ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT MODULE FINAL

Chapter1

1.0Definition of terms

Environment

The natural and manmade resource, physical resources, both biotic and abiotic, occurring in the
lithosphere and atmosphere, water, soil, minerals and living organisms whether indigenous or
exotic and the interaction between them (Source environmental management Act chp 20:27)

Environmental analogue

An example of the egg can be given where by the person is the York and the egg white is the
environment. Man is at the centre of the environment and there is interdependency between the
two.

Natural resource

Resources occurring in nature and can be used to create wealth. these are valuable to man and
are the components of the earth.

Man made resource

Resources which are artificial .these come into being through interference of man.

1.1Environmental stewardship

Steward refers to a person whose personal responsibility is of taking care of another person’s
property.

Environmental stewardship refers to the responsibility for environmental quality shared by all
those whose actions affect the environment.

Importance of stewardship.

Most of the natural resources are non renewable. The rate at which these resources are being
depleted is alarming and unsustainable. Given the importance of these resources for the survival
of mankind today and tomorrow there is need for stewardship.

“We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors we borrow it from our Children” Native
American proverb.
Scales of environment stewardship

- Local scale
- National scale
- Regional/ international scale

At the local scale

- This could be at the farm, garden, plot, village.

- Individual, household, community action and activities.
- Decisions- choices on which crops to grow and how to grow them.
- Community conservation committees

At national level

All Zimbabwean nationals have a right to access and enjoy the country’s natural resources,
therefore the state has an obligation to assure that right. State of Zimbabwe’s environment as in
2014 the general endowment……. wildlife (337 mammal species) and forestry (66% of the total
area). Most monitored are those of economic value.

Also obligation to ensure continued enjoyment by generations, state is chief steward

e.g prevent negative downstream effects

1. environmental policies and legislation

2. national programmes such as campfire

Regional / international level

Given that climate knows no boundaries it is a requirement to have stewards at this level.

National boundaries are artificial with respect to wildlife habitats. Birds migrate and have
habitats in different parts of the world therefore the need for cooperation. Other areas are shared
water resources e.g Zambezi. In order to participate in global markets, it is now more important
to have sound environmental policies and practices.
TOPICAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

MDG…. All are related to environment.

Environmental issues

Millennium Development Goals

• Since 1990, the United Nations held a series of world summits, global conferences to

lay out a comprehensive rights based development agenda

• culminated in the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals

• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

– quantitative goals, time targets, and numerical targets … 2015.

• Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger

• Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education

• Goal 3: Promote Gender and Empower Women

• Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality

• Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health

• Goal 6: Combat HIV and AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases

• Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability

• Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development

Global Climate Change

Desertification

– Desertification: the process of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid

areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations (drought)

and human activities (overexploitation of drylands)

– Land degradation: the temporary or permanent lowering of the productive

capacity of land

– Cause of desertification
• climate variability

• unsustainable human activities.

– over-cultivation, overgrazing, deforestation,

– poor irrigation practices, poor mining practices

–?

• Whitlow (1988), 1,848,000 ha of Zimbabwe’s 390731000ha degraded

Ministry of Environment case studies : 2004

– 91% of communal cropland degraded (soil erosion)

– 76.6% communal non-cropland degraded

Freshwater Resources

• 97% of water on the earth is salt water, only 3% is fresh

– available freshwater resources continue to decline

– excessive withdrawal of surface / groundwater, decreased runoff from

the land surface attributed to climate change.

– In many parts of the world, human water use exceeds the average

annual natural water replenishment

• freshwater resources and sustainable development strongly

interdependent

• changes in the hydrosphere can hinder achievement MDGs

Freshwater Resources Challenges

Challenges

– Securing water for an increasing global population

– Securing water for food production

– Protecting vital ecosystems

– Supply variability in time and space

– Managing risks and disasters

– Creating popular awareness and understanding

– Forging the political will to act

– Ensuring collaboration across sectors and international boundaries

• Contaminated water remains the greatest cause of sickness and death globally

• Non-point-source pollution, notably by nutrients, sediments, organic chemicals and

other water pollutants from agriculture, is a major cause of water quality degradation.

• Damming -enormous benefit to agricultural production, but

– Fragmentation of river flows by dams lowers downstream agricultural yields and

fish productivity, increases salinization of estuaries

Loss of Biodiversity

• genetic diversity is widely considered to be in decline, restricting future

development options.

• large number of species have gone extinct in recent history or are

threatened with extinction,

• agriculture is a large driver of genetic erosion, species loss and conversion

of natural habitats.

• dependence on and growing requirements for energy are resulting in

significant changes in species and ecosystems

• current patterns of farming, based on high resource inputs are putting great

strains on ecosystems,

• continued loss of biodiversity represent obstacles towards the attainment of

the MDGs.

• current policies and economic systems do not incorporate the values of biodiversity

uman Population issues

• Population change, 2000-2050

• (millions)

• Population increase

• 1 India 572

• 2 Pakistan 162

• 3 Nigeria 141

• 4 Dem. Republic of the Congo 127

5 China 118

• 6 Bangladesh 114

• 7 United States of America 111

8 Uganda 103

• 9 Ethiopia

Africa population issues

• Africa considerably less urbanized, but,
expected to experience rapid rates of
urbanization during the period 2005- 2030.
• It is projected that by 2030, 55 per cent,
respectively, of their inhabitants will live in urban areas

• Life expectancy trends

Population and environment in Zimbabwe

• population pressures on land in Zimbabwe result

in soil erosion, deforestation, and desertification

in rural areas and rural migration to cities

(Tevera, 1994)

• high population density initiating unsustainable

land use practices,

– deteriorating environmental trends in the form

of deforestation, increased soil erosion,

decline in grazing resources and extension of arable land into marginal areas Human pandemics

• HIV/AIDS: covered in details in another

course

• Link between HIV/AIDS with the

environment and attainment of MDGs

• Link between HIV/AIDS and loss of

biodiversity

• Other agriculture related pandemics e.g., swine flu, bird flu

1. Regional protocol
2. Transfrontieer parks strategy
3. International conservation Zimbabwe is signatory to

Loss of biodiversity
Chapter 2

AGROECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem Concept
Ecosystem
A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and
the non-living environment interacting as a functional unit
Ecosystem components
biotic - living organisms
abiotic- non-living
– Soils
• mixture of weathered rock fragments, minerals, organic matter and living organisms
• provide nutrients water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms
– Atmosphere
• pool of gases, water
– Solar radiation
• heats the atmosphere,
• used to evaporate and transpire water into the atmosphere,
• necessary for photosynthesis

Ecosystem relationships
The following graphical model describes the major ecosystem components and their
interrelationships

Fig : Relationships within an ecosystem

Ecological hierarchy
• Biosphere: the totality of living beings on earth, as well as those parts of the oceans,
atmosphere, and lithosphere with which living organisms interact
• Biome: the complex of living communities maintained by the climate of a region and
characterized by a distinctive type of vegetation.
• Landscape: a heterogeneous land area composed of a cluster of interacting ecosystems that is
repeated in similar form
• Community: an assemblage of organisms that share a habitat
• Ecological Hierarchy .. nested …understanding of one level requires a thorough consideration
of the level above and the level below:

• Biosphere
• Biome
• Landscape
• Ecosystem
• Community
• Population
• Individual
• Organ
• Tissue
• Cell

Agroecosystems

Energy flow
• Solar radiant energy drives biotic systems...enables plants to convert inorganic
chemicals into organic compounds

• autotrophs can convert energy from inorganic sources into organic energy
– plants are the dominant photosynthetic autotrophs

• heterotrophs require fixed energy found in organic molecules for their survival
– consumers obtain energy from living organisms

• herbivores, carnivores
– decomposers or detrivores obtain their energy from dead organisms or from
organic compounds dispersed in the environment

• organic energy in plants can move within the ecosystem through consumption
• organic energy can also move from one ecosystem to another by animal migration,
animal harvesting, plant harvesting, plant dispersal of seeds, leaching, erosion
• pyramids of energy..
Nutrient cycling

• the movement of chemical elements from the organic form into living organisms and the return
of these elements back into inorganic forms through metabolism or death and decomposition

NITROGEN CYCLE

Fig: The nitrogen cycle

- Biological Fixation
symbiosis
bacteria use elemental nitrogen (N2) and change it to organic forms of nitrogen
bacteria obtain carbohydrates from host plants

- Nitrification
Ammnonium converted nitrite then nitrate by Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter

- Mineralization
Release of nutrients from organic material by bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes
- Denitrification
Nitrate (NO3-) is converted to gaseous nitrogen (N2), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO) by
soil bacteria

The carbon cycle

Fig:Carbon cycle

Carbon movement
• from the atmosphere to plants
• from plants to animals through food chains
• from organisms to soil
– death, decomposition
• from living organisms to the atmosphere
– respiration.
• from fossil fuels to the atmosphere
– CO, C02, CH4
• from the atmosphere to the oceans
Ecosystem services

• Provisioning
– food, fresh water, wood, fibre, medicines, ….?

• Supporting
– nutrient cycling, soil formation, primary production

• Regulating
– climate and flood regulation, disease regulation,
water purification

• Cultural
– aesthetic, spiritual, educational, recreational

Drivers of ecosystem change

• Driver
– Any factor that changes an aspect of an ecosystem

• Direct drivers
– Unequivocal influence, identifiable, measurable
– Land use and land cover changes
– Species introductions or removals
– External inputs: fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation
– Harvest
– Climate change
– Natural, physical, biological: e.g., volcanoes

• Indirect drivers
– Operate more diffusely, usually by altering one or more direct drivers
• Demographic
• Economic
• Socio-political
• Science and technology
• Cultural, religious e.g., choice of consumption

Agro ecosystems

– These are specialized controlled systems designed and managed by humans for the production
of food and fiber. They consist of ‘domesticated ecosystems’ controlled by management of
ecological processes. They are also referred to as artificial systems which require intervention to
persist through space and time.
Agro ecosystem characteristics

Agro ecosystems are solar powered but auxiliary energy sources are used to enhance
productivity. Processed fuels, animal power and human labor also is in use. Control is external
and goal-oriented. Creation and maintenance of these ecosystems is concerned with the (human)
economic goals of production, productivity and conservation. Species diversity is reduced by
human management in order to maximize yield of specific foodstuffs. Dominant plant and
animal species are under artificial rather than natural selection

Agro ecological management.

Agro ecological management must lead management to optimal recycling of nutrients and
organic matter turnover, closed energy flows, water and soil conservation and balance pest-
natural enemy populations. The strategy exploits the complementarities and synergisms that
result from the various combinations of crops, tree and animals in spatial and temporal
arrangements (Altieri 1994).

In essence, the optimal behavior of agroecosystems depends on the level of interactions between
the various biotic and abiotic components. By assembling a functional biodiversity it is possible
to initiate synergisms which subsidize agroecosystem processes by providing ecological services
such as the activation of soil biology, the recycling of nutrients, the enhancement of beneficial
arthropods and antagonists, and so on (Altieri and Nicholls 1999). Today there is a diverse
selection of practices and technologies available, and which vary in effectiveness as well as in
strategic value. Key practices are those of a preventative nature and which act by reinforcing the
"immunity" of the agroecosystem through a series of mechanisms (Table 2).

Various strategies to restore agricultural diversity in time and space include crop rotations, cover
crops, intercropping, crop/livestock mixtures, and so on, which exhibit the following ecological
features:

-Crop Rotations

Temporal diversity incorporated into cropping systems, providing crop nutrients and breaking
the life cycles of several insect pests, diseases, and weed life cycles (Sumner 1982).

- Polycultures

Complex cropping systems in which tow or more crop species are planted within sufficient
spatial proximity to result in competition or complementation, thus enhancing yields (Francis
1986, Vandermeer 1989).
-Agroforestry Systems

An agricultural system where trees are grown together with annual crops and/or animals,
resulting in enhanced complementary relations between components increasing multiple use of
the agroecosystem (Nair 1982).

- Cover Crops

The use of pure or mixed stands of legumes or other annual plant species under fruit trees for the
purpose of improving soil fertility, enhancing biological control of pests, and modifying the
orchard microclimate (Finch and Sharp 1976).

- Animal integration in agroecosystems aids in achieving high biomass output and optimal
recycling (Pearson and Ison 1987).

All of the above diversified forms of agroecosystems share in common the following features
(Altieri and Rosset 1995):

-Maintain vegetative cover as an effective soil and water conserving measure, met through the
use of no-till practices, mulch farming, and use of cover crops and other appropriate methods.

- Provide a regular supply of organic matter through the addition of organic matter (manure,
compost, and promotion of soil biotic activity).

- Enhance nutrient recycling mechanisms through the use of livestock systems based on legumes,
etc.

- Promote pest regulation through enhanced activity of biological control agents achieved by
introducing and/or conserving natural enemies and antagonists.

Research on diversified cropping systems underscores the great importance of diversity in an

agricultural setting (Francis 1986, Vandermeer 1989, Altieri 1995). Diversity is of value in
agroecosystems for a variety of reasons (Altieri 1994, Gliessman 1998):

-As diversity increases, so do opportunities for coexistence and beneficial interactions between
species that can enhance agroecosystem sustainability.

-Greater diversity often allows better resource-use efficiency in an agroecosystem. There is

better system-level adaptation to habitat heterogeneity, leading to complementarity in crop
species needs, diversification of niches, overlap of species niches, and partitioning of resources.
-Ecosystems in which plant species are intermingled possess an associated resistance to
herbivores as in diverse systems there is a greater abundance and diversity of natural enemies of
pest insects keeping in check the populations of individual herbivore species.

-A diverse crop assemblage can create a diversity of microclimates within the cropping system
that can be occupied by a range of non crop organisms - including beneficial predators, parasites,
pollinators, soil fauna and antagonists - that are of importance for the entire system.

-Diversity in the agricultural landscape can contribute to the conservation of biodiversity in

surrounding natural ecosystems.

-Diversity in the soil performs a variety of ecological services such as nutrient recycling and
detoxification of noxious chemicals and regulation of plant growth.

-Diversity reduces risk for farmers, especially in marginal areas with more unpredictable
environmental conditions. If one crop does not do well, income from others can compensate.

Agro ecology and the Design of Sustainable Agro ecosystems

Most people involved in the promotion of sustainable agriculture aim at creating a form of
agriculture that maintains productivity in the long term by (Pretty 1994, Vandermeer 1995):

-optimizing the use of locally available resources by combining the different components of the
farm system, i.e. plants, animals, soil, water, climate and people, so that they complement each
other and have the greatest possible synergetic effects;

-reducing the use of off-farm, external and non-renewable inputs with the greatest potential to
damage the environment or harm the health of farmers and consumers, and a more targeted use
of the remaining inputs used with a view to minimizing variable costs;

-relying mainly on resources within the agroecosystem by replacing external inputs with nutrient
cycling, better conservation, and an expanded use of local resources;

-improving the match between cropping patterns and the productive potential and environmental
constraints of climate and landscape to ensure long-term sustainability of current production
levels;

-working to value and conserve biological diversity, both in the wild and in domesticated
landscapes, and making optimal use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal
species; and
-taking full advantage of local knowledge and practices, including innovative approaches not yet
fully understood by scientists although widely adopted by farmers.
Chapter 3

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem is defined as a community of interacting organisms and the environment they live in.

Aquatic ecosystem refers to an ecosystem located in water bodies.There are two main types that
is, freshwater and marine ecosystems

Wetlands

Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the
soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season.
They occur where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is
covered by water. The Environmental Management Act ( cap 20;27)

A wetland is an area of marsh, fen, peat-land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty including seawater where it
does not exceed six metres at low tide. (Ramsar)

The definition encompasses all surface freshwaters as well as shallow seas as given below;

-Lakes which may be deep or shallow

-Rivers which include floodplains

-Dams, which convert stretches of river into artificial lakes

- Palustrine areas, which include swamps, marshes, fens, bogs and dambos

Wetlands in Zimbabwe

– Floodplains

Which are not large because of semi arid climate.These are found along Zambezi Valley and
Runde Catchment

– Dambos (vleis, matoro, mapani, Amaxhaphozi)

Grass covered treeless valleys that are periodically inundated with water. They are found along
Karoi, Chinhoyi, Mt Hampden, Marondera, Rusape, Chivhu, Mvuma, Gweru, Somabhula,
Bulawayo
– Pans

Small depressions filled with water. Found in Hwange National Park, Lupane, Nkayi and South
eastern Gonarezhou and may be seasonal or perennial.

Zimbabwe is a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on wetlands of 1971 and has domesticated
provisions for the protection of wetlands under the Environmental Management Act (Cap 20;27).
Statutory Instrument 7 of 2007 on Environmental Management (Environmental Impact
Assessment and ecosystems protection) regulations and government gazette 380 of 2013.

The Ramsar Convention embodies commitments by member states to maintain the ecological
character of wetlands and to plan for the “ wise use” or sustainable use of all of the wetlands in
their territories.

Seven designated Ramsar sites in Zimbabwe

- Victoria falls

- Driefontein grasslands

- Middle Zambezi/ Mana Pools

- Lake chibero

- Monavale vlei

- Chinhoyi caves and

- Cleverland dam

- The government Gazette 380 of, 2013 declares 26 wetlands in Harare as protected areas.

Importance of Wetlands

Ecological goods and services of wetlands

- Provide habitat for a wide variety of wildlife

- Ensure food security if sustainably utilized

- Trap moderate amounts of soil running off nearby uplands before they enter lakes and
streams. - Maintain and improve water quality by filtering contaminants and excessive
nutrients

- Renew groundwater supplies (aquifer recharge)

- Help and control flooding and reduce flood damage (flow regulation)

- Fire control

- Provide a source of economically valuable products such as wild rice and commercial
fish

- Support recreational activities including fish, hunting, nature appreciation, bird watching
and so much more and

- Provide opportunities to participate in outdoor educational activities and to enjoy the

aesthetic qualities of wetlands.

Impacts of Agriculture on Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems

-Pollution

Pollution sources can be point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point sources arise from
distinct identifiable sources and non-point sources diffuse in nature and pollutants are discharged
over a wide spread area.

- Excessive abstraction of ground and surface water for irrigation leads to depletion of
groundwater resources may lead to collapse of aquifers. Depletion of surface water for
downstream users water logging and salinisation of irrigated lands

-Damming

Changes the characteristics and ecology of the river and the area where they’re built. Reduce
downstream flooding leading to drying up of floodplains. Leads to loss of riverbank vegetation
and wildlife.Dams trap silt and nutrients, decreasing their availability downstream.Lowers
production of vegetation and fish, and block fish migration.Some species are unable to adapt to
the changes and may die off, leading to a reduction in biodiversity.

-Agriculture-induced run-off

Clearing land for agriculture increases run-off and decreases filtration rates, thereby lowering the
water table. Compaction of soil caused by heavy machinery and livestock also increase run off
and decrease infiltration rates. Poor farming and soil conservation techniques can also lead to
increased run-off, soil erosion and eventual siltation of water bodies.

-Disposal of animal manure

 Poor disposal of animal manure can lead to contamination of aquatic systems, leading to
eutrophication of surrounding water bodies

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)

‘A process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and
related resources in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable
manner without compromising the sustainability of vital eco-systems’, Global Water Partnership
(G.W.P)

Emphasis is placed on integrated approach with more coordinated decision making across sectors
and scales. It is a means of achieving three key strategic objectives which are ;

i) Efficiency

To make water resources go as far as possible

ii) Equity

In the allocation of water across different social and economic groups;

iii) Environmental sustainability

Freshwater resources are finite and vulnerable, essential to sustain life, development and the
environment it is important to protect the water resources base and associated eco-systems.
Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving
users, planners and policy makers at all levels. Water has an economic value in all its competing
uses and should be recognized as an economic good. The use of water must be economically
efficient, socially equitable and ecologically sustainable. Women play a central part in the
provision, management and safeguarding of water.

IWRM Framework

A. Enabling Environment

-Policies

- Legislation

-Financing and Incentive Structures

B. Institutional Roles
- Creating and organization framework

- Institutional Capacity Building

C. Management Instruments

-Water Resources Assessment

-Plans for IWRM

- Efficiency in Water Use

-Social Change Instruments

-Conflict Resolution

- Regulatory Instruments

- Economic Instruments

- Information Exchange

Lower Manyame Catchment has implemented IWRM and the implementation process included

– Baseline survey

– Community capacity building

– Research

– Consultants services

– Field visits

LMC recent reported outcomes as

– Increased food production particularly

– market gardening

– Women groups doing value addition of food such as groundnuts and soya beans

– High value crop production is being reported

– Drives and attempts to link with international markets

– Health and nutrition benefits increased

How to conserve wetlands

- Plant native species – they maintain the natural balance of the wetlands

- Protect wetlands vegetation including plants in the adjacent area; they are important for
the overall functioning of the wetlands. The plants in and around a wetland trap any filter
out sediments and aid in groundwater recharge by retaining runoff waters.

- Direct storm water into wetlands especially in urban areas because they supply much of
the water necessary to maintain wet lands.

- Maintain a green belt around the wetland – a greenbelt is the natural vegetation found in
that area.

- Fence the wetland for protection against animals that may destroy vegetation.

- selective cutting of trees, shrubs and other vegetation, this will not disturb the natural
balance of the wetland;

- avoid clearing, over grazing or cutting grass because this affects the soil structure, types
of plants grown in the area, health of the vegetation and the filtering capacity;

- Non native (exotic) plants should not be introduced because they damage or ruin
ecosystem around the wetland. Exotic plants choke native vegetation and alter the way
wetland function.

- avoid fertilizing or use of pesticides, they are a potential threat to the wetland because
they eventually enter local waterways and the wetland altering the ecological balance;

- Dumping of waste on wetlands causes air and water pollution.

Wetlands law in Zimbabwe

The Environmental Management Act (Cap 20;27). Statutory Instrument 7 of 2007 on

environmental management (Environmental Impact Assessment and ecosystems protection
regulations) govern wetland utilization in Zimbabwe. Section 133 of the Environmental
Management Act (Chapter 20;27) section 113 gives the minister of environment powers to:

- declare any wetland to be an ecologically sensitive area and may impose limitations on
development in or around such an area.
- prohibit the reclamation or drainage, disturbance by drilling or tunneling in a manner that
has or is likely to have an adverse impact on any wetland or adversely affect any animal
or plant life therein.

- prohibit the introduction of exotic animals and plant species into a wetland. Failure to
abide by the law is a criminal that attracts a fine or to imprisonment not exceeding two
years. The environment minister can serve written order to refrain any development on
any wetland.

Water Legislation in Zimbabwe

-Water Act of 1998 (operationalised in 2000)

• Introduction of permit system to replace the water rights system

• Establishment of Catchment Councils

• Classification of water use into primary use and commercial use

• Registration of water use

• Formulation of guidelines for groundwater use

• Water quality issues under the Environmental Management Act

-Water (Permit) Regulations – SI 206 of2001

-Environmental Management Act of 2002

- Environmental Management (Effluent and Solid Waste Disposal) Regulations – SI 6 of 2007

The Catchment Approach

Zimbabwe has been divided into 7 catchments, based on the major river systems in the
country.This is to enable more effective and efficient water management.Water affairs in the
catchment are managed by a Catchment Council, which consists of elected representatives of the
various water users in the catchment. The Catchment Manager is a ZINWA employee, and
ZINWA provides technical assistance to the Catchment Council .
Chapter 4

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire
planet. It describes the full array of life in a region, including species richness, ecosystem
complexity, and genetic variation. This is the variety and variability among living organisms and
the ecological complexes in which they occur. It is a measure of the health of ecosystems, greater
biodiversity implies greater health.

Agro biodiversity is the variability among living organisms associated with cultivated crops and
domesticated animals and the ecological complexes of which they are part.

Levels of biodiversity

-genetic diversity

The difference due to differences in genetic makeup.

- Organism diversity

Is the variability among living organisms

-ecological diversity

Refers to the variability among environments.

Nested Nature Of Biodiversity

-Diversity of a lower life level is embedded within a higher level

- Genetic diversity- gene -> cell -> organ -> organism -> population.

- Organismic diversity - species ->genus -> family ->order ->class -> phyllum -kingdom

-Ecological diversity-population ->niches ->habitat - >ecosystem -> landscape >bioregion -

>biome.

Importance of Biodiversity:

-Subsistence – source of food products

- Environmental – recreation, protection of water resources for clean water, watershed

protection, carbon storage, pest and disease control, shelter, nutrient cycling, clean air.
- Crop and livestock improvement – source of new genes.

- Trade- foreign currency earner and contributes to GDP

- Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters such as droughts – due to differences- some
organisms may escape unfavourable environmental pressures

- Agricultural adaptation in various geophysical conditions e.g. rainfall has a serious bearing on
different crops grown in Zimbabwe.

- Different in crop and livestock species are adapted to the various agro-ecological

-medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs

-shelter to many living organisms

-employment creation

-raw material for industries, building materials, clothes, wood products

-research, education and cultural values

Conventions on Biodiversity

The SADC member states both as individual and as a region have shown much commitment to
environmental management as this is indicated by implementation of various UN environment
conventions as well as SADC protocols on key natural resources in the region. Persistent loss of
biodiversity, land degradation and deforestation continue despite of progress and commitment by
the SADC member states to environmental management. The SADC region has put some efforts
to develop a SADC gen bank. Establishment of botanic gardens for example a 68 ha national
botanic garden in Zimbabwe. The garden was established in 1962 to build a comprehensive
collection of plants found in the country and the Southern African region.

Communal Areas Management Programme For Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) policy

in Zimbabwe provides for an adaptive, decentralized and participatory management, which
allows government to run the parks and wildlife estate. The local communities manage the
CAMPFIRE programme while commercial farmers run the conservancies (game ranches).

Community based Natural Resources Management programmes (CBNM) were initiated in

Southern Africa as efforts to conserve and rehabilitate the environment. The guiding principles
for the CBNM were:

 Community capacity building

  Legal recognition of community organizations, transfer of rights to those communities
and attention to property and procedural rights
 Promotion of an appropriate economic environment where incentives and safeguards are
in place.
 Multi-level monitoring of all aspects of the programme and adaptive management.

Since the inception of the CBNRM wildlife population recovered drastically in Botswana,
Zimbabwe and Zambia in the early 1990s. (Source; U.S Agency for International Development
Washington , D .C 20523 August 2003).

United Nations Convention for Biodiversity was established in 1992 and Zimbabwe ratified the
convention in 1994.

Purpose of the convention

 conservation of biodiversity in situ or ex situ

 sustainable use of biodiversity.
 benefit sharing.

The convention stresses the need for national, regional and global cooperation in biodiversity
conservation, sustainable use of biodiversity and benefit sharing .It requires parties to
cooperate in search, technology transfer, information exchange and monitoring of the
implementation of the convention. Developed countries are given responsibility of providing
financial support to developing countries towards the implementation of the convention. All
parties of the convention are expected to carry out and publish inventories on biodiversity,
develop national strategies, plans, programmes for biodiversity convention and to integrate
biodiversity into relevant national policies and programmes.

All parties should identify and monitor activities that harm biodiversity and take measures to
protect biodiversity.

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

• International Union for conservation of Nature (IUCN founded in 1948 to bring together
states, governments, governments agencies and civic organization. IUCN seeks to influence,
encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve diversity and equitable and
sustainable use of natural resources at local, region and global levels.

The following mammals are rated as critically endangered (CR) (IUCN Red List):
 • Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis).

• The following mammals are rated as endangered (EN)

• -Wild dog (Lycaon pictus).

• The following mammals are rated as vulnerable :

• -African elephant (Loxodonta africana)

• -Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)

• -Lion (Pantera leo)

• -Spring hare (Pedetes capensis)

• -Red Bush squirrel (Paraxerus palliatus)

• -Large-eared Free-tailed Bat (Todarida lobata

• -Cape Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus capensis)

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

(CITES)

The CITES conference of parties formed on June 1997 controlled the trade of ivory and
other elephant products this came as a strategy to conserve elephants.

1. Appendix I shall include all species threatened with extinction which are or may be affected by
trade. Trade in specimens of these species must be subject to particularly strict regulation in order
not to endanger further their survival and must only be authorized in exceptional circumstances.

2. Appendix II shall include: (a) all species which although not necessarily now threatened with
extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in
order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival; and (b) other species which must be
subject to regulation in order that trade in specimens of certain species referred to in sub-
paragraph (a) of this paragraph may be brought under effective control.

3. Appendix III shall include all species which any Party identifies as being subject to regulation
within its jurisdiction for the purpose of preventing or restricting exploitation, and as needing the
co-operation of other Parties in the control of trade.

4. The Parties shall not allow trade in specimens of species included in Appendices I, II and III except
in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention.
Measures to be taken by the Parties

1. The Parties shall take appropriate measures to enforce the provisions of the present Convention and
to prohibit trade in specimens in violation thereof. These shall include measures: (a) to penalize trade in,
or possession of, such specimens, or both; and (b) to provide for the confiscation or return to the State
of export of such specimens.

2. Party may, when it deems it necessary, provide for any method of internal reimbursement for
expenses incurred as a result of the confiscation of a specimen traded in violation of the measures taken
in the application of the provisions of the present Convention.

3. As far as possible, the Parties shall ensure that specimens shall pass through any formalities required
for trade with a minimum of delay. To facilitate such passage, a Party may designate ports of exit and
ports of entry at which specimens must be presented for clearance. The Parties shall ensure further that
all living specimens, during any period of transit, holding or shipment, are properly cared for so as to
minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.

4.(a) the specimen shall be entrusted to a Management Authority of the State of confiscation;

(b) the Management Authority shall, after consultation with the State of export, return the specimen to
that State at the expense of that State, or to a rescue centre or such other place as the Management
Authority deems appropriate and consistent with the purposes of the present Convention; and

(c) the Management Authority may obtain the advice of a Scientific Authority, or may, whenever it
considers it desirable, consult the Secretariat in order to facilitate the decision under subparagraph (b)
of this paragraph, including the choice of a rescue centre or other place.

5. A rescue centre, institution designated by a Management Authority to look after the welfare of living
specimens, particularly those that have been confiscated.

6. Each Party shall maintain records of trade in specimens of species included in Appendices I, II and III
which shall cover:

(a) the names and addresses of exporters and importers; and

(b) the number and type of permits and certificates granted; the States with which such trade occurred;
the numbers or quantities and types of specimens, names of species as included Text of the Convention
in Appendices I, II and III and, where applicable, the size and sex of the specimens in question.
 7. Each Party shall prepare periodic reports on its implementation of the present Convention and shall
transmit to the Secretariat:

(a) an annual report

(b) a biennial report on legislative, regulatory and administrative measures taken to enforce the
provisions of the present Convention.

8. The information referred to in paragraph 7 of this Article shall be available to the public where this is
not inconsistent with the law of the Party concerned.