoints of the three sides,
(ii) the pedals (orthogonal projections) of the three vertices on their op-
posite sides,
(iii) the midpoints between the orthocenter and the three vertices.

Ea Y

F E

G
N O

Z
H

Eb Ec

B X D C

Proof. (1) Let N be the circumcenter of the inferior triangle DEF .

Since DEF and ABC are homothetic at G in the ratio 1 : 2, N, G,
O are collinear, and NG : GO = 1 : 2. Since HG : GO = 2 : 1, the
four are collinear, and
HN : NG : GO = 3 : 1 : 2,
1208 The nine-point circle

and N is the midpoint of OH.

(2) Let X be the pedal of H on BC. Since N is the midpoint of
OH, the pedal of N is the midpoint of DX. Therefore, N lies on the
perpendicular bisector of DX, and NX = ND. Similarly, NE = NY ,
and NF = NZ for the pedals of H on CA and AB respectively. This
means that the circumcircle of DEF also contains X, Y , Z.
(3) Let Ea , Eb , Ec be the midpoints of AH, BH, CH respectively.
The triangle Ea Eb Ec is homothetic to ABC at H in the ratio 1 : 2.
Denote by N ′ its circumcenter. The points N ′ , G, O are collinear, and
N ′ G : GO = 1 : 2. It follows that N ′ = N, and the circumcircle of
DEF also contains Ea , Eb , Ec .
This circle is called the nine-point circle of triangle ABC. Its center
N is called the nine-point center. Its radius is half of the circumradius of
ABC.

35.2 Feuerbach’s theorem

The nine-point circle of a triangle is tangent internally to the incircle,
and externally to each of the excircles.
Cb

Ib

Bc

Ic

Cc F
Fb

Fc Bb

I
N

Ac B Aa C Ab
Fa

Ba

Ca

Ia
35.3 Lewis Carroll’s unused geometry pillow problem 1209

35.3 Lewis Carroll’s unused geometry pillow problem

According to [Rowe], one of the pillow problems Lewis Carroll had at-
tempted but did not include in his collection of pillow problems was the
following.
Given a triangle ABC, to find, by paper folding, a line ℓ which
intersects AC and AB at Y and Z respectively) such that if
A′ is the reflection of A in ℓ , then the reflections of B in A′ Z
and of C in A′ Y coincide.
A

B C

A′

The point W is both the reflection of B in A′ Y , and that of C in

A′ Z. It follows that A′ B = A′ W = A′ C, and A′ is on the perpendicular
bisector of BC.
1210 The nine-point circle

Consider the directed angle ∠BA′ C. This is

∠BA′ C =∠BA′ W + ∠W A′ C
=2∠Y A′ W + 2∠W A′ Z
=2∠Y A′ Z
= − 2∠Y AZ
since A′ Y AZ is a kite. This means that ∠BA′ C = −2∠BAC. The
reflection of A′ in the side BC is therefore the point Q on the perpen-
dicular bisector such that ∠BQC = 2∠BAC, which is necessarily the
circumcenter O of triangle ABC. We therefore conclude that A′ is the
reflection of the circumcenter O in the side BC, and the reflection line ℓ
is the perpendicular bisector of the line AA′ .

O H
N

B C

A′

Let D be the midpoint BC and H the orthocenter of triangle ABC.

In a standard proof of the Euler line theorem, it is established that AH =
2OD, 1 and that the midpoint of OH is the nine-point center of triangle
ABC. This means that AH = OA′ , and AOA′H is a parallelogram. It
follows that the midpoint of AA′ is the same as that of OH, the nine-
point center N of triangle ABC. The Lewis Carroll paper-folding line
is the perpendicular to AN at N.

1 AH = 2 · OD = 2R cos A, where R is the circumradius of triangle ABC.

35.4 Triangles with nine-point center on the circumcircle 1211

35.4 Triangles with nine-point center on the circumcir-

cle
Begin with a circle, center O and a point N on it, and construct a family
of triangles with (O) as circumcircle and N as nine-point center.
(1) Construct the nine-point circle, which has center N, and passes
through the midpoint M of ON.
(2) Animate a point D on the minor arc of the nine-point circle inside
the circumcircle.
(3) Construct the chord BC of the circumcircle with D as midpoint.
(This is simply the perpendicular to OD at D).
(4) Let X be the point on the nine-point circle antipodal to D. Com-
plete the parallelogram ODXA (by translating the vector DO to X).
The point A lies on the circumcircle and the triangle ABC has nine-
point center N on the circumcircle.
Here is a curious property of triangles constructed in this way: let A′ ,
B ′ , C ′ be the reflections of A, B, C in their own opposite sides. The
reflection triangle A′ B ′ C ′ degenerates, i.e., the three points A′ , B ′ , C ′
are collinear. 2

Exercise
1. Let H be the orthocenter of triangle ABC. Show that the Euler
lines of triangles ABC, HBC, HCA and HAB are concurrent. 3
2. For what triangles is the Euler line parallel (respectively perpendic-
ular) to an angle bisector? 4
3. Let P be a point on the circumcircle. What is the locus of the
midpoint of HP ? Why?

2 O. Bottema, Hoofdstukken uit de Elementaire Meetkunde, Chapter 16.

3 Hint: find a point common to them all.
4 The Euler line is parallel (respectively perpendicular) to the bisector of angle A if and only if α = 120◦

(respectively 60◦ ).
1212 The nine-point circle
Chapter 36

The excircles

36.1 A relation among the radii

ra + rb + rc = 4R + r.

Ib

M
A

Ic rb

O
rc I

r
D

B C

M′
ra

Ia

ra − r =2DM ′ ,
rb + rc =2MD = 2(2R − DM ′ );
ra + rb + rc − r =4R.
1214 The excircles

36.2 The circumcircle of the excentral triangle

The circle through the excenters has center at the reflection of the incen-
ter in the circumcenter, and radius twice the circumradius.

Ib

Ic

O O′
I

B D X′ C

Ia

O ′Ia =ra + O ′ X ′
=ra + 2OD − r
=ra + 2(R − DM ′ ) − r (from previous page)
=ra + 2R − (ra − r) − r
=2R.
Similarly, O ′Ib = O ′Ic = 2R.
36.3 The radical circle of the excircles 1215

36.3 The radical circle of the excircles

The circle orthogonal to each of the excircles has center √ at the Spieker
1
point, the incenter of the medial triangle. Its radius is 2 r 2 + s2 .

I
I′

B C
1216 The excircles

36.4 Apollonius circle: the circular hull of the excircles

Fc′

′
Fa

Fc Fb

I′
N

B Fa C

′
fb
36.5 Three mutually orthogonal circles with given centers 1217

36.5 Three mutually orthogonal circles with given cen-

ters
Given three points A, B, C that form an acute-angled triangle, construct
three circles with these points as centers that are mutually orthogonal to
each other.

Y
A

Z
H
F

B D C

Solution. Let BC = a, CA = b, and AB = c. If these circles have

radii ra , rb , rc respectively, then
rb2 + rc2 = a2 , rc2 + ra2 = b2 , ra2 + rb2 = c2 .

From these,
1 1 1
ra2 = (b2 +c2 −a2 ), rb2 = (c2 +a2 −b2 ), rc2 = (a2 +b2 −c2 ).
2 2 2
These are all positive since ABC is an acute triangle. Consider the
perpendicular foot E of B on AC. Note that AE = c cos A, so that
ra2 = 12 (b2 + c2 − a2 ) = bc cos A = AC · AE. It follows if we extend
BE to intersect at Y the semicircle constructed externally on the side
AC as diameter, then, AY 2 = AC · AE = ra2 . Therefore we have the
following simple construction of these circles. (1) With each side as
diameter, construct a semicircle externally of the triangle. (2) Extend
the altitudes of the triangle to intersect the semicircles on the same side.
Label these X, Y , Z on the semicircles on BC, CA, AB respectively.
These satify AY = AZ, BZ = BX, and CX = CY . (3) The circles
A(Y ), B(Z) and C(X) are mutually orthogonal to each other.