BACHELOR OF ARTS IN

HISTORY (BAHI)

DSE-I

History And Culture Of Odisha-I

Block-1

UNIT-1 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY: KALINGA,

UTKAL, KOSALA

UNIT-2 KALINGA WAR (261 B.C.) AND ITS

SIGNIFICANCE

UNIT-3 KHARAVELA-CAREER AND ACHIVEMENTS

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 1

DSE-I: HISTORY AND CULTURE OF ODISHA-I

Writer:
Dr. Sakir Hussain
Lecturer
Department of History,
Ispat Autonomous College, Rourkela

Editor:
Dr. Umakanta Mishra (HOD)
Associate Professor
School of History,
G.M. University, Sambalpur

Coordinator:
Dr. Subodha Mendaly
Academic Consultanat,
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur

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Registrar,
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur

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UNIT-1: HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY: KALINGA,
UTKAL, KOSALA

Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Kalinga

1.3 Utkala

1.4 Kosala

1.5 Let Us Sum Up

1.6 Keywords

1.7 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to understand the origin and territorial extent of
Kalinga, Utkala, and Kosala.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

One can develop a better understanding of the history of a particular region or country
through the study of its Geography. Thus, scholars rightly stated that Geography and
Chronology are two eyes of all History. Historical Geography means a geographical
study of the history of changing territorial boundaries and administrative divisions on
account of frequent political changes. It also relates to the study of the influences of
geographical factors upon historical events. Though very limited in numbers some
scholars have tried to highlight the importance of geography in historical studies
through their works like Alexander Cunningham's Geography of Ancient India, and
B.C. Law’s Historical Geography of Ancient India. Among other scholars who
enriched the study of Historical Geography of India, mention may be made of D.C.
Sircar, A. Bhattacharya, Mark Collins, S.B. Chaudhury, M.S. Pandey, P.K.
Bhattacharya, and M.R. Singh. The Historical Geography of Odisha has been dealt
with by N.K. Sahu, D.K. Ganguly and J.K. Sahu. As the History of Odisha is so vast,
its Geography is also varied and the sources are interesting. Historical Geography of
Odisha is based mostly on literary sources for the ancient period, on epigraphic

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records for medieval times, and on archival materials for modern study. Some people
today are confused while using the term Kalinga or Utkala for the entire Odisha. A
detailed study of Historical Geography by scholars justifies the name of Odisha and
shows that the claims for Kalinga or Utkala are unhistorical. J.K. Sahu in his book
Historical Geography of Odisha has discussed in detail all the nomenclatures but in
this unit, we will discuss only three names i.e. Kalinga, Utkala, and Kosala, along with
their origin and territorial extend throughout the ages.

1.2 KALINGA

Originally, Kalinga was a small state in between the river Rishikulya and the
Godavari. But its power was felt far and wide and its empire sometimes covered
almost the whole of traditional Odisha. During 4th/3rd century BCE it was developed
into a powerful empire that had challenged the mighty Magadha and also played an
important role in the history of Odisha through ages. Many sacred, as well as secular
texts of ancient India, have preserved valuable information about the Kalinga country
and its people.

Origin

There are different theories relating to the origin of Kalinga that are discussed below.

Literary sources like Vayu Purana and Harivamsa Purana (Jaina text) present an
interesting account of the origin of the kingdom of Kalinga. It is mentioned in these
texts that king Bali (a descendant of Pururavas Aila) was blessed with five sons. As
king Bali was childless he requested his wife Sudeshna, who in union with rishi
Dirghatamas give birth to these five sons named as Anga, Vanga, Kalinga. Pundra and
Sumha. After Bali, his sons were ruled over his kingdom and the territories they
obtained came to be known after their names. Thus, the region Kalinga was named
after its King.

Secondly, the Kalingas as a people or a tribe is mentioned in early Buddhist, Jaina, and
Brahmanical literature. The Buddhist chronicles like Digha Nikaya, Mahavastu, and
several Jatakas are referred the Kalinga tribe and their capital city Dantapura.
Similarly, the Jaina text Jaina Upanga Prajnapana groups the Kalingas into a class of
the Eastern Aryans. However, the exclusion of Kalinga in the list of sixteen
Mahajanapadas during the sixth century BCE may be mysterious. Apart from the
above, Kalingas are also mentioned in different Puranas along with other
contemporary people like Kalingas are mentioned along with the Vanavasikas, the
Musikas, the Maharastras, the Kumaras, and the Mahisakas in Matsya and Vâyu
Puranas. In the Harivamsa they are found to be associated with the Pundras. The
Márkandeya Purana mentions the Kalingas along with the Kuntalas, Vidarbhas,

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Abhiras, and Pulindas. In Padma Purana they are mentioned with the Bodhas, the
Madras, the Kukuras and the Dasarnas and also with the Kiratas, the Drosakas, the
Karabhañjakas, and the Tomaras.

The Kalingas are also found mentioned in Arthasastra of Kautilya, Astadhyayi of

Panini, and also referred by the foreigners like Pliny and Ptolemy. Pliny particularly
mentioned the Kalinga tribe and their capital at Parthalis. From all these references it
reveals that the Kalingas were an ancient tribe having a well-developed society and an
independent kingdom that was named after them.

According to Baudhayana Dharmasutra, the Kalingas were mleccha people (Non-

Aryans) and considered as the non-Aryan class. Even the text states that whosoever
will visit the Kalinga country has to perform Vedic rituals for purifications like
Sarvaprusti sacrifice and Vaisvanariya Isti. However, in other ancient works like the
Mahabharata and Jaina Upanga Prajnapana, the Kalingas were treated as Aryans.
Probably, during the early days, only a section of the people of Kalinga was Aryanised
and a majority of the populations remain tribal by faith, because of this in Baudhayana
Dharmasutra the country was considered as mleccha.

The extent of Kalinga through the Ages

The political boundary of Kalinga was changed with the rise and fall of different
ruling dynasties. Initially, Kalinga was a small state in between the river Rishikulya
and the Godavari. But its power was felt far and wide and its empire under Kharavela
covered almost the whole of traditional Odisha.

Lomasa Rishi said to Yudhisthira in the Vana Parva (Tirtha-yatra section) of the
Mahabharat by standing on the mouth of Ganges that “This is the territory of the
Kalingas where flows the river Vaitarani". This suggests that during the Mahabharat
time river Ganges was the northern boundary of Kalinga. Even the work of
Megasthenes also refers that the river Ganges was the northern boundary of Kalinga
(Gangaridum Calingarum Regia). Pliny provides a better picture of Kalihga territory
with three distinct divisions namely Gangarides Calingae, Macco Calingae, and
Calingae, having only one capital at Parthalis. A critical study of four Puranas
(Matsya, Kurma, Vayu, and Skanda) suggests that Kalinga was originally a country in
Dakshina Patha and Amarkantak region was its western boundary. Based on the above
sources we may conclude that Kalinga in its flourishing days extended from the
Ganges in the north to the Godavari in the south and from the Bay of Bengal in the
east to the Amarkantak hill in the west. But this boundary was not fixed and changed
from time to time with the rise and fall of different ruling dynasties as discussed
below.

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Although, from the literary sources it is known that from the end of the Bharata war up
to the foundation of the Nanda rule thirty-two Kshetriya kings were ruled over Kalinga
no detailed account is available about their reign. The Hathigumpha inscription reveals
that Kalinga was conquered by a Nanda king identified with Mahapadmananda of
Magadha, who flourished in the middle of the fourth century BCE. The work of
Meghasthenese and Pliny indicates that Kalinga had extended from the Ganges to the
Godavari in 261 BCE when Ashoka conquered it. As per the scholars out of the three
divisions of Pliny, during the Mauryan empire, Gangarides Calingae was directly
ruled by Magadha whereas Macco Calingae and Calingae were controlled from
provincial headquarters, Tosali and Samapa respectively. The history of Kalinga
during Sunga period is not known from any sources but perhaps Kalinga was not so
powerful to fight back against the military rule of Sungas. This indicates that Kalinga
was subordinate to the Sungas and probably to the Kanvas also.

However, the mid-first century BCE was given a new life to the Kalinga people with
the accession of the third Mahameghavahana ruler Sri Kharavela. Under his rule
Kalinga kingdom was flourished to a new height and Kharavela had achieved a series
of brilliant victories and spreading his influence from the North-Western part of India
to the far South. But he did not annex any land of other countries and Kalinga under
him was confined to its traditional boundaries from the Ganges to the Godavari. After
Kharavela due to weak successors again the Kalinga kingdom was confined to the
southern-Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh, for the next 3-4 centuries nothing is
known about it activities. Even in the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta, no
such information has been given about Kalinga. It was during the rule of Umavarman
(the second Mathara king) who first used the title Kalingadhipati in his Vrihatprostha
Grant in the second half of the fourth century CE which was subsequently used by all
his successors. After the decline of Matharas, Vasisthas occupied the Kalinga which
was confined to the southern Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh with the Godavari
as its southern boundary, and they assumed the title Kalingadhipati.

The Ganga general of the Vakataka ruler Harisena, Indravarman became the in-charge
of the Bastar-Koraput region and used the epithet Trikalingadhipati. But it was
Hastivarman, the third ruler of Eastern Gangas who extended his territory up to Mount
Mahendra and used the title Kalingadhipati. Due to internal disturbances for some
time Gangas were divided into five branches and were fighting with each other.

But with the coming of Vajrahasta-V in 1038 CE, Kalinga was again united and its
glory was retrieved. Vajrahasta-V conquered the Somavamsis and extended Kalinga as
far as the Chilika. He also conquered the Bastar-Koraput region and assumed the title
of Trikalingadhipati. Chodagangadeva was responsible for the establishment of an
empire extending from the Ganges to the Godavari with his capital at Kalinganagari
(Mukhalingam near Srikakulam). Kalinga, under the Suryavamsi Gajapati kings was

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treated as a Dandapata, a fiscal division under a governor named Pariksa or Danda
Pariksa. Since 1571 , Kalinga Dandapta and Rajmahendri Sarkar had been merged
with Golkonda under the Qutb Sahis. The glorious Kalinga empire was thus brought to
an ignoble end.

A major part of ancient Kalinga is now included in the present Andhra Pradesh and a
small part is left in the newly-formed Gajapati district of Odisha. Even the capital city
Kalinganagara is now located on the bank of the Vamsadhara in Srikakulam district of
Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was, in fact, a south Indian power. It is, therefore, not
surprising that some early Puranas like Markandeya, Brahmanda, and Vamana locate
Kalinga in Dakshina-Patha (Southern India).

1.3 UTKALA

Origin

According to Puranic theory, Ila-Sudyumna, the eldest among the ten sons of Manu,
had been cursed by Uma (the consort of Lord Siva), as a result of which he became a
man and a woman alternately. As a female, she was Ila and became the mother of
Pururavas Aila (the ancestor of king Bali) whereas as a male he was Sudyumna and
became the father of three sons named Utkala,Vinitasva, and Gaya. Sudyumna divided
his kingdom which he received from Manu among his sons, and the region ruled by
prince Utkala became known after his name as Utkala.

On the other hand, scholars argued that the Puranic account about the origin of Utkala
is based on myths and seems to have been fabricated to give an Aryan color to a tribal
people known as the Utkalas who have been mentioned in several works of ancient
Indian literature. In the epics e.g. the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Utkala is
referred along with Mekala, Kalinga, Andhra, Dasarna and others. Other Brahmanical
literature like Matsya, Vayu, Markandeya and Vamana Puranas, Utkalas have been
mentioned along with other indigenous groups. In the Vayu. Matsya and Brahmanda
Puranas, the Utkalas are also described as a Vindhyan tribe, the people residing at the
foot of the Vindhyas (Vindhya Prsthanivasinah).

The Buddhist text Khuddaka Nikaya refers to the Utkalas along with the Mekalas. The
Maha-Chattarisaka Sutta of the Majihima Nikaya mentions Vassa and Bhanna as two
tribes of the Ukkala People. The Lalitavistara and Mahavastu mentioned Utkala, the
territory of the merchants Tapassu and Bhallika. In this process, S.M. Ali in his
Geography of the Puranas grouped the Utkalas with those people who belonged to a
fairly well-developed society and formed independent States. This indicates that the
Utkalas was originally a non-Aryan tribe and their main profession was cultivation and
had also trade relations with other parts of India.

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Extent of Utkala

Although, Utkala did not find a place in the list of sixteen great states during the 6th
century BCE Vinaya Pitaka and other Buddhist texts mention the two merchant
brothers named Tapassu and Bhallika of Utkala who were gone to Majjhima-desa for
trade. A critical analysis of ancient literature suggests that the Utkala Janapada
included parts of modern Mayurbhañj, Keonjhar, and Sundargarh districts of Odisha,
Ranchi, Gumla, and Singhbhüm of Jharkhand, Raigarh of Madhya Pradesh, and
Purulia, Bankura and Midnapore of West Bengal.

While we find evidence regarding the existence of Utkala during six century BCE, no
such literary references have been found for this country in a few subsequent
centuries. It was only during the Gupta period that the expression Sumhotkala was
used in Matsya Purana, indicating the alliance between Sumha and Utkala countries.
Kalidas also referred Sumha, Vanga, and Utkala along with Kalinga respectively, in
his Raghuvamsa. From his work, we can draw the inference that probably Sumha,
Vanga, and Utkala were parts of Gupta Empire and located between Vanga and
Kalinga. The text mentions that after the victory over Vanga, raja Raghu
(Samudragupta) was crossed the river Kapisa and landed in Utkala, so the northern
extent of Utkala during Gupta period was up to river Kapisa. On the other hand, the
Matharas were ruling over Kalinga during this time and their empire was spread from
Rishikulya in the north to the Krishna in the south. So, the extension of Utkala in
Gupta Empire was from the river Kapisa in the north to the river Rishikulya in the
south.

During Sasankadeva, Utkala's country became under his suzerainty and after his death
annexed to the empire of Harsa. In the Adhabar copper plate charter Tivaradeva-
Panduvamsi king was mentioned as the Lord of Kosala and Utkala by his son
Nannaraja whereas Nannaraja speaks himself as the Lord of Kosala only. This
suggests that during the time of Nannaraja perhaps Utkala was lost by him to the
Bhaumakaras, who describe themselves as Utkala-kula, and merged the Utkala
country with Tosali. When the Somavarmsis conquered Tosali in the middle of tenth
century CE, they reorganized the newly occupied territory and named Uttar Tosali as
Utkala whereas Dakshina Tosali was merged with Kongoda. With the growing power
of Eastern Gangas Kangoda was lost by Somavamsis and they consolidated Utkala and
Kosala country. Utkala was under the Somavarmsis till Karnradeva whereas in the
meanwhile Kosala was lost to the Telugu-Chodas and the Kalacuris. The Somavamsis
had struggled hard to maintain their power on Utkala but Chodagangadeva occupied
Utkala sometimes before 1108 CE as mentioned in his Mukhalingam copper plate
grant (dated 1030 Saka Era). After this Utkala became an integral part of the empire of
the Imperial Gangas and subsequently of the Suryavamsi Gajapatis and lost its identity
forever.

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1.4 KOSALA

Kosala or more popularly known as South Kosala was a geographical unit that
consisted of Raipur and Bilaspur districts of Chhattisgarh and erstwhile Sambalpur and
Bolangir districts of Odisha in ancient times. However, initially, only Chhattisgarh has
represented the region of South Kosala, and western parts of Odisha became added at a
later date, probably 9th century or even in a later period (with the coming of the
Somavamsis). Like Kalinga and Utkala no such Puranic theory has been given about
Kosala and the earliest reference is found in the Parisistha of Atharvaveda. Moreover,
the Epics and Puranas also throw light on the early history of Kosala kingdom. As per
Ramayana, after Ram, his territory was divided between his two sons Lava and Kusha.
While Lava ruled over North Kosala with Sravasti as his capital, Kusha got the
southern part and established a new capital known as Kusavati or Kusasthalipura.
Although the mention of Uttara Kosala is found in many early texts southern part was
always called as the Kosala only. Kosala is also mentioned in the Vana Parva of the
Mahabharata. In subsequent periods scholars for their suitability used the term
Dakshina/South Kosala. Even in various Buddhist texts, we found the descriptions
about Kosala. Anguttara Nikaya included Kosala among the sixteen great states.
During Gupta rule, Samudragupta defeated Mahendra the ruler of Kosala in
Dakshinapatha.

Inscriptional evidence recovered from the above-said regions known as South Kosala
has mentioned the rulers in these inscriptions as lords of Kosala e.g. Kosaladhisha,
Kosaladhipati, Kosalanarendra, etc. As per the Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Hiuen
Tsang) during the mid-7th century the boundary of the Kosala kingdom was extended
about 6,000 li in circuit (81,000 square miles in area). Since the early eighth century
CE, Panduvamsis and subsequently their successors Somavamsis were ruled over
South Kosala. However, to avoid the repeated war with the Kalachuris the
Somavamsis in the mid-ninth century CE were bound to transfer their political
headquarters to the eastern region and enter into the western part of Odisha. We find a
number of place names as their capitals like Murasimakataka, Aramakataka,
Vinitapura, Yayatinagara, etc. In the mid-eleventh century CE, the Somavamsi king
Yajati-II merged both Kosala and Utkala, and set up two different capitals took after
the administrative affairs e.g. Suvarnapura became the capital of Kosala and
Yajatinagar in Jajpur as the capital of Utkala. In course of time when the Somavamsi
power became weak sometime in the latter part of the eleventh century CE, Kosala
was occupied by the Telugu Chodas, followed by Kalachuris and the Gangas
respectively. At last, the Chauhans were ruled over the region initially from Patnagarh
and subsequently from Sambalpur. They had their dominance over 18 states, out of
which 10 are now in Odisha and 8 are in Chhattisgarh. Chauhans were considered the
last ruling dynasty over South Kosala.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Write a note on the territorial extent of Utkala.

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2. Discuss the origin of Kalinga.

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3.Give an account on the Kosala

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1.5 LET US SUM UP

The study of the historical geography of ancient Odisha reveals that the present
political boundary of Odisha was never a constraint. Odisha was identified by various
names like Kalinga, Utkala, Kosala and also by some other names not discussed in this
unit. To enhance our understanding on ancient Odisha, we must learn the changing
geographical boundary with the rise and fall of different ruling dynasties.

1.6 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress

1. See Section 1.3

2. See Section 1.2
3. See Section 1.4

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UNIT-2: KALINGA WAR (261 BCE) AND ITS
SIGNIFICANCE

Structure

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Causes

2.3 Course of the War

2.4 Significance

2.5 Let Us Sum Up

2.6 Keywords

2.7 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to;

 understand various causes of the Kalinga war,

 discuss losses and causalities in the war, and
 know the significance of the war

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The war between Kalinga and Magadha, popularly known as the Kalinga War of 261
BCE is generally considered a crucial episode in the history of Odisha. This event is
important because for the first time we found any written evidence about ancient India
and also responsible for the change of the political order that prevailed during 3rd
century BCE. A detailed account of this war is found only in the Major Rock Edict
XIII. This is not referred to either in the Ceylonese chronicles like the Mahavamsa and
Dipavamsa or in the Buddhist Aadana literature such as the Diyaavadana,
Asokaavadana. Kalinga threw off the yoke of the Magadhan imperialism after Nanda
dynasty and was an independent country in the period of Chandragupta Maurya.
Kalinga was conquered by Mahapadmananda in around 350 BCE and was under the
control of Nandas till their decline. Even when Chandragupta Maurya established a

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strong empire from Hindukush in the northwest to modern Mysore in the South,
Kalinga remained outside of it. As Chandragupta Maurya was busy in consolidating
his empire, he did not make any effort during his time to invade Kalinga.
Subsequently, Bindusara also remained busy in controlling of revolts organised by his
nobles and chiefs. On the other hand Kalinga was established its colonies in Burma
and Phillppine Island and even spread its influence over the Islands of Southeast Asian
countries. Therefore, when Magadha was struggling for its consolidation, Kalinga
developed its strength as an overseas power. The elephantry of Kalinga was being
considered by the Greeks as unconquerable and even Kautilya accepted the elephants
of Kalinga as the best of their types in India. Hence, Kalinga became a prospective
danger for the Magadhan empire and a war between them was unavoidable.

2.2 CAUSES

The main causes of the Kalinga war were both political and economic. Besides, the
legend of Karuvaki is also accepted by some scholars as the immediate cause of the
war.

Political and Military Cause

The major cause for the conquest of Kalinga was its military prowess, economic
prosperity, and its iron resources. The huge casualties of the war as described in the
Rock Edict XIII with one hundred fifty thousand taken prisoners, hundred thousand
slain, and as many number dead bear out the military strength of Kalinga and its
highly populousness. The existence of an independent Kalinga state on the border of
the Magadhan empire was against the concept of Cakavatti raja, an ideology that states
of an unimpeded wheel of sovereignty. An independent Kalinga was politically a
threat as well because a strong state, according to the mandala theory Kautilya's
Arthasastra, was a natural enemy. H.C. Raychaudhuri mentions the evidence of Pliny,
who based his work on Megasthenes’ Indica that at the time of Chandragupta Kalinga
was an independent kingdom with an army of 60,000-foot soldiers, 1,000 horsemen
arid 700 elephants indicating the military might. For such a strong country remaining
independent on the border of his dominions could certainly not be a matter of
indifference to any emperor. Asoka, therefore, felt the need of subjugating Kalinga.

From the time of the Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty till Mahapadmananda, the
Magadhan kings were pursuing the policy of expansion and conquest. However,
Chandragupta Maurya and his son Bindusara Maurya were busy in internal
consolidation and suppression of revolts organized by their nobles and provincial
chiefs. In the meanwhile, Kalinga became prosperous and stronger which attracted the
attention of Asoka after his coronation in 269 BCE. Although Kalinga was surrounded
by the Magadhan empire from three sides it remained independent. The existence of
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an independent powerful kingdom, which was strengthening its power day by day on
the Magadhan border was a threat for the Mauryan Empire and again it was intolerable
for an ambitious king like Asoka. Asoka had to wait for the next eight years after his
coronation and prepared his military to start his expedition towards Kalinga to remove
the potential danger. Finally, the war took place in 261 BCE on the bank of the river
Daya.

Economic Cause

Historians consider economic factors as responsible for the increase in the rivalry
between Kalinga and Magadha. The overseas activities of Kalinga had increased
manifold after it declared its independence from Magadha sometime in 321/320 BCE,.
Moreover, Kalinga became rich and also improved its inland trade. Though the
Mauryas had maintained relations with the Indo-Greeks of the time, no such evidence
is available regarding their commercial relations. This suggests that the Mauryan naval
power was not as developed as the Kalingas. Thus, the Magadhan empire did not
digest the economic prosperity of Kalinga. Besides, the overseas activities and
Kalinga's relationship with the Southeast Asian countries, the inland trade was also
improved whereas Magadha faced a severe crisis due to a lack of trade routes. The
Kalinga kingdom with its flourishing trade and commerce became a tough competitor
for the Mauryan empire in the economic sphere.

Nagas’ attack on the jewels of Asoka

As stated by Lama Taranath (a Tibetan monk who wrote the History of Buddhism in
India in 1608), the serpents (nagas) of the Eastern seas, attacked and robbed the jewels
of Asoka which forced the emperor to invade the Kalinga territory. The Avadana genre
of the Buddhist text, namely, Asokavadana also refers to the stealing of Buddha's
relics by the nagas of the eastern seas, Asoka's went to Ramagama to recover it.
Romila Thapar states that Nagas of eastern seas were Kalinga rulers who were
economically prosperous with the jewel being symbolic of the wealth of Kalinga.
Seagoing Nagas was only a representation of the seagoing activities of Kalinga. The
archaeological evidence such as monochrome glass beads suggests Kalinga's early
trade connection with Southeast Asia

Legend of Karuvaki

H.K. Mahtab in History of Orissa opines that the immediate cause of the Kalinga war
was Asoka’s love for Karuvaki, a girl of the fishing community of Kalinga and fiancee
of Kalinga’s crown prince. Mahatab says that this legend is prevalent among
fisherfolks of Odisha. This appears meaningless in the absence of any sufficient
evidence, the Queen's Edict of Asoka mentions the name of Karuvaki - the mother of

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Tivara and probably the second queen of Asoka. Scholars propose the above story
based on this edict.

2.3 COURSE OF THE WAR

Asoka's inscriptions have been found across the Indian subcontinent from Afghanistan
to Karnataka but the event of Kalinga war is only mentioned in the Major Edict-XIII at
selected places. At Jaugarh and Dhauli where Asokas' Major Rock Edicts are found,
but the king deliberately deleted 11-13th rock edicts and inscribed in their place two
separate Kalinga Edicts, known as Separate Rock Edict I and II, probable to avoid any
rebellion and not to hurt the Kalinga people. MRE XIII provides a vivid account on
the misery and losses on the side of Kalinga and does not mention anything about
Magadha. As per the details given in the edict about one hundred thousand people lost
their life in the war and one hundred fifty thousand were imprisoned, besides, many
more died and suffered due to war.. On the other hand, Emperor Asoka was also
greatly disturbed by the destruction and slaughter caused by the war and there was a
change in his mind and he tried to build and rule over an empire not by force alone but
by a policy of compassion, a spirit of service and welfare and evolving ethical
principles of Dhamma.

2.4 SIGNIFICANCE

The Kalinga war was a significant event in the history of India and had far-reaching
consequences as discussed below.

Annexation of Kalinga and Establishment of New Administration

With the victory of Asoka in the war, Kalinga became an integral part of the Mauryan
Empire. Tosali (Dhauli) and Samapa (Jaugada) were two provincial headquarters at
Kalinga from where administrative activities had been controlled. From both at
Dhauli and Jaugada Rock Edicts of Asoka has been found that give detailed accounts
on the Mauryan administrative pattern prevailed at Kalinga. Asoka had established a
benevolent and well-structured organization of administration in the newly occupied
Province of Kalinga. He appointed different officers for looking after various
departments like a prince of royal blood or Kumara as the viceroy, Rajavachanika –
high executive officer, Anta mahamatras in charge of border Province, Ithijaka
mahamatras in charge of the welfare of women, moral and spiritual benefits of the
people were looked after by Dharma mahamatras. In addition, Dharma mahamatras
had also the power to revise judicial punishments in favor of deserving cases. The
other important officials were Rajukas (in charge of the Janapadas), Pradesikas (who
were responsible for maintaining law and order), Samhartr (the chief Revenue
Collector), Vachabhumikas (in charge of cattle farms and pasture lands), etc.
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 12
The shift of Asoka from Dig Vijaya to Dhamma Vijaya

The disastrous war between Magadha and Kalinga had severely affected Asoka, who
gave up the mentality of territorial expansion and conquest. In search of peace, Asoka
accepted Buddhism by Upagupta and did all his efforts for maintaining peace and
prosperity in his empire. He had propagated the teachings of Lord Buddha through
rock and pillar inscriptions. Asoka devoted all his life to the propagation of Dhamma
and financed several missionary activities to far countries. He summoned the Third
Buddhist Council at Pataliputra. Instead of conquering the land, he started the mission
of conquering the heart of the people.

Spread of Buddhism

After his conversion, Asoka started the mission of the spread of Buddhism to establish
universal peace. He personally supervised the work and at the end of the Third
Buddhist council and missionaries were dispatched to distance countries like Theras
Sona and Uttara to Suvarnabhumi (Myanmar), Asoka’s son Mahendra and
subsequently his daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Majjhantika to Kashmir
and Gandhar, Majjhima to the Himalayan region, Mahadeva to Mahisamandala
(Mysore), Mahadharmaraksita to Maharashtra and Maharaksita to Yavana country
(North-west) for the spread of Buddhism. Therefore, within a very short time,
Buddhism which was confined to the Gangetic plains only became a worldwide
religion. According to Yuan-Chwang Asoka constructed 84000 stupas throughout his
empire and put Buddha's corposal relic in them, eight of them were located in parts of
ancient Odisha. This is also archaeologically corroborated from the evidence of stuap
remains from Dhauli and Lalitagiri.

Development of Art, Architecture, and Literature

One of the most important facets of the Kalinga War was the growth of art,
architecture, and literature in the Indian sub-continent. The Asokan edicts and the
construction of stupas have added a new chapter in the history of ancient India. The
spread of Pali and Prakrit language with Brahmi script in major parts of India and
Khorosthi script in north-western provinces were the outstanding contributions of
Mauryan empire. Besides, the development of rock-cut and structural stupa
architecture also began a fresh episode in the field of art and architecture.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Discuss the causes of the Kalinga war.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 13
2. Explain the significance of the Kalinga war.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….…..

2.5 LET US SUM UP

The Kalinga war was a turning point in the history of ancient Odisha. Although we can
never get a satisfactory answer to understand the exact causes of the war but it has a
far-reaching significance that brought about a significant shift in Asoka's policies. It
created a strong desire in Asoka for setting up an ethical state. He played a great part
in the spread of Buddhism, ushered in the development of socio-cultural and religious
contact between India and other countries. Besides, India witnessed the emergence of
stone art and architecture in the Mauryan period

2.6 KEYWORDS

Dhamma : Dharma.
Elephantry : An army troop who used elephants.
Sramanas : People who practiced an ascetic/strict and self-denying life style in
pursuit of spiritual liberation.
Stupa : A form of Buddhist architecture.
Rock-cut : Structure created by excavating solid rock.

2.7 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress

4. See Section 2.2

5. See Section 2.4

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 14

UNIT-3: KHARAVELA- CAREER AND
ACHIEVEMENTS

Structure

3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Early Career

3.3 Military Achievements

3.4 Administration

3.5 Public Work

3.6 Religious Activities

3.7 Date of Kharavela

3.8 Let Us Sum Up

3.9 Keywords

3.10 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to;

 explain the early career and military expeditions of Kharavela,

 know his administrative structure and various work for general people, and
 examine the various issues relating to his date.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

After the conquest of Kalinga and its incorporation into the Mauryan empire, the
apparatus and institutions of the empire were established in the incorporated province
of Kalinga. Tosali, identified with Dhauli, became the seat of provincial capital and
Samapa, identified with Jauagarh, became a major administrative centre. The Mauryan
Imperial system accelerated the material cultural developments in Kalinga. Indigenous
political elites would have been incorporated into the Mauryan administrative
apparatus. The archaeological evidence from different parts of Odisha, such as from

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 15

Sisupalgarh and Dhauli around Bhubaneswar, Jaugarh in Ganjam district, Radhanagar
in Jajpur district, and Narla-Asurgarh in Kalahandi reveal fortification of sites and
introduction of money economy and long-distance trade in Odisha in the Mauryan
period. Organised religions such as Buddhism began to appear in the Bhubaneswar
area, Lalitagiri, and Udayagiri in the Maurya and post-Mauryan period. In short, the
Mauryan state system accelerated the development of the material cultures of various
pre-state societies including in Odisha which like the Deccan under the Satavahanas,
finally saw the emergence of the state system in the post-Mauryan period. The rise of
the Mahameghavahanas under Kharavela of Kalinga signified this process of the
secondary state formation in the Post Mauryan Kalinga. Kharavela's state borrowed
some elements such as taxation, administrative, and welfare structure of the Mauryan
state, used Brahmi script and Prakrit language, and continued to use Karshapana coin.
But it also bore a stamp of its own with its welfare measures, aggressive policy of
expansion, and its patronage of Jainism. However, historians still debate whether
Kharavela's state was an inchoate or transitional or a matured state. Kharavela was one
of the great personalities among the rulers of ancient India. Detailed information
regarding his career, achievements from his boyhood up to the thirteenth year of his
rule as Maharaja of Kalinga in perfect chronological order is described in the
Hatigumpha cave at Udayagiri hill in Bhubaneswar in Odisha. This seventeen-line
inscription is written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language. There are short
inscriptions in the Khandgiri-Udayagiri complex, such as in the Jambesvara Gumpha
and Bagha Gumpha which refer to a few officials and persons as well.

Hatigumpha Inscription (Source - Google)

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 16

3.2 EARLY CAREER

Kharavela is mentioned in the inscription as ‘Airena Maharajena

Mahameghavahanena Cheti-raja-vasa-vadhanena’. Scholars have diverse of opinion
on the expression of each part. 'Aira' is interpreted as ‘Veera’, ‘Ayira’ Arya, and Aila.
Likewise, Mahameghavahana is considered to be the grandfather of Kharavela, the
founder of the dynasty in Kalinga which came to be known as Mahameghavahana
after his name. The Manchpuri cave inscription describes Kharavela's son as
‘Maharaja-Kalingadhipati-Mahameghavahana-Kudepasiri’. Similarly, another
inscription at Guntupalli in West Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh refers to
‘Mahameghavahana-Kalinga-Mahisakadhipati-Siri-Sada’. While earlier scholars like
R.D. Banerji, K.P. Jayaswal, and others interpreted ‘Cheti-raja-vasa-vadhanena’ as
one who increases the glory of the Cedi dynasty, later on J.K. Sahu identified this
expression of the inscription as Chetaraja, who was the father of Kharavela. Thus,
Kharavela was the third ruler in the Mahameghavahana dynasty also known as
Kalingarajavamsa. It is also mentioned in the inscription that Kharavela as a young
prince was physically attractive and had various propitious signs on his body
signifying that he was predestined to be great and famous in his future life. It is
important to note here that both the Jaina and Buddhist sources refer to 32 physical
auspicious markers on the body of great people. Kharavela’s life and achievements are
known solely from the Hatigumpha inscription but archaeological evidence indicrectly
corroborate the text of the Hatigumpha inscription and imagery of royalty as carved in
the Ranigumpha and Manchapuri gumpha in the Udayagiri-Khandagiri complex.
Kharavela’s Hatigumpha inscription is the first epigraphic reference to the term
Bharavarsha with which India was and is known. Synchronism method (of the names
and places mentioned in the Hatigumpha inscription) has been used to arrive at the
date of Kharavela.

During his childhood, Kharavela played various games and at the same time received
education in different disciplines like royal correspondence (lekha), coinage (rupa),
accountancy (ganana), civil law (vyavahara) and religious law (vidhi). Unfortunately,
at the age of fifteen, his father passed away and as Kharavela was a minor at that time
he controlled the thread of the Government as the Crown prince (Yuvaraja) and ruled
over Kalinga for nine years. At the age of 24, his coronation ceremony was performed,
and he became the king in the Meghavahana royal dynasty of Kalinga in its third
generation.

3.3 MILITARY ACHIEVEMENTS

As per the Hathigumpha inscription, Kharavela had a powerful army that included
cavalry, elephantry, infantry and chariots. From the very beginning, he cherished an

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insatiable ambition of conquest and expansion. So after the coronation, he immediately
devoted his attention to strengthening the defence of his capital city Kalinganagari
whose fortification was damaged by the storm. The gates, towers, and ramparts were
repaired and made strong. He also erected the embankments of the Khibirarishi lake,
beautified the city with the restoration of cisterns, tanks, and gardens at the cost of
thirty-eight hundred thousand 350000 karshapanas (silver coin). After a flurry of
defensive and welfare activities in his capital in the very first year of his reign, which
entailed huge expenditure, Kharavela started his career of conquest from his second
reignal year. Both expansions, as well as plunder, may have prompted him to
undertake the military expedition. During the time of King Kharavela, the political
scenario of the Indian subcontinent was dominated by several existing as well as
newly emerged ruling dynasties e.g., Satavahanas in the Deccan, Neo-Mitra dynasty in
Magadha, Tamil confederacy in the south, and the Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) in the north-
west. In those circumstances, the ambitious king Kharavala could not remain
indifferent and made all-out efforts for the expansion of Kalinga.

Both the Meghavahanas and Satavahanas appeared almost simultaneously in the

political vista of the early historical period, and both tried to extend domination over
the Deccan region, and a clash between them became unavoidable. Keeping in view
the circumstances, Kharavela started his first military campaign towards the
Satavahanas of Maharashtra in his second reignal year. He despatched his huge army
to the west, which marched up to the river Krishna (Kanhaverna) and ruined the city
of Musika (identified with Nalgonda in Telengana where river Musa meets Krishna),
which was under the suzerainty of the Satavahanas. Although, the consequence of this
operation is not known and it suggests that the campaign could not settle on anything
as there was no direct encounter between Kharavela and Satakarni.

After the gap of one year again in his fourth regnal year, Kharavela directed another
invasion against the Satavahanas. Probably, in the meanwhile Satakarni-I had breathed
his last, leaving his two minor sons and his queen Nayanika, who had assumed the
reins of administration as the regent. Kharavela had aided the resources of the
invincible Vidyadhar territory with him and marched headlong to the West. This time
Kharavela entered into the heartland of the Satavahana territory and crushed the
Rathikas and the Bhojakas who were protecting as feudatories the regions lying to the
south and north respectively of the capital of the Satavahana kingdom, Nasik. The
result of this victory had made Kharavela invincible and his influence spread over
Deccan from sea to sea (the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea).

In his 8th reignal year Kharavela directed his next military expedition against Magadha
– the traditional enemy of Kalinga. While marching towards the north his army
demolished the fort of Gorathagiri, one of the hill fortresses guarding Rajagriha, and
put the city in great trouble. At the same time, a Yavana king (Dimita – may be

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 18

identified as Indo-Greek ruler Demetrius) after taking possession of Mathura was
proceeding towards Pataliputra. Thus, Magadha was facing a grave danger, being
invaded on two sides by two powerful forces. However, ensuing events took a
different turn, and Magadha was saved from the danger of invasion. The information
of the accomplishment of Kharavela at Gorathagiri scared the Yavana king who
immediately returned to Mathura. This activity diverted the attention of Kharavela
who followed him and forced him to leave Mathura which was a famous centre of
Jainism. As a memory, Kharavela brought from Mathura a Kalpa tree in a ceremonial
military procession to Kalinga.

Kharavela led the second invasion to North India in his tenth regnal year and returned
with rich booties.

For the first time, in the eleventh reignal year, Kharavela turned his attention to the
Southern Indian states. He secured the jewels and precious stones of the retreating
enemies and destroyed the Pithunda (to be identified with Macchalipattinam) which
was the capital of Ava countries.. He crushed the Tamil confederacy. The details of the
Tamil confederacy were not mentioned but most likely, it consisted of chieftaincies of
Pandya, Chola and Cheras. As a consequence of this victory the Pandya king, the head
of the confederacy surrendered before Kharavela. The latter brought with him riches of
the Tamil confederacy to Kalinganagari.

In the 12th reignal year, he marched towards North India for the third time. This year
he advanced with a vast army as far as Uttarapatha (North India) where he forced
several chiefs to submission. On his return from Uttarapatha he planned to attack
Magadha and encamped on the banks of the river Ganges near Pataliputra. The people
of Magadha were scared at the sight of his elephants and horses near the Magadhan
palace of Sugamgiya. Therefore, the king of Magadha Bahasatimita (can be identified
with Brhaspatimitra who belonged to one of the six lineages of the Sungas) was forced
to surrender at his feet. This event was considered as a revenge by Kharavela for the
humiliation Kalinga faced earlier under the Nandas and Mauryas. Kharavela also
brought back the image of Kalinga-Jina which was taken away by Mahapadmananda
from Kalinga in the 4th century BCE. The installation of Kalinga-Jina was considered
very glorious from the standpoint of religious and military prestige.

Hence, within a brief period, Kharavela had achieved a series of brilliant victories and
spreading his influence from the North-Western part of India to the far South. A
detailed analysis of all the military achievements has revealed that Kharavela did not
aim at building a large political empire of Kalinga by annexing defeated territories on
the other hand probably his main ambition was to heighten the prestige of Kalinga by
defeating the rising powers of his time. His political and military performances are

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 19

exceptional in history and this great monarch fully justifies the epithet of Chakravarti,
as given to him in the inscription of his queen.

3.4 ADMINISTRATION

No detailed account of the administration of Kalinga under Kharavela was given in the
Hathigumpha inscription. However, as reflected from other information it may be
inferred that the organization of government by Kharavela to some extent followed the
pattern laid by Ashoka in Kalinga. The work and achievements as mentioned in the
inscription required the services of a large number of officers for controlling different
departments. Thus, Kharavela modeled his administration on the model of Mauryan
bureaucracy as given below.

Mahamada Chief Miníster

Nagara Akhadamasa City Judicial officer stationed in Kalinganagiri

Mahasenani Commander-in-chief

Pratihara Chamberlain

Senanayaka Head of the security guards in the capital

Dandapasika Chief Police Officer

Bhandagarika Treasurer

Padavithidapalika Officer regulating markets

Saugandhika Officer for perfumery

Gomanadalika Superintendent of Cattle

Mahanasika Superintendent of royal kitchen

Padamulika Royal Attendant

Lehaharaka Postal Officer

Dhavaka Letter carrier

Kulputrakas Nobles of blood royal

Samahatri Chief Revenue Collector

Sannidhatri Revenue officer

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 20

 Lipikara Engraver

Gramika Village headman

3.5 PUBLIC WORK

The importance of Kharavela was not only for his military operations and well-
organized administration but also for his various public works in the interest of the
state. He undertook various constructive works and arranged entertainment to please
and amuse the people. In the very first reignal year, he strengthened and beautified the
capital Kalinganagari not only by repairing the gates, towers and ramparts which had
been previously damaged by the storm but also by constructing embankments for cool
tanks and laying out gardens and parks at the cost of thirty-five hundred thousand
(35,00,000).

In his third reignal year Kharavela organised various performances of dance and music
which to a great extent pleased the people. The inscription reveals that Kharavela was
proficient in fine arts. It also enlightens us that Kharavela revived the Tauryataika
(performance of dance and music with its sixty-four branches) which had been
suspended in Kalinga from the time of the Mauryas. All these artistic activities
imparted a grandiose look to the capital city.

The fifth reignal year is noteworthy for an imperative developmental work undertaken
by the ruler. A canal (tanasuliyavata) that had been excavated for irrigation work
about three hundred years before by king Mahapadmananda was renovated that year
and was extended up to Kalinganagari to provide the need for irrigation and
transportation as well as to serve as the moat of its fortifications. He remitted and
exempted taxes and gave relief to citizens

In the sixth year, Kharavela made a public display of royal wealth that had been
accumulated by conquering the enemies and he remitted several taxes imposed on the
people. The next year (seventh year) his chief queen of Vajiraghara gave birth to a
child (boy) and attained motherhood.

In the ninth reignal year he constructed the Great victory palace (mahavijayaprasada in
Kalinganagari at the cost of thirty-eight hundred thousand (3800000) to celebrate his
achievements in the first North Indian expedition (8th reignal year).

3.6 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES

Unlike Ashoka, Kharavela was a Jaina. As mentioned in the first line of the
Hathigumpha inscription, he has paid high homage to the Arthats of the Digambara

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sect and the Siddha of the Svetambara sect revealed his religious faith in Jainism. The
popularity of Jainism during his patronage had reached its zenith not only in Kalinga
but also in other parts of the Indian sub-continent. A careful analysis of his military
campaigns revealed the fact that his expeditions were most often associated with
religious enthusiasm for enhancing the glory of Jainism.

In his eighth reignal year during his first expedition towards North India, he liberated
Mathura-a holy centre of the Jainism, from the Yavanas and brought from there a
Kalpa tree in a ceremonious military procession to Kalinga. In the tenth year he
pursued a policy of digvijaya (conquest in all direction) aganist the kings of
Bharatavarsha and brought about the conquest of many lands.

In his twelfth regnal year he defeated the king of Anga and Magadha and brought back
the image of Kalinga-Jina which was carried away by Mahapadmananda.

Kharavela excavated several caves for the Jaina monks in the Kumari hills. The
members of the royal family as well as officials and nobles followed the footsteps of
the monarch and also excavated caves for the Jainas. Many of the caves of Khandagiri
and Udayagiri in Bhubaneswar is ascribed to the time of Kharavela Among them the
caves of the chief queen of Kharavela and those of Kudepasi and Vadukha are
prominent. Although a Jaina, Kharvela was liberal and tolerant towards all religions.
He declared himself as the worshipper of all religious orders and as the repairer of all
religious shrines. Being persuaded by the queen of Simhapatha (another queen of
Kaharavela along with Vajiragara), he built a magnificent rest house for the Sramanas
and Yatis (Jaina saints), Tapasas and rishis (Brahmanical sages) and Samghayanas
(Buddhists), who used to visit Kumari hill from different parts of India. He donated
Chinese silk (china-vatani) and white clothes to the Jaina monks. Realising the relation
between life and body, he convened a religious assembly of monks from all directions
to discuss religious matters on the top of Kumari hill where there was a relic hall. This
hall can be identified with the apsidal structure on the top of the Udayagiri hill
excavated by 'teh' Archaeological Survey of India The compilation (upadayati) of the
Jaina sacred texts, seven Angas in this assembly learned Jainas from all over India was
the crowning outcome of this conference in the 13th regnal year of Kharavela.

We know about his activities up to his thirteenth reignal year after which nothing is
known about him. However, the Rani gumpha in the Udayagiri complex contains
imagery of royalties with his pomp and glory which accompanied the victory
celebration in the Kalinganagari, the capital of Kharavela.

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 22

 Extent of Kharavela’s Empire (Source - Google)

3.7 DATE OF KHARAVELA

As the Hathigumpha inscription is undated and damaged at some places, scholars have
faced problems while examining the date of Kharavela. Although the Hathigumpha
inscription provides a few suggestive evidences regarding the date of king Kharavela,
misinterpretation of this evidence has given rise to confusion and controversies.

1. As per the scholars like D.C. Sircar, N.N. Ghosh, H.C. Raychoudhury, N.K.
Sahu and others, the script and language of the Hathigumpha inscription are
dated to the post Sunga period on orthographic and palaeographic ground, i.e.,
later than the second century BCE.
2. The Hathigumpha inscription refers to a historical personality named-Satakarni,
who was a king of the Satavahana dynasty. The 4th line states that Kharavela in
the second year of his reign sent a large army to the west without caring for
Satakarni. Evidently, Satakarni was the third ruler of the Satavahana dynasty and
was ruled for ten years during the second half of the 1st century BCE.
3. In lines, 6th and 12th of the inscription the scholar found the references to a
Nandaraja-who most probably identified with Mahapadmananda (ruled from 362
BCE to 334 BCE) of the Nanda dynasty. In his fifth reignal year, Kharavela

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 23

 extended a canal up to Kalingnagari which was originally excavated by a
Nandaraja before three hundred years (Ti-vasa-sata), and made it flow to his
capital. If the canal was constructed during the ending years of
Mahapadmananda, about 336 BCE and if the phrase Ti-vasa-sata be interpreted
as 300 years then the fifth ruling year of Kharavela dated to 35 BCE. However,
the term three hundred have been used as a round figure and only suggests that
Kharavela was flourished in the second half of the 1st century BCE. Few other
scholars have interpreted Ti-vasa-sata as 103 years. But it cannot be considered
as correct because after 103 years of Mahapadmananda, Mauryas were ruling
over Kalinga and the rise of a powerful ruler like Kharavela in that period
appears incompatible.
4. Although, scholars were not unanimously agreed on the identification of
Bahastimitra of Magadha but N.K. Sahu and D.C. Sircar hold the view that
Bahasatimitra whom Kharavela claims to have defeated can no other than the
king Bahasatimitra of the Pabhosa and Mora inscriptions and also of the
Kausambi and Ahichhatra coins. The king has been ascribed by them to the
second half of the 1st century BCE.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Discuss the early career of Kharavela in the light of the Hathigumpha

inscription.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

2. Write a note on Military achievements of Kharavela.

...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3. Determine the date of Kharavela.

...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 24
3.8 LET US SUM UP

Hathigumpha inscription reveals the personality of Kharavela as a brilliant conqueror.

As a military genius, he stands unique by spreading the sphere of his political
influence from the northwestern part of India to the far south. However, he was not an
imperialist and his military campaigns were mostly based on the principle of Dharma
vijaya which aims not to annex the conquered territories. Kharavela was not only a
great conqueror but also a benevolent ruler: Here it may be pointed out that Ashoka
being a conqueror had to follow the appeasement in Kalinga. But Kharavela was the
ruler of the people and his policy was not to appease but to please the people which he
achieved with enormous success. Kharavela was a great patron of religion and his
period is a golden age for Jainism. Instead of his devotion to Jainism, he was not an
extremist and he was broad in outlook. He was also an earnest lover of music and fine
art and spent huge sums for the merrymaking of the people. He was a great builder
too. He built the great victory place and many temples and caves. Those glorious
achievements have earned Kharavela a great name and fame among the rulers of
ancient India.

3.9 KEYWORDS

Kanhvena: River Krishna

Uttarapatha: Ancient route of North India

3.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress

6. See Section 3.2

7. See Section 3.3
8. See Section 3.7

SUGGESTED READING

1. Early History of Orissa: A.C. Mittal.

2. Utkal University History of Orissa, Vol.I: N.K. Sahu.
3. Historical Geography of Orissa: J.K. Sahu.
4. Historical Geography and Dynastic History of Orissa: D.K.Ganguli.
5. History of Orissa: K.C. Panigrahi.
6. Kharavela: N.K. Sahu.

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 25

7. Compreh en si ve Hist ory a n d Cu ltu re o f Ori ssa , Vol.I, Pa rt-I : Ed .
P.K. Mi shra .
8. Ea rly Histor y o f Ka lin ga : D.N. Da s.
9. Kharavela : Sadananda Agrawala.

Odisha State Open University, Sambalpur 26