1  

Seminar Topic on Content Analysis

VenkateshaResearch ScholarUnder the GuidanceDr. Sarasvathy. PSenior Assistant
LibrarianDepartment of Library and Information Science

2  IntroductionContent analysis is a set of procedures for collecting and organizing information in a

standardized format that allows analysts to make inferences about the characteristics and meaning
of written and other recorded material.Content analysis is a summarizing, quantitative analysis of
messages that relies on the scientific method and is not limited as to the types of variables that may
be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented.

3  DefinitionsAccording to Dr. Farooq Joubish, content analysis is considered a scholarly

methodology in the humanities by which texts are studied as to authorship, authenticity,
or meaning.According to Berelson “Content analysis is a research technique for the objective,
systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication”.

4  Use of Content Analysis

Detect the existence of ideas, Concepts and truth hidden in the texts.Identify the intentions, focus or
communication trends of an individual, group or institution.Describe attitudinal and behavioral
responses to communications.Determine psychological or emotional state of persons or groups.

5  History of Content Analysis

content analysis was already an often utilized research method by the 1940's. Although initially
limited to studies that examined texts for the frequency of the occurrence of identified terms.the mid-
1950's researchers were already starting to consider the need for more sophisticated methods of
analysis.focusing on concepts rather than simply words, and on semantic relationships rather than
just presence (de Sola Pool 1959). content analysis now is also utilized to explore mental models,
and their linguistic, affective, cognitive, social, cultural and historical significance.

6  Types of Content Analysis

Conceptual Analysis :A concept is chosen for examination, and the analysis involves quantifying and
tallying its presence. The focus here is on looking at the occurrence of selected terms within a text.2.
Relational Analysis :It begins with the act of identifying concepts present in a given text or set to
texts and seeks to go beyond presence by exploring the relations between the concepts identified.

7  Issues of Reliability & Validity

Stability : the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a
period of time.Reproducibility : tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in
the same way.Accuracy : the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or
norm statistically.The validity of categories in implicit concept analysis, in particular, is achieved by
utilizing multiple classifiers to arrive at an agreed upon definition of the category.

8  Advantages of Content Analysis

Looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the central aspect of
social interaction.Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations.Can provide valuable
historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts.Allows closeness to text which can
alternate between specific categories and relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded
form of the text.Cont…….
9  Cont…….can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert
systems.is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions.provides insight into complex models of
human thought and language use.when done well, is considered as a relatively "exact" research
method.

10  Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Can be extremely time consuming.Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis
is used to attain a higher level of interpretation.Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with
complex texts.Tends too often to simply consist of word counts.Can be difficult to automate or
computerize.Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after
the text is produced.

11  ConclusionThe method can be costly in that formulating categories that can be reliably coded,
pre- paring coding instructions, and training and supervising coders can all be time consuming.
Additionally, complex coding schemes, which usu- ally yield the most interesting findings, may
produce the least reliable results because they entail a substantial element of coder judgment.
Content analysis, therefore, requires rigorous reliability and validity checks if its results are to
withstand critical scrutiny.

12  ReferencesBerelson, Bernard.  Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: Free

Press, 1952.Budd, Richard. Content Analysis of Communications. New York: Macmillan Company,
1967.Busha, Charles H. and Stephen P. Harter.  Research Methods in Librarianship: Techniques
and Intde Sola Pool, Ithiel. Trends in Content Analysis. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
1959.erpretation. New York: Academic Press, 1980.

13  Carley, Kathleen. "Content Analysis. " In R. E. Asher (Ed

Carley, Kathleen. "Content Analysis." In R.E. Asher (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Language and
Linguistics. Edinburgh: Pergamon Press, 1990.Weber, Robert Philip. Basic Content Analysis,
Second Edition. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1990.

1  AN INTRODUCTION TO CONTENT ANALYSIS

A SALLYA HELENA STAN
2  CONTENT ANALYSIS AS A TECHNIQUE
- for making theory- by analyzing, examining, and selecting data- systematically &
objectivelyCRITERIA OF SELECTION- clearly & fully expressed rules- set up before analysis-
explain various data completely- applied strictly

3  CATEGORIES = MAJOR POINTS = PROS & CONS

SHOULD BE- connected with what is being discussedin the messages- exact wording used in the
statementSHOULD NOT BE- based on personal opinions- irrelevant to the messages

4  QUANTITATIVE 量化 vs. QUALITATIVE 質性

- Quantitative : objective, systematic,procedures of analysisarbitrary limitation, relevant categories-
Qualitative : definitions, symbols, detailedexplanations, etcno absolute truth, but context-bound

5  MANIFEST vs. LATENT CONTENT ANALYSIS

- manifest content (surface structure): perceptible, clear, comprehensible message- latent content
(deep structure): implied, unstated message

6  COMMUNICATION COMPONENTS
1. message↓2. Sender (participants)3. Audience (interviews)- in vivo codes: wording that participants
usein interview- constructed codes: coded data from invivo codes, created by researcher,academic
terms

7  LEVELS & UNITS OF ANALYSIS

words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs,sections, chapters, books, ideologicalstance, subject topic,
elements relevant tothe context

8  1. Simple Random Sampling 簡單隨機抽樣

SAMPLING STRATEGIESI. Random Sampling1. Simple Random Sampling 簡單隨機抽樣 to draw
subjects from an identified population (母群體)2. Systematic Sampling 系統抽樣(Interval Random
Sampling 間隔隨機抽樣)select nth name from the populationPopulation 母群體總數 Sampling interval
= Numbers of persons desired 抽樣間隔 取樣數目* Random Numbers Table 亂數表

9  3. Stratified Sampling 分層抽樣 - ensure : dissimilarity between stratum ↑

- divide population into stratum- ensure : dissimilarity between stratum ↑similarity inside of each
strata ↑∴ produce a representative sampleII. Non-random SamplingPurposive Sampling 立意抽樣
researcher select subjects according tohis/her research purpose andunderstanding of the
population- researcher: with sufficient knowledge orexpertise- subjects: represent the population

10  GROUNDED THEORY 紮根理論 a process of constructing:various data

→induction/deduction→theory* explain the phenomena- development of theory- collect, analyze, &
compare datasystematically- theory is grounded on data

11  e.g. crime 7 MAJOR ELEMENTS IN WRITTEN MESSAGES

1. Words – the smallest unit, frequently used2. Themes: simple sentences, string of words with S +
predicate (e.g. You are beautiful)3. Characters: persons4. Paragraphs: difficult to classify ∵ various
things are stated & implied in a single paragraph, infrequently used5. Items: books, letter, diary,
etc6. Concepts: an idea, more latente.g. crime7. Semantics: how affected the words may be
12  Combinations of Elements
Interview #1 Ah…I do not think I improve grammar and word dictions because my teacher did not
correct my grammar and word dictions. Actually, I know I am not good at writing, and I really want to
improve my writing ability. Hmm……However, I also wrote articles which were asked from
professors as homework while I wrote dialogue journal writing. Well, for the first time, I can accept
that I had so many writing mistakes, and I know I still have room to improve it after teacher’s
correction. Unfortunately, after many times corrections, the articles which were corrected by
professors still appeared many grammar problems and sometimes had word dictions problems. This
is why I do not think dialogue journal writing can improve our writing ability. (Shake head)

13  Units and CategoriesUnits = Codes‘Code’ the elements into ‘Inductive Categories’ex. Words,
items, themes…

14  Classes and Categories

3 major procedures:Common classes2. Special classes3. Theoretical classes

15  Classes and Categories

Common Classes:-- a culture in generalPeople in society to tell apart persons, things, and eventsEx.
Age, gender, mother…

16  Classes and Categories

Special Classes:-- the labels used by members of certain areasto tell apart persons, things, and
events within their limited provinceout-group – people in societyin-group – people in the specific
group

17  Classes and Categories

Theoretical Classes:-- emerge in the process of analyzing the data-- Function:grounded in the
dataGet a theory

19  Open Coding 1. Major Problems: -- can not read between the line
-- do not get the real motivation2. Can get the points Coding can continue.

20  Open Coding4 basic guidelines:Ask the data a specific and consistent set of questions.What
study are these data suitable?-- What category does this incident indicate?Benefits:-- sometimes
find unexpected results

21  2. Analyze the data minutely.

Open Coding2. Analyze the data minutely.categories, incidents, interactions, and the likebe
coded<during open coding>extensive theoretical coverage<be thoroughly grounded>systematic
coding★Stop! When it appears repetitious codes!!!

22  Open Coding3. Frequently interrupt the coding to write a theoretical note.-- comments ideas
<take notes>4. Never assume the analytic relevance of any traditional variable until the data show it
to be relevant.-- any traditional variableex. Age, sex, social class…-- earn their way into the
grounded theory

23  Coding Frames Purposes: 1. To organize the data after open coding

has been completed2. To identify findings
24  Coding FramesAxial Coding:Different ideas organize and construction2. New ideas

25  MJ 1 MJ 2 MJ 3 Coding Frames Data Open coding Axial Coding MJ 1 MJ 3

*MJ=Major Point

26  A Few More Words on Analytic Induction

Involve several refinements.Glaser and Strauss suggest:- Combine 2 data analysis.1. Analysis of
data after coding.2. Analysis of data while integrating.Incorporate all appropriate modes of
inquiry:Induction, deduction, and verification

27  Interrogative Hypothesis Testing

4 steps of negative case testing:1. Make a rough hypothesis.2. Conduct a thorough search.3.
Discard or reformulate hypothesis.4. Examine all relevant cases.

28  4 Safeguards against the potential flaws

Examples should be lifted at random.Assertion should be more than 3 examples.Analytic
interpretations should be examined by independent reader.Check no invalidated overall
patterns.Use safeguards can avoids “exampling”

29  STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE CONTENT ANALYSIS PROCESS

Advantages:It can be virtually unobtrusive.It is cost effective.It provides a means of study a
process.Weaknesses:Limited to examining already recorded messages.Ineffective for testing causal
relationships between variables.Not appropriate in every research situation.

30  COMPUTERS AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Using qualitative research programs:Help qualitative sorting and data management.Takes times to
learn.Researchers still need to think.Offer clear directions for novice.Quantitative research programs
help researchers to deal with the vast number of statistical data.