FUDAMENTALS OF THERMAL POWER

PLANT
RESEARCH REPORT
(INFORMATION, SEARCH, ANALYSIS & PRESENTATION LABORATORY)

SUBMITTED BY
RAGHAVENDRA.K
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
Mrs.REKHA

SJM POLYTECHNIC
CHALLAKERE, CHITRADURGA
FANDAMENTL OF THERMAL POWER PLANTS
 POWER PLANT

A power plant is a facility for the generation of electric power. The term is also
used to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles.

At the center of nearly all power stations is a generator, a rotating

machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by
creating relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor. The
energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely from installation
to installation.

In thermal power plants mechanical power is produced by a heat engine

which transforms thermal energy, often from combustion of a fuel, into
rotational energy. All thermal energy cannot be transformed to mechanical
power, according to the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, thermal
power plants also produce low-temperature heat. If no use is found for the
heat, it has to be rejected. If reject heat is employed as useful heat, the power
plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant or CHP (combined heat-
and-power) plant.

Thermal power stations are often easily identified by cooling towers, huge
cylindrical chimney-like structures that release the waste heat to the
atmosphere.

Other power stations use the energy of water (waves, tides, or rivers confined
by hydroelectric dams), wind, or sunlight.

GENERAL LAYOUT OF THE PLANT

Though each plant is unique in itself in terms of specific features and

functionalities, still there is a broad outline to which all thermal power
plants confirm to and in this article we will study about the general layout of a
typical power plant.
 There are four main circuits in any thermal power plant and these are

 Coal & Ash Circuit – this circuit deals mainly with feeding the boiler with
coal for combustion purposes and taking care of the ash that is generated
during the combustion process and includes equipment and paraphernalia
that is used to handle the transfer and storage of coal and ash.

 Air & Gas Circuit – we know that air is one of the main components of the
fire triangle and hence necessary for combustion. Since lots of coal is burnt
inside the boiler it needs a sufficient quantity of air which is supplied using
either forced draught or induced draught fans. The exhaust gases from the
combustion are in turn used to heat the ingoing air through a heat
exchanger before being let off in the atmosphere. The equipment which
handles all these processes fall under this circuit.

 Feed Water & Steam Circuit – this section deals with supplying of steam
generated from the boiler to the turbines and to handle the outgoing steam
from the turbine by cooling it to form water in the condenser so that it can
be reused in the boiler plus making good any losses due to evaporation etc.

 Cooling Water Circuit – this part of the thermal power plant deals with
handling of the cooling water required in the system. Since the amount of
water required to cool the outgoing steam from the boiler is substantial, it is
either taken from a nearby water source such as a river, or it is done
through evaporation if the quantity of cooling water available is limited.

The above breakdown of the plant would give you a clear idea about the
components of the plant but a complete picture shown below would be
more useful in getting an idea how these circuits are integrated together to
form the complete power plant.
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE SITE

As the name implies the power plant is meant for generating power which
obviously means that it will consume huge quantities of fuel. The exact
quantity would depend on the size of the plant and its capacity but it is a
general fact that ample quantities of fuel must be available either in the
vicinity or it should be reasonably economical to transport the fuel till the
power plant. Since most thermal power plants use coal (they can use other
fuels as well) it must be ensured that sufficient coal is available round the
clock. Just to give you a rough idea a power plant with 1000 MW capacity
approximately would require more than ten thousand tons of coal per day
hence the necessity for continuous supply and storage capability of coal in
the power station.

Ash if the main byproduct of combustion and since the amount of coal used
is huge, you can intuitively imagine the amount of ash generated and it is
certainly in the region of thousand tons per day. Ash is much more difficult to
handle as compared to coal since it comes out hot from the boiler and is
very corrosive in nature. Disposing of such huge quantities of ash requires a
large amount of empty space where it can be safely dumped.

There must be ample space for the storage of coal, disposal of ash, building
of the power plant, and residential colony of workers, markets and so forth.
An approximate analysis suggests that for every MW of power generated
there must be at least 3 acres of land available for the purpose. Hence the
power plant site needs to have good amount of land and this land should
have good bearing capacity in order to survive the static and dynamic loads
during the operation of the plant.

As we saw in the previous article of this series, large amount of water is

required for cooling purposes in the power plant hence it is better if such a
source is available nearby in the form of rivers etc.

Apart from these major requirements there are also other requirements
which are equally important such as the availability of skilled people to work
for the plant and good transport facilities in the vicinity.

Hence we see that setting up a thermal power plant requires a lot of factors
to be considered simultaneously.

ASSOSARIES ARE USED IN COAL BASED POWER PLANT

 Alternator
 Turbine
 Boiler
 Furnace
 Economizer
 Air pre heater
 Super heater
 Deaerator

ALTERNATOR

The alternator is universally used in automotive applications. It converts

mechanical energy into electrical energy, by electro-magnetic induction.

In a simple version, a bar magnet rotates in an iron yoke which

concentrates the magnetic field. A coil of wire is wound around the stem of
the yoke. As the magnet turns, voltage is induced in the coil, producing a
current flow. When the North Pole is up, and South is down, voltage is
induced in the coil, producing current flow in one direction.

As the magnet rotates, and the position of the poles reverses, the polarity
of the voltage reverses too, and as a result, so does the direction of
current flow.

Current that changes direction in this way is called alternating current, or

AC. The change in direction occurs once for every complete revolution of
the magnet.
Theory of operation

Alternators generate electricity by the same principle as DC generators.

When magnetic field lines cut across a conductor, a current is induced in
the conductor. In general, an alternator has a stationary part (stator) and a
rotating part (rotor). The stator contains windings of conductors and the
rotor contains a moving magnetic field. The field cuts across the
conductors, generating an electrical current, as the mechanical input
causes the rotor to turn.

The rotor magnetic field may be produced by induction (in a "brushless"

generator), by permanent magnets, or by a rotor winding energized with
direct current through slip rings and brushes. Automotive alternators
invariably use brushes and slip rings, which allows control of the alternator
generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding.
Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in
the rotor but are restricted in size owing to the cost of the magnet material.
Since the permanent magnet field is constant, the terminal voltage varies
directly with the speed of the generator. Brushless AC generators are
usually larger machines than those used in automotive applications.

Alternator protection

Over current protection:

Every alternator has an over current protection. With the help of this trip,
the alternator and distribution system can be protected from various faults
but the main thing to be considered in this method is to maintain power to
the distribution system till the time the alternator trips on any other
protection devices.

For this reason, the protection device has been designed in such a way
that in case the over current is not high enough, a time delay provided by
an inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relay occurs, which prevents the
alternator from tripping in case the over current values reduces back to
normal within the IDMT characteristics

But in case of a major fault such as short circuit, the alternator will trip
instantaneously without any delay, protecting all devices on the distribution
system. Overload of alternator is caused either due to increased
switchboard load or serious fault causing very high current flow.

If sudden over load occurs then, the load is reduced with the help of
preferential trips which removes non essential load such as of air
conditioning, ventilation fans etc., from the switchboard. These preferential
trips are operated by relays which are set to about 110% of the normal full
load of alternator.

Reverse power protection:

There is not much difference between an alternator and electric motors

from the engineer's perspective. They are both based on similar principles.
So just imagine what would happen if an alternator suddenly would act as a
motor. This is only possible in systems where two or more generators are
running in parallel,

Hence this type of protection system is used only if there is more than one
alternator on board a ship. The system is designed in such a way that it will
release the breaker and prevent motoring of alternator if a reversal of
power occurs. This protection device is also used to prevent damage to the
prime mover, which might be stopped due to some fault. Though it is
extremely difficult to detect reverse current with an alternating current
system, reverse power can be detected and protection can be provided by
reverse power relay.
STEAM TURBINE

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from

pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern
manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.

It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine

primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power to
weight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly
suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all
electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines. The steam
turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in
thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the
expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal
reversible process.

The steam turbine on a page about engines? Maybe you wondered about
it. It is hardly used in means of transport, but the steam turbine has many
things in common with the combustion engine. The steam turbine changes
chemically stored energy into mechanical energy, too. It's called a heat-
force engine. The steam turbine works similarly to the water turbine, which
is known probably by everyone. Not water, but steam is used as working
medium

Turbine

when people began to use water power to win mechanical work, they
looked first for the best forms of impellers. Three types were established
thereby and variations of them are used today in various applications,
among other in steam turbines in power stations, as marine propellers, as
compressors in gas turbines etc. These three types are introduced here.
The pelton turbine

The pelton turbine (also free-jet turbine) was invented 1880 by L.A. Pelton.
It possesses spoon-shaped shovels, the jet hits the impeller tangentially,
gets divided by the two shovels and transfers an impulse. The pelton
turbine is used in storage power stations with downward gradients up to
2000 meters and can contain up to 6 nozzles.
The Francis turbine

he reaction turbine invented by J.B. Francis 1849 is hit by the jet almost
axially (toward the axle) and radially (away from the center). The rotor
blades can be adjusted, in order to ensure an even run. It looks similar to
the type shown below as Steam turbine.

The Kaplan turbine

The Kaplan turbine, developed around 1915 by the Austrian V.Kaplan,

looks like a marine propeller. The jet is led thereby axially on the freely
adjustable shovel pages.
EXCITER

Exciter is providing DC supply to AC Gen Rotor; the DC supply is improving

the magnetic flux density in AC Generator. So your Generating voltage is
raised, which is up to your rated voltage.

GOVERNOR

The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be

run up slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as the
generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control.
Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an over speed
trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the
turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until
it breaks apart, often spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make,
requiring precision manufacture and special quality materials. During
normal operation in synchronization with the electricity net power plants are
governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load
speed is 100% and the no load speed is 105%. This is required for the
stable operation of the network without hunting and dropouts of power
plants. Normally the changes in speed are minor. Adjustments in power
output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring
pressure on a centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system
requirement for all power plants because the older and newer plants have
to be compatible in response to the instantaneous changes in frequency
without depending on outside communication
BARRING GEAR

Barring gear (or "turning gear") is the mechanism provided to rotate the

turbine generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the
unit is "tripped" (i.e., the steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts
down towards standstill. When it stops completely, there is a tendency for
the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too
long. This is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to
concentrate in the top half of the casing, making the top half portion of the
shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft therefore could warp or bend by
millionths of inches.

This small shaft deflection, only detectable by eccentricity meters, would

be enough to cause damaging vibrations to the entire steam turbine
generator unit when it is restarted. The shaft is therefore automatically
turned at low speed (about one percent rated speed) by the barring gear
until it has cooled sufficiently to permit a complete stop.

BOILER

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water under pressure is transformed

into steam by the application of heat. In the boiler furnace, the chemical
energy in the fuel is converted into heat, and it is the function of the boiler
to transfer this heat to the contained water in the most efficient manner.
The boiler should also be designed to generate high quality steam for plant
use.

A boiler must be designed to absorb the maximum amount of heat

released in the process of combustion. This heat is transferred to the boiler
water through radiation, conduction and convection. The relative
percentage of each is dependent upon the type of boiler, the designed
heat transfer surface and the fuels.
Types

Two principal types of boilers are used for industrial applications:

1. Fire tube boilers-Products of combustion pass through the tubes, which

are surrounded by water.
2. Water tube boilers- Products of combustion pass around the tubes
containing water. The tubes are interconnected to common channels or
headers and eventually to a steam outlet for distribution to the plant
system.
Utilization

The boiler house or steam generation facility within any given plant is
frequently referred to as the heart. In the event this system shuts down for
unexpected reasons or for plant turnaround, most processes within the
plant will not be operable. For this reason, very conservative treatment
measures are used in the boiler. Operating personnel can be reluctant to
change treatment programs if the one currently in use is deemed
successful. On the other hand, if a treatment program is linked to a boiler
failure, change usually comes quickly.

Steam Utilization

Steam is generated for the following plant uses:

1. Turbine drive for electric generating equipment, blowers and pumps

2. Process for direct contact with products, direct contact sterilization and
noncontact for processing temperatures

3. Heating and air conditioning for comfort and equipment

The efficiency achievable with steam generation relies heavily on the

system's ability to return condensed steam to the operating cycle. Many of
the systems described above return a significant portion of the condensed
steam to the generation cycle.

The overall functioning of steam-generating equipment is governed by

thermodynamic properties of the working fluid. By the simple addition of
heat to water in a closed vessel, vapor is formed which has greater
specific volume than the liquid, and can develop an increase of pressure to
the critical value of 3208 psia (22.1 mega Pascal’s absolute pressure). If
the generated steam is discharged at a controlled rate, commensurate with
the rate of heat addition, the pressure in the vessel can be maintained at
any desired value, and thus be held within the limits of safety of the
construction.

Vacuum
Vacuum is maintained at outlet of the turbine called exhaust steam.
Assuming you are referring to a steam turbine, the lower the vacuum that
can be maintained at the turbine exhaust the lower the temperature of the
exhaust steam. This increases the Carnot cycle (theoretical maximum)
efficiency of the turbine and results in a higher practical thermal efficiency.
The surface condenser enables the steam vacuum to be maintained, by
cooling the exhaust steam to below 100 C, and also enables the resulting
water condensate to be recycled to the steam boiler.

FEED WATER CONTROL STATION

When the boiler is in service, feed water must be continuously supplied to

maintain near- normal water level in the steam drum. It is unsafe to operate
the boiler at lower water levels. The Feed water Control station installed in
the feed water line maintains the water level in the boiler steam drum.
Water flows from the flow control station through the economiser before
entering into steam drum. The feed water is taken from the deaerator plant.

BOILER MAKE-UP WATER TREATMENT

Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return

of condensate to the boiler, losses due to blow down and leakages have to
be made up to maintain a desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For
this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler water system.
Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist
of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water.
Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube
water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes.
Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water, and that is done by
water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists
of cation, anion, and mixed bed exchangers. Any ions in the final water
from this process consist essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions,
which recombine to form pure water. Very pure DM water becomes highly
corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very
high affinity for oxygen.
The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in
the raw water input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant
may be down for maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed
from which DM water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The
storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by corrosive
water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel.
Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut
float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with air.
DM water make-up is generally added at the steam space of the surface
condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not only sprays the
water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being
removed by an air ejector attached to the condenser.

FURNACE

The part of the boiler that actually creates the heat is called the furnace.
The furnace creates heat, usually by burning a fuel such as natural gas,
coal or oil.

A furnace or direct fired heater is equipment used to provide heat for a

process or can serve as reactor which provides heats of reaction. Furnace
designs vary as to its function, heating duty, type of fuel and method of
introducing combustion air. However, all furnaces have some common
features. Basically, fuel flows into the burner and is burnt with air provided
from an air blower. There can be more than one burner in a particular
furnace which can be arranged in? Cells? Which heat a particular set of
tubes? Burners can also be floor mounted as in the picture above, wall
mounted or roof mounted depending on design. The flames heat up the
tubes, which in turn heat the fluid inside in the first part of the furnace
Known as the radiant section. In the chamber where combustion takes
place, known as the firebox, the heat is transferred mainly by radiation to
tubes around the fire in the chamber. The heating fluid passes through the
tubes and is thus heated to the desired temperature. The gases from the
combustion are known as flue gas. After the flue gas leaves the firebox,
most furnace designs include a convection section where more heat is
recovered before venting to the atmosphere through the stack

Insulation

Insulation is an important part of the furnace since is it keeps heat

generated inside the furnace and so prevents excessive heat loss. In used
in the furnace can be firebrick, cast able refractories, ceramic fiber, etc. The
floor of the furnace is normally cast able since it has to be hard enough to
walk on during maintenance. Ceramic fiber is commonly used for the roof
and wall of the furnace and is graded by its density and then its maximum
temperature rating.

Soot blowers

Soot blowers utilize flowing media such as water, air or steam to remove
deposits from boiler tubes. There are several different types of soot
blowers used. Wall blowers are used for furnace walls and have a very
short lance with a nozzle at the tip. The lance has holes drilled into it at
intervals so that when it is turned on, it rotates and cleans the deposits
from the wall in a circular pattern. It after it has turned a predetermined
number of rounds, the soot blowing is completed and stops. Below is a
convection section soot blower utilizing medium pressure (10-12bar)
steam?

FUEL PREPARATION SYSTEM

In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is
first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers
at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The
pulverizes may be ball mills, rotating drum grinders, or other types of
grinders.
Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than coal. The oil must kept warm
(above its pour point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from
congealing and becoming unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about
100 °C before being pumped through the furnace fuel oil spray nozzles.
Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main
fuel. Other power stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel
in the event that their main fuel supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such
cases, separate gas burners are provided on the boiler furnaces.

Old is gold goes the equally old and wise saying and this is applicable to
the black diamond as well, in the perspective of thermal power plants. Well
if you are confused let me tell you that I am referring to coal which is one of
the oldest used fuels in the world. Though technology has gone skywards
in the previous couple of centuries, yet this source continues to occupy an
important position in the energy production scenario worldwide.

The four circuits of the thermal power plant make a complete picture when
put together helping to generate electricity out of fuels such as coal which
is the most widely used fuel. The calorific value of coals depends on the
quality of the coal and the place from where it is mined.

Let us perform a simple calculation regarding the amount of coal required

in a power plant.

Let us assume an imaginary thermal power plant which has a capacity of

1000 MW and try to find the amount of coal required for its consumption.
Also assume that the boiler operates at an efficiency of 75% and the heat
supplied per kg of steam is around 500 kcal per kg and that the amount of
steam required per kWh is nearly 5 kgs. Further let us assume that the
type of coal used in the plant has a calorific value of 5000 kcal/kg

Then the quantity of coal required per hour would be given by

Weight of Coal Required ==> Capacity * Steam Requirement * Heat

Delivered/Calorific Value of Coal * Efficiency of Boiler

==> {1000 * 1000 * 5 * 500}/{5000 * 0.75 * 1000} = 666 tons/hr

Normally it is a practice to store coal for up to one month usage in case the
power plant is situated at a sufficient geographical distance from the coal
source so that in case of any disruption of the transportation system, the
region is not immediately affected. You can calculate that in case the
above plant requires such a facility, we would require space to store and
handle nearly 480, 000 tons of coal.

Coming back to the actual operation this coal is then fed to the combustion
chamber of the boiler where steam is generated giving rise to hot exhaust
gases and ash which are handled by their respective circuits. The steam
turbine is driven by the steam which converts this thermal energy into the
mechanical energy and is coupled with an electric generator to convert it to
electrical energy.

The electricity generated through the generator coupled to the turbine is

then fed to the main grid via a system of transformers and other electrical
equipment and is usually taken to far off places via high voltage
transmission lines before it is actually supplied in the domestic or industrial
sectors at their respective voltage levels.

Hence we see that how the energy hidden within the ordinary coal is
harnessed through the use of a thermal power plant to light our homes and
industries.

Coal – Use in Electricity Generation

In the earlier days coal might have been used for providing heat for making
food or in the blacksmiths furnace but as technology made strides, so did
the level and importance of coal in the energy production arena went
upwards. Currently thermal power plants produce hundreds of megawatts
of electricity from burning coal.

Despite the hue and cry of environmental concerns, which are of course
true to a certain extent, various other parameters have still kept coal as one
of the most important sources of power generation in thermal power plants.

The very first parameter is the ample abundance of coal in most parts of
the world including the United States. Estimates suggest that the US has
reserves of coal which could last more then two centuries even at the
current rate of consumption. Apart from the reserves found on land there is
also presence of coal layers beneath the sea although it is difficult to
commercially extract it from there, but there might be a technology for this
in the future.

The next factor is directly related to the above factor and is that of cost. As
you know cost is closely associated with availability and more abundant
any commodity is, the lesser will be its price and vice versa which is a law
of economics. Hence producing electricity through the use of coal is much
cheaper than other non-conventional forms of energy such as say wind,
nuclear and so forth.

Disadvantages of Coal

Of course all is not green in the literal sense in the use of coal in power
plants. Environment and health hazards are one of the most prominent
reasons why many groups are against the use of coal for power production.
Disposal of large quantities of ash could pose problems in the coming
years if the heaps continue to grow.

Another major factor to be kept in mind is that despite the abundant supply
of coal it is still a non renewable source of energy which was formed
through a complex process lasting thousands of years and hence cannot
be formulated at a short notice.

Despite the disadvantages, coal is still very popular in its use as power
plant fuel and continues to provide electricity to this power hungry planet.

ANALYSIS OF COAL

Any substance can be analyzed in different ways such as proximate

analysis, chemical analysis and so forth. We will carry out the proximate
analysis of coal which gives the different categories of compound present
in the substance. Apart from carbon which is an obvious constituent the
other constituents are as follows.

Ash –

This is an undesirable constituent of coal which is contained within the coal

in two forms namely fixed ash and free ash. Fixed ash is inherent in the
coal due to the formation process from vegetable matter and it is not
possible to remove it except that it gets separated on burning. The free
ash is removable via processes such as washing and screening though
they will not be described in detail here.

Like I said earlier it is undesirable to have ash in the coal but normally
different types of coal could have ash content anywhere between say
around 2% to 30% which is an unnecessary burden adding to
transportation costs, lowering of heat value of coal and producing large
amounts of corrosive waste which needs to be disposed off in a proper
manner. Another disadvantage is that inside the boiler combustion
chamber if the ash gets subject to very high temperatures it can form
clinkers which could choke the passages and decrease efficiency of the
boiler. It is best to use such coal in the powdered form if such a possibility
exists.

Hydrocarbons & Gases –

Coal contains a variety of combustible gases such as hydrogen, methane
and non-combustible gases such as carbon dioxide etc. This volatile
content could be as low as 3% or even as high as nearly 50%. These
constituents especially the non-combustible gases are just a waste as far
as heat value of the fuel is concerned and an unnecessary burden which
needs to be transported around and stored without any useful value in
return.

Moisture –

The moisture content of coal could vary from just over 1% to nearly 30-
40% and just like ash it has two forms – inherent moisture and free
moisture. The former is not easily removable as it is a costly process whilst
the latter can be removed by normal drying using slightly heated air.
Obviously since coal is used in the boiler combustion chamber any excess
moisture would interfere with the combustion lowering the actual heat
available to generate steam.

There is another method of analyzing coal in terms of its various chemical

constituents such as carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and so forth but that might
be taken up in a different set of articles.

CONTROLLING DRAFT

Most boilers now depend on mechanical draft equipment rather than

natural draft. This is because natural draft is subject to outside air
conditions and temperature of flue gases leaving the furnace, as well as the
chimney height. All these factors make proper draft hard to attain and
therefore make mechanical draft equipment much more economical.
Induced draft:

This is obtained one of three ways, the first being the "stack effect" of a
heated chimney, in which the flue gas is less dense than the ambient air
surrounding the boiler. The denser column of ambient air forces
combustion air into and through the boiler. The second method is through
use of a steam jet. The steam jet oriented in the direction of flue gas flow
induces flue gasses into the stack and allows for a greater flue gas velocity
increasing the overall draft in the furnace. This method was common on
steam driven locomotives which could not have tall chimneys. The third
method is by simply using an induced draft fan (ID fan) which removes flue
gases from the furnace and forces the exhaust gas up the stack. Almost all
induced draft furnaces operate with a slightly negative pressure.

Forced draft:

Draft is obtained by forcing air into the furnace by means of a fan (FD fan)
and ductwork. Air is often passed through an air heater; which, as the
name suggests, heats the air going into the furnace in order to increase the
overall efficiency of the boiler. Dampers are used to control the quantity of
air admitted to the furnace. Forced draft furnaces usually have a positive
pressure.

Balanced draft:

Balanced draft is obtained through use of both induced and forced draft.
This is more common with larger boilers where the flue gases have to
travel a long distance through many boiler passes. The induced draft fan
works in conjunction with the forced draft fan allowing the furnace pressure
to be maintained slightly below atmospheric.

Chimney
A vertical hollow structure of masonry, steel, or reinforced concrete, built to
convey gaseous products of combustion from a building or process facility.
A chimney should be high enough to furnish adequate draft and to
discharge the products of combustion without causing local air pollution.
The height and diameter of a chimney determine the draft. For adequate
draft, small industrial boilers and home heating systems depend entirely
upon the enclosed column of hot gas. In contrast, stacks, which are
chimneys for large power plants and process facilities, usually depend
upon force-draft fans and induced-draft fans to produce the draft
necessary for operation, and the chimney is used only for removal of the
flue gas.

FLY ASH COLLECTION

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic
precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of
the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically
removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters.
Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for
subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars.

BOTTOM ASH COLLECTION & DISPOSAL

At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash.
This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers
falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the
clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a
storage site.
SUPER HEATER

Whatever type of boiler is used, steam will leave the water at its surface
and pass into the steam space. Steam formed above the water surface in a
shell boiler is always saturated and cannot become superheated in the
boiler shell, as it is constantly in contact with the water surface.

If superheated steam is required, the saturated steam must pass through a

super heater. This is simply a heat exchanger where additional heat is
added to the saturated steam.
In water-tube boilers, the super heater may be an additional pendant
suspended in the furnace area where the hot gases will provide the degree
of superheat required (see Figure 3.4.4). In other cases, for example in
CHP schemes where the gas turbine exhaust gases are relatively cool, a
separately fired super heater may be needed to provide the additional heat.

If accurate control of the degree of superheat is required, as would be the

case if the steam is to be used to drive turbines, then an attemperator
(Desuperheater) is fitted. This is a device installed after the super heater,
which injects water into the superheated steam to reduce its temperature.

DEAERATOR

Deaerators are usually installed in steam power plants and are used to
treat feed water delivered to steam generators and supplementary water
delivered to the heating network. In the absence of deaeration the corrosive
active gases usually dissolved in water (oxygen and free carbon dioxide),
which are liberated in a steam generator or heating network, would cause
corrosion of metals. Deaerators can be classified according to their
principle of operation as thermal (the most widely used type), desorption, or
chemical types.

There are two basic types of Deaerators,

 the tray-type

 spray-type
Tray-type

Deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which

the tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed
serves as the deaerated boiler feed water storage tank.
Spray-type

 The spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical

vessel which serves as both the deaeration section and the boiler
feed water storage tank.

STEAM CONDENSOR & COOLING SYSTEM

The steam cycle power plants are equipped with cooled condensers where
exhaust steam is condensed under vacuum. The operating condenser
pressure is 0.03 to 0.4 bars and depends on the cooling system and
.medium temperature

Three different steam condensers are used in two fundamentally different

:cooling systems

:Direct Cooling Systems .1

a) One through cooling in surface condenser
b) Dry cooling air condenser

:Indirect Cooling Systems .2

a) Wet cooling tower and surface condenser
b) Dry cooling tower and direct contact condenser

Direct Cooling Systems .1

:a) Once Through Cooling in Surface Condenser

This open loop system has been achieved using water from a river, a
stream or seawater. The cold water is pumped through the condenser
tubes and the warm water is discharged back to the water source. Surface
.condenser is explained in wet cooling system

:b) Direct Dry Cooling, Air Cooled Steam Condenser

Another form of condensing system is the air-cooled condenser. They are
more environmentally acceptable forms of condensing steam. The process
is similar to that of a radiator and fan. Exhaust steam from the low pressure
section of a steam turbine runs through the condensing tubes. The heat
transferred from the process steam to the cooling air via extended surfaces
or tubes. The tubes are usually finned and ambient air is pushed through
the fins with the help of a large fan. The steam condenses to water to be
.reused in the water-steam cycle
The performance of dry cooling systems is primarily dependent on the
ambient temperature of the dry air. Since the ambient dry air temperature is
higher than the wet air temperature, dry cooling systems are less efficient
.than wet cooling tower design
In dry cooling systems, the turbine exhaust is connected directly to the air
cooled steam condenser (direct cooling system). The steam exhaust duct
has a large diameter and is usually as short as possible to reduce pressure
losses. An optimum fin tube geometry which gives the highest heat transfer
.for the minimum amount of metal should be selected

Advantages of dry cooling Disadvantages of dry cooling No water required

Duct pressure losses, less efficient Can be located at fuel source Large plot
area required No impact on environment Generated more noiseless
-permitting required

The condensation temperature in the condenser section is by 2-4 °K lower

than the exhaust steam temperature, due to the steam pressure drop
.through the distributing duct and the heat exchanger tubes
:Indirect Cooling Systems .2

:a) Indirect Wet Cooling System, Surface Condenser

The need to reduce the amount of water requires a closed loop or wet
cooling system. In a wet cooling system, water is circulated to condense
the steam in the surface condenser. The warm water, instead of being
rejected to the water source, is cooled in cooling tower using air as cooling
.medium. The wet cooling tower based on principle of evaporation
The heated cooling water coming out of the surface condenser is cooled as
it flows through a cooling tower, where air is forced through the tower by
either natural draft or mechanical. The exhaust steam is condensed at the
outside of the surface condenser tubes. Using cold water coming from the
.cooling tower
Part of the cooling water is evaporated in the cooling tower, and a
continuous source of fresh water (make-up water) is required to operate a
wet cooling tower. The Make-up requirements for a cooling tower consists
.of the summation of evaporation loss, drift loss and blow-down
 :Estimation of the evaporation loss
Meva = 0.0017 x Mcw x dTcool (dT in °K)
Drift is entrained water in the tower discharge vapors. Drift loss is a function
of the drift-eliminator design. And a typical value is 0.005% of the cooling
.water flow rate

:Surface Condenser

Water cooled condenser used in once through cooling system and in wet
cooling system. The steam condenser is a major component of the steam
cycle in steam power and combined cycle power plants. It is a necessary
:component of the steam cycle for two reasons
.It converts the used steam back into feed water for return to the boiler -
It increases the cycle´s efficiency by allowing the cycle to operate with the -
largest possible Temperature and pressure difference between the boiler
.and the condenser

Design principle: There are different condenser designs which are defined
by suppliers. Condenser tubes are arranged as tube bundles in condenser
shell with a single-pass or two-pass. The bundle shape and air cooler
.location are optimized by the supplier
The design of single-pass condenser provides cooling water flow through
straight tubes from the inlet water box on one end, to outlet water box on
the other end. The design of two-pass condenser provides cooling water
flow through straight tubes from the inlet water box, reversed in the return
.water box to the outlet watebox on the same end of Inlet water box
In the condenser several thousand tubes are placed at low tube pitch in
order to get acceptable dimensions. It is not favorable to increase friction
losses in the steam flow; therefore the number of tube rows along the
steam flow is limited. The separation between the water box areas and the
steam condensing area is accomplished by two tube sheet to which the
cooling water tubes are attached. The cooling water tubes are supported
.within the condenser by the tube support plates

The condenser tubes are made of brass or stainless steel to resist

corrosion from either side. Nevertheless they may become internally fouled
during operation by bacteria or algae in the cooling water or by mineral
scaling, all of which inhibit heat transfer and reduce thermodynamic
efficiency. Many plants include an automatic cleaning system that
circulates sponge rubber balls through the tubes to scrub them clean
.without the need to take the system off-line

AIR PRE HEATER

Air preheaters are classified as recuperative or feed-water types according

to the principle of operation. In recuperative air preheaters the heat
exchange between the heat carrier and the air to be heated takes place
continuously through the walls of the heating surfaces that separate them;
in feed-water air preheaters the heat exchange is accomplished by the
alternate heating and cooling of the metallic or ceramic nozzles of the fixed
or rotating heating surfaces of the pre-heater. Tubular (steel or cast-iron)
recuperative air preheaters, and less frequently rotating feed-water
preheaters, are used mainly at thermal electric power plants. Periodic-
operation feed-water air preheaters with a ceramic nozzle are widely used
in the metallurgical industry. The air can be heated to 450°-600° C with
metal units and to 900°-1200° C with ceramic-nozzle units.
An air preheated (APH) is a general term to describe any device designed
to heat air before another process (for example, combustion in a boiler)
with the primary objective of increasing the thermal efficiency of the
process. They may be used alone or to replace a recuperative heat system
or to replace a steam coil.

In particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in

large boilers found in thermal power station producing electric power from
e.g. fossil fuels, biomasses or waste.

The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue
gas which increases the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the
useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a consequence, the flue gases are also
sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower temperature, allowing
simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stack. It also allows
control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions
regulations, for example).

ECONOMIZER

Modern-day boilers, such as those in coal-fired power stations, are still

fitted with economizers which are descendants of Green's original design.
In this context they are often referred to as feed water heaters and heat
the condensate from turbines before it is pumped to the boilers.

Economizers are commonly used as part of a heat recovery steam

generator in a combined cycle power plant. In an HRSG, water passes
through an economizer, then a boiler and then a super heater. The
economizer also prevents flooding of the boiler with liquid water that is too
cold to be boiled given the flow rates and design of the boiler.

A common application of economizers in steam power plants is to capture

the waste heat from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer it to the
boiler feed water. This raises the temperature of the boiler feed water thus
lowering the needed energy input, in turn reducing the firing rates to
accomplish the rated boiler output. Economizers lower stack temperatures
which may cause condensation of acidic combustion gases and serious
equipment corrosion damage if care is not taken in their design and
material selection.
THERMAL POWER PLANT IN INDIA

Moreover, if talk about upcoming projects then 4620MW in Mundra,

Gujarat by ADANI Power is the largest coal based thermal power plant in
India, followed by 4000MW in same location by TATA Power 

Currently work is going on at Chandrapoor super thermal power plant ,

Maharashtra for 2x 500 MW units (Unit 8 and 9). Current capacity is 2340
MW and will be enhanced to 3340 MW in near future. Along with this work
for Solar Photo Voltaic plant is in progress. 

India’s total thermal power generation is 86397MW

Singrauli Uttar Pradesh 2000MW

Korba Chhattisgarh 2100MW

Ramagundam Andhra Pradesh 2600MW

Vindhyachala Madhya Pradesh 3260MW

NCTPP Dadri Uttar Pradesh 2310MW

Talcher Orissa 3000MW

Udupi power corporation Karnataka 1250MW

RTPC Raichur Karnataka 1720MW

JSW Bellary Karnataka 600MW

Vedanta Orissa 2400MW

CTPS Maharashtra 2340MW

Jindal Chhattisgarh 1000MW

THERMAL EFFICENCY OF POWER PLANT

Coal the primary energy source consists mainly of Carbon. During the
combustion process the Carbon in the coal combines with Oxygen in the air
to produce Carbon dioxide producing heat. The high heating value, the
energy available in the coal, is in the range of 10,500 kJ/kg to 27,000 kJ/kg.

For example, consider a coal with a high heating value of 20,000 kJ/kg.
Theoretically this is equivalent to 5.56 kwhr of electrical energy. Can we get
all of this as electric power? No. In practice the effective conversion is only
around one third of the theoretically possible value.

Why is it so?

The first process of energy conversion is the combustion where the

potential energy in coal is converted to heat energy. The efficiency of this
conversion is around 90 %. Why?

 Due to practical limitations in heat transfer, all the heat produced by

combustion is not transferred to the water; some is lost to the
atmosphere as hot gases.
 The coal contains moisture. Also coal contains a small percent of
Hydrogen, which also gets converted to moisture during combustion.
In the furnace, moisture vaporizes taking Latent heat from the
combustion heat and exits the boiler along with the hot gases.
 Improper combustion of coal, hot ash discharged from the boiler and
radiation are some of the other losses.

The second stage of conversion is the thermodynamic stage. The heat

from combustion is transferred to the water to produce steam. The energy
of the steam is converted to mechanical rotation of the turbine. The steam
is then condensed to water and pumped back into the boiler for re-use.
This stage works on the principle of the Rankine cycle. For plants operating
with steam at subcritical pressures (less than 221 bar) and steam
temperatures of 570 °C, the Rankine cycle efficiency is around 43 %. For
the state of the art plants running at greater than supercritical pressure and
steam temperatures near to 600 °C, the efficiency is around 47 %. Why is it
so low?

 The steam is condensed for re-use. During this process the latent
heat of condensation is lost to the cooling water. This is the major
loss and is almost 40 % of the energy input.
 Losses in the turbine blades and exit losses at turbine end are some
of the other losses.
 The Rankine cycle efficiency is dictated by the maximum temperature
of steam that can be admitted into the turbine. Due to metallurgical
constraints steam temperatures are at present limited to slightly more
than 600 °C.

The third stage converts the mechanical rotation to electricity in a

generator. Copper, magnetic and mechanical losses account for 5 % loss
in the Generator. Another 3 % is lost in the step-up transformer which
makes the power ready for transmission to the consumer.

To operate the power plant it is required to run various auxiliary equipment

like pulverizes fans, pumps and precipitators. The power to operate these
auxiliaries has to come from the power plant itself. For large power
plants around 6 % of the generator output is used for internal consumption.

This brings the overall efficiency of the power plant to around 33.5 %. This
means we get only 1.9 kwhr of electrical energy from one kg of coal instead
of the 5.56 kwhr that is theoretically available in the coal.

The efficiency or inefficiency of power plants is something that we have to

live with for the present till technology finds away out.
BOILER FITTING AND ACCESSORIES

 Safety valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible

explosion of a boiler

 Water level indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in
the boiler, also known as a sight glass, water gauge or water column
is provided

 Bottom blow down valves: They provide a means for removing

solid particulates that condense and lie on the bottom of a boiler. As
the name implies, this valve is usually located directly on the bottom
of the boiler, and is occasionally opened to use the pressure in the
boiler to push these particulates out.

 Continuous blow down valve: This allows a small quantity of water

to escape continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the
boiler becoming saturated with dissolved salts. Saturation would lead
to foaming and cause water droplets to be carried over with the
steam - a condition known as priming. Blow down is also often used
to monitor the chemistry of the boiler water.

 Automatic Blow down/Continuous Heat Recovery System : This

system allows the boiler to blow down only when makeup water is
flowing to the boiler, thereby transferring the maximum amount of
heat possible from the blow down to the makeup water. No flash tank
is generally needed as the blow down discharged is close to the
temperature of the makeup water.
 Flash Tank: High pressure blow down enters this vessel where the
steam can 'flash' safely and be used in a low-pressure system or be
vented to atmosphere while the ambient pressures blow down flows
to drain.

 Hand holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header"

to allow for inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of
internal surfaces

 Steam drum internals: A series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone

separators

 Low- water cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch)

that is used to turn off the burner or shut off fuel to the boiler to
prevent it from running once the water goes below a certain point. If a
boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it) it can cause rupture or
catastrophic failure.

 Surface blow down line: It provides a means for removing foam or

other lightweight non-condensable substances that tend to float on
top of the water inside the boiler.

 Top feed: A check valve (clack valve) in the feed water line, mounted
on top of the boiler. It is intended to reduce the nuisance of lime
scale. It does not prevent lime scale formation but causes the lime
scale to be precipitated in a powdery form which is easily washed out
of the boiler.
 Feed water check valve or clack valve : A non-return stop valve in
the feed water line. This may be fitted to the side of the boiler, just
below the water level, or to the top of the boiler.

 Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler

after it has expelled some of its heat.

 Desuperheater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of

tubes in the water drum or the steam drum designed to cool
superheated steam. Thus is to supply auxiliary equipment that
doesn't need, or may be damaged by, dry steam.

 Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for

controlling feed water PH.