METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

I. APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

*First we need to understand the distinction between these three key concepts!
What are the differences between an approach, a method and technique?
APPROACH, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE
The definitions provided by Edward M. Anthony (1963) clarify the distinctions among these terms.

The differences between approach, method and technique

Approach Method (design) Technique (procedure)

*Theoretical positions,
*A generalized set of classroom
assumptions and beliefs * Specific types of exercises,
procedures to teach language by
about the nature of tasks, or activities used in class
focusing on the: Goals of the
language, the nature of for the purpose of reaching
teaching/learning, Learner roles,
language learning pedagogical purposes.
Teacher roles, Role of
* Theoretical foundation instructional materials. *Implementation-oriented
that any method is based
* procedural * This is the narrowest term
on.
* Methods are more specific than among these three concepts.
* axiomatic (not proven
approaches; however, they are
but considered to be true)
more general than techniques.
*This term is the broadest
one.

Why How What

Later on, this distinction was developed and revised by Richards and Rodgers (1985, 2001) as Approach,
Design and Procedure in order to explain the overall concept of Method, an umbrella term used for
interrelation between theory and practice:

1
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
 METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

METHOD

APPROACH DESIGN PROCEDURE

 Approach refers to beliefs  Design specifies how theories of  Procedure is related to the
and theories about language, language and learning are implemented techniques, practices and
language learning and in a syllabus model and teaching and behaviors employed in the
teaching that underlie a learning activities and materials in the classroom in line with a
method classroom particular method,
 an account of the  Syllabus model-criteria for the choice therefore, an approach.
psycholinguistic and and organization of content  Resources with respect
cognitive processes (linguistic and/or subject-matter) to time, space, and
involved in language  Types of learning & teaching equipments that
learning activities-kinds of tasks and activities teachers utilize
 an account of the conditions  Learner roles-degree of control  Interactional patters
that lead to successful use of learners has over the content, how  Strategies employed by
these processes learners are viewed- as processor, teachers and learners
performer, initiator, imitator, while the method is
problem solver etc. being used
 Teacher roles-types of functions
teachers fulfill, degree of teacher
influence on learning, interaction
types between teachers and learners
 The role of instructional materials-
what are the primary functions of
materials, material types (e.g.,
course-books, audiovisual, audio,
etc.)

Methodology, on the other hand, refers to the pedagogical practices and considerations in general that
are involved in ‘how to teach’.
APPROACH
An approach can adopt one of the following 3 theories of language:
(1) Structural view: language is a structurally related elements: grammatical, phonological and lexical
units
(2) Functional view: language is a vehicle for the expressions of functional meaning
(3) Interactional view: language is a vehicle for establishing and maintaining interpersonal
relationship with people

2
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

II. MAJOR TRENDS IN 20th CENTURY LANGUAGE TEACHING

1. The Grammar Translation Method

*The purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written in the target
language and to develop students' minds "mentally" through foreign language learning. It is also
called as classical or traditional method as it was first used to teach classical languages like Latin
and Greek.

1.1. Principles of the GTM

 Classes are taught in the first language, with very little active use of the target language.

 The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.

 Written language is superior to spoken language, and L2 culture was literature and fine arts.
Therefore, reading and writing are the major skills to be developed.

 Detailed analysis of the grammar rules to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax
of the foreign language.

 Students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the target language

 Vocabulary selection is based on the reading texts used, and words are taught in the form of lists
of isolated words through bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorization.
 Accuracy is emphasized.
 Grammar is taught deductively* in an organized and systematic way. Students are taught to
translate from one language to another.
 Getting the correct answer from the students is considered very important.
 Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical
analysis.
 Teachers are the authority in the classroom while students are passive receiver of instruction.

* Deductive teaching of grammar— is an approach to language learning in which learners are taught
rules and given specific information about a language explicitly. They then apply these rules when they
use the language. For example, in the grammar translation method, specific grammar rules are given to
learners and then practice follows to familiarize students with the rule. The features of it are time-saving
and suitable for adult learners but it is not appropriate for young learners since they aren't capable of
abstract thinking.

3
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

1.2. Techniques
 Translation of a literary passage.
 Reading comprehension questions (questions and answers in English):
1. To ask for information contained within the reading passage.
2. To make inferences based on the understanding of the text.
3. To relate the passage to students’ own experience.
 Antonyms/synonyms.
 Cognates**
 Deductive application of rules.
 Fill-in-the-blanks.
 Memorization.
 Use words in sentences.
 Composition.

* (True) Cognates are words in two languages that share a similar meaning, spelling, and pronunciation.
Students can benefit from cognate awareness between L1 and L2. However, there are also “false
cognates” (words that look alike but do not have the same meaning in L1 and L2) which lead to
misunderstandings.
Example for false cognate: complex (complex task): complicated
kompleks: in architecture, means a group of buildings; a mental or
emotional problem due to an unpleasant experience in psychology
Example for true cognate: bank, physics, chocolate
1.3. Advantages of GTM
 The easiest and quickest method to explain words, phrases and grammatical structures so it saves
time
 Translation helps learners build up their vocabulary knowledge rapidly
 The method suits for average even below average teachers

1.4. Disadvantages of GTM

 Neglects speaking and listening skills
 An unnatural method: the natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and
writing but in GTM, reading comes first

4
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

**REFORM MOVEMENT
 Language teaching specialists such as Marcel, Prendergast, and Gouin (Gouin Series)had
criticized GMT.
-grammar should be taught inductively
-situations and topics should be used to create context
-students should learn L2 as in the way they learn their L1
 These reform movement led to what have been termed natural methods and ultimately led to the
development of the Direct Method

2. DIRECT METHOD
*The purpose of learning a foreign language is that students learn how to communicate by learning to
think in the target language.
2.1. Approach- Naturalistic Approach
2.2. PRINCIPLES OF DIRECT METHOD
 Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language; the use of L1 is not
involved in the learning process.
 Language is primarily spoken. Therefore, oral communication skills are built up through
conversational activities organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and
students in small, intensive classes.
 Speaking and listening skills are emphasized and taught.
 Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
 Grammar is taught inductively*** (never explicit grammar rule given).
 Concrete vocabulary is taught through objects (realia or pictures) and demonstration; abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally using it in
complete sentences.
 Reading and writing in the target language should be taught from the beginning of language
instruction and it must be developed through practice with speaking.
 Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as possible by knowing how to ask
questions and answer them.
 Self-correction facilitates language learning.
 The syllabus is based on situations or topics.

5
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 Learning another language involves learning how speakers of that language live.
 New teaching points are taught through modeling and practice
 The teacher must be a native speaker or have native-like proficiency in the target language
 Fluency is more emphasized than accuracy (unlike GT)
 The teacher is the primary source of comprehensible input and a model for the target language
while the students are processor of comprehensible input in the target language.

*** Inductive teaching of grammar— is an approach to language teaching in which learners are taught
grammatical or other types of rules implicitly. In other words, the rules are given in context and students
are encouraged to discover or induce rules from the context. Language teaching methods which
emphasize the use of the language rather than presentation of information about the language include the
direct method, the communicative approach and counseling learning.

2.3. TECHNIQUES
 Reading aloud.
 Question and answer exercise.
 Getting students to self-correct.
 Conversation practice.
 Fill-in-the-blank exercise (no explicit grammar rule applied).
 Dictation.
 Map drawing.
 Paragraph writing.
2.4. Advantages of Direct Method
 It follows the natural order for language learning when teaching skills
 Students have the opportunity to interact in L2 communicatively
 Students are exposed to comprehensible input so meaning and function are clear for the students
2.5. Disadvantages of Direct Method
 It is very strict about not including L1 in the class.
 It requires teachers to have native-like proficiency, which is very challenging
 No adequate selection, and ordering of the vocabulary and grammar

6
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

*THE ORAL APPROACH (SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING)

(British linguists Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby)
The theory of learning: Behaviorism
 It depends on the structural view of language. Both oral language and grammar were considered
to be the basis of language and, especially, speaking ability.
PRINCIPLES OF SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING
 A practical command of the four basic skills of a language is aimed by means of grammar.
 Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
 Vocabulary is as an essential component of reading proficiency.
 Oral production and practice for grammatical structures on the basis of situations are
emphasized.
 Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns are aimed to achieve.
 Language learning is habit-formation so mistakes are bad habits which should be prevented.
 Language skills are believed to be learned more successfully when they are introduced orally
first, then in written form.
 The role of the learner is to listen and repeat what the teacher says and to respond to questions
and commands.
 And the teacher serves as a model, setting up situations in which the need for the target structure
is created
TECHNIQUES
 Substitution and repetition exercises
 Demonstrations and body languages
 Using realia, pictures
 Dictation
 Controlled oral-based reading and writing activities

3. AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
NOTE: Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) is the first scientific method since it has roots in both
psychology and linguistics.
-Psychology: Skinner-Behaviorism
-Linguistics: Bloomfield-Structuralism
*The objective of learning a foreign language is that students be able to use the target language
communicatively/to develop communicative competence in learners
3.1. Approach: Theory of language: Structuralism
Theory of language learning: Behaviorism

7
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

3.2. PRINCIPLES OF ALM

 Language forms occur most naturally within a context.
 Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
 Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
 The natural order of skill acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
 Language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation and habits should be
repeated to get fixed in mind.
 Errors are barriers for habit formation and it inhibits learning the language. Thus, it is important
to prevent learners from making errors: they should be immediately corrected by the teacher.
 The habits of students’ native language are thought to interfere with students’ attempt to master
the target language.
 A contrastive analysis between the students’ native language and the target language will reveal
where a teacher should expect the most interference.
 New material is presented in dialog form.
 Particular parts of speech occupy particular slots (gaps) in sentences.
 Positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct habits, so successful responses are
immediately reinforced.
 Students should learn to respond to verbal and non-verbal stimuli.
 Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills and Pattern practice helps students learn to
answer automatically without stopping to think, so that it become habitual
 There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and over-learning.
 Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.
 There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductively.
 Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.

 From the three language learning activities – 1. Mechanical drills, 2. Meaningful exercises, and 3.
Communicative activities – the first one, mechanical drills is practiced.
 The teacher is the model of the target language and the students are imitators

Stimulus = a dialogue, a passage, etc.

Response Behavior = verbal behavior
Positive Reinforcement = 1.approval by teacher/peers,
2. self satisfaction
8
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

3.3. TECHNIQUES
 Dialog memorization.
 Backward build-up (expansion) drill.
 Repetition drill.
 Chain drill.
 Single-slot substitution drill.
 Multiple-slot substitution drill.
 Transformation drill.
 Question-and-answer drill.
 Use of minimal pairs.
 Complete the dialog.
 Grammar game.
3.4. ADVANTAGES OF ALM
 Correct production of grammatical structures and vocabulary.
 Pronunciation skills of the students are developed greatly
3.5. DISADVANTAGES OF ALM
 Correct production of grammatical structures and vocabulary.
 Pronunciation skills of the students are developed greatly

4. SILENT WAY

After the appearance of Audiolingual Method, Behaviorism and Structuralism were attacked by
linguists and psychologists. Instead of Behaviorism Structuralism, and Cognitive Psychology and
Generative Transformational theory (proposed by Chomsky in 1957) came into the picture and
established the basis of the Silent Way.
Cognitive Psychology puts forward that human is creative, so mimicry, memorization, repetition and
parrot learning (Behaviorism) do not lead to real learning. Besides, language is not confined to a limited
number of structures (as opposed to Structuralism) since children, for example, can produce new
sentences that they have never heard before. Learners form hypothesis to discover the rules of L2 so
language learning is not the passive process of stimulus → response → behavior. Learners are actively
involved in discovering L2 rules.

9
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

Chomsky makes a distinction between competence and performance; he defines 'competence' as an

idealized capacity that is located as a psychological or mental property or function to learn the language
and ‘performance’ as the actual use of the language by individuals. In other words, competence is
knowing the language and performance is doing something with the language. The difficulty with this
construct is that it is very difficult to assess competence without assessing performance.

Generative Transformational theory is a model for the description of all languages. It shows the rule
system and knowledge that a native speaker uses in forming grammatical sentences.
This method was developed by Caleb Gattegno in the early 1970. In this method, teachers remain
silent much of the time, in order to enable students to be responsible for their own learning. The
three basic tenets of the approach are that learning is facilitated if the learner discovers rather than
remembers or repeats, that learning is aided by physical objects, and that problem-solving is central
to learning.

4.1. PRINCIPLES OF SILENT WAY

 Teachers using the Silent Way want their students to become highly independent (autonomous)
and experimental learners, so the teacher models once, and the students are then given the
opportunity to work together to try to reproduce what has been modeled.
 Errors are considered to be a natural part of the process and a key learning device, as it is a
sign that students are testing out their hypotheses and arriving at various conclusions about the
language through a trial and error style approach.
 The teacher tries to facilitate activities through which the students discover for themselves the
conceptual rules governing the language, rather than imitating or memorizing. Therefore,
awareness plays such a fundamental function in Silent Way.
 Teaching is subordinate to learning: Subordination of teaching to learning means putting the
learners’ needs at the centre of teaching. Learner-centeredness is an important issue.
 Another key objective was to encourage students to work as a group - to try and solve problems
in the target language together.
 Reading is worked on from the beginning but after speaking
 The teacher goes from familiar to unfamiliar. For example, he starts with L2 sounds which are
similar to L1 sounds.
 Beginners are initially taught the sounds of the new language from color-coded sound charts.
Then, teachers focus on language structures, sometimes using colored, plastic rods to visually
represent parts of words or sentences. As students begin to understand more of the language,
they are taught stories using the rods as cues.

10
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 The teacher speaks very little, only when needed. S/he is a technician or an engineer who
facilitates learning. His/her silence motivates the learners to participate more and be active.
 The teacher is not the model, and s/he doesn’t correct the students’ mistakes but instead s/he
provides feedback regarding where the mistakes are. His/her gestures work; namely, the teacher
leads students toward correct responses by nods or negative head shakes.
 Sequence and timing are more important than in many kinds of language teaching classes, and
the teacher’s sensitivity to and management of them is critical.
 Student’s “self criteria” for correctness are emphasized (Self correction).
 Students’ familiar knowledge (old context) helps them learn the unfamiliar (new context). The
teacher’s interference is very little.
 Meaning is achieved through perceptions (senses), not translation.
 Group cooperation is the norm.

4.2. TECHNIQUES

 Teacher's Silence
 Sound-Color Chart (contains a number of different colored rectangles; each color corresponds to
a sound in the language)
 Peer Correction
 Rods (The colored Cuisenaire rods are used to directly link words and structures with their
meanings in the target language, thereby avoiding translation into the native language)
 Self-correction Gestures
 Word Chart
 Fidel Chart(contains symbols in the target language for all of the vowel and consonant sounds of
the language)
 Structured Feedback

4.3. ADVANTAGES OF SILENT WAY

 Learners acquire «inner criteria» because they create a correctly, adequately working
interlanguage*.
 The self-esteem of the students will be increased when they become autonomous learners and
they are involved actively in the learning process, which will in return enhance learning.
 Cooperation among the students is developed as they are supposed to learn from each other.

11
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

*An interlanguage is a language developed by language learners during the process of learning a new
language before they haven’t mastered. It is a distorted form of the target language that contains errors
caused by inappropriate usage of rules from L1, incorrectly application of the target language's grammar
or pronunciation rules. This is normal during the process of learning a new language as they are in the
process of gaining the proficiency in a new language. Every interlanguage is unique to the person who
speaks it and evolves as he or she continues to learn the target language.

4.4. DISADVANTAGES OF SILENT WAY

 The fact that, for logistical reasons, it is limited to relatively small groups of learners is seen as a
weakness.
 The rigidity of the system may be meaningless because teachers are expected to be silent most
of the time
 Language is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations usually by
rods
 The Silent Way is quite a complex method that requires the teacher to receive extensive training
in the use of the methodology. Students also need to be well trained in the use of the charts and
the rods to participate effectively in the lessons.

5. SUGGESTOPEDIA
Approach: Humanistic Approach
This method was developed by Georgi Lozanov in 1970s)
Objective: To tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in order to accelerate the process by
which they learn to understand and use the target language for communication.
Psychological barriers are the main causes of failure in language learning. These barriers are fear of
bad performance, limited ability to learn, and failure, preventing students to reveal full mental Therefore,
these barriers should be removed. The following factors are considered essential in this method:
 Suggestology: how to harness and redirect mental capacity foe maximum learning. It is based
on Desuggestion and Suggestion (Teacher’s belief in the method and his manner are valued (the
placebo effect).

 Desuggestion: unloading mental reserves of unwanted memories; to remove psychological

barriers that learners place on their own learning potential

12
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 Suggestion: loading the reserves with facilitating memories; to encourage learners assuming
"child-like" and/or new roles and names in the target language. (Infantalization: students take
the role of a child (games, songs, gymnastic exercises ).

 the provision of a relaxed and comfortable learning environment,

 the use of soft relaxing music to help increase alpha brain waves and decrease blood pressure
and heart rate

MAIN STAGES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA

 PRESENTATION: The teacher teaches the material in “a playful manner” instead of analyzing
lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner

 FIRST CONCERT: Teacher does a slow, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in
intonation with classical music while the students are following from the scripts with the L1
equivalents next to each paragraph.

 SECOND CONCERT: Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed
according to the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque music - this typically
ends the class for the day.

 PRACTICE: The use of games, puzzles etc. to review the learning.

 Primary Activation (Students "playfully" reread the target language out loud, as individuals
or in groups. For example; three groups of students read parts of dialog in a particular
manner: the first group, sadly; the next, angrily; the last amorously.)
 Secondary Activation: (Students engage in various activities designed to help the
students learn the material and use it more spontaneously - activities include singing,
dancing, dramatizations and games - "communicative intent" and not "form" being the
focus)

5.1. PRINCIPLES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA

 Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible, featuring soft

cushioned seating and dim lighting.
 The use of classical music creates a “relaxed concentration” which leads to “superlearning
 "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters
and decorations featuring the target language and various grammatical rules.
 The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom.
 Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners' potential to learn are "desuggested".
 L2 learning is fun. And dramatization and fantasy reduce the barriers to learning.
 Students’ imagination and confidence is activated (Suggestion).
 Choosing new names and biographies enhances feeling of security (suggestion).

13
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 Baroque music is played softly in the background to increase mental relaxation and potential to
take in and retain new material during the lesson.
 Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying translation into
the students' native language. Mother tongue and translation are used to transfer meaning.
 Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure. Grammar and vocabulary
are presented and given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on.
 Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying - once before they go to
sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up.
 Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.
 Classroom decoration is considered to be an important factor in learning. s
 Focus is on communication not on the structure of the language.
 Grammar and vocabulary are taught very superficially.
 Novelty increases motivation, so learning activities are varied).

5.2. TECHINQUES

 Classroom Set-up
 Peripheral Learning
 Positive Suggestion
 Visualization
 Choose a New Identity
 Role-play
 first concert (active concert)
 second concert (passive concert)
 primary activation: students reread dialog aloud as individual or in groups (first sadly,next angrily,
last cheerfully)
 creative adaptation: activities to help S learn the new materials and use it (singing, dancing,
dramatization, and games)

5.3. ADVANTAGES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA

 A comprehensible input based on dessugestion and suggestion principle is provided so that

students can lower their affective filter.
 Authority concept: Students remember best and are most influenced by information coming
from an authoritative source, teachers.

14
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 Double-planedness theory: It refers to the learning from two aspects. They are the conscious
aspect and the subconscious one. Students can acquire the aim of teaching instruction from both
direct instruction and environment in which the teaching takes place.
 Peripheral learning: Peripheral information can help encourage students to be more
experimental, and look to sources other than the teacher for language input.

5.4. DISADVANTAGES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA

 Its practical implementation is difficult (small groups, comfortable armchairs)

 The use of hypnosis: Some people claim that suggestopedia uses a hypnosis, so it has bad
deep effects for human beings, but it was strongly denied by LOzanov.
 Infantilization learning: Suggestopedia class is conditioned be child-like situation. There are some
students who do not like to be treated like this as they think that are mature.
 It ignores mechanical activities in internalizing the grammar rules or the vocabulary items

6.TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

 TPR is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to
teach language through physical (motor) activity. Developed by James Asher, it draws on several
traditions, including developmental psychology, learning theory, and humanistic pedagogy.
Objectives: using physical movement to react to verbal input in order to reduce student inhibitions and
lower their affective filter.
A natural way to accomplish this was to recreate the natural way children learn their native language,
most notably through facilitating an appropriate "listening" and "comprehension" period, and encourage
learners to respond using right-brain motor skills rather than left-brain language "processing".
TPR is an example of “Comprehension Approach. The importance is given to Listening
Comprehension. The idea of Comprehension Approach comes from child language acquisition.
Speaking is a natural product of listening communication through pictures and words, but L1 is also
used.
TPR is humanistic in saying that game-like movements reduce stress. And it is basically structuralist
because it makes use of imperative verbs at the center.

6.1. PRINCIPLES OF TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

 The teacher directs and students "act" in response - "The instructor is the director of a stage play
in which the students are the actors" (Asher, 1977:43).
 Listening and physical response skills are emphasized over oral production.

15
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 The imperative mood is the most common language function employed, even well into advanced
levels. Interrogatives are also heavily used.
 Whenever possible, humor is injected into the lessons to make them more enjoyable for learners.
 Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the left- and right-brain hemispheres. (
motor activities are right brain centered (following Piaget).
 Stress (an affective filter) intervenes between the act of learning and what is to be learned; the
lower the stress, the greater the learning.
 Students are not required to speak until they feel naturally ready or confident enough to do so.
 Grammar and vocabulary are emphasized over other language areas. Spoken language is
emphasized over written language.
 Language chunks are practiced rather than single items.
 Innate bio program: listening before speaking (Natural Approach) and synchronized with body.
 Students master L2 through right hemisphere motor activities while the left one (language
center!) is watching and learning.
 The teacher is tolerant of the errors. Delicate points and details are put off for later and higher
levels.

6.2. TECHNIQUES

 Using Commands to Direct Behavior

 Role Reversal
 Action Sequence

6.3. ADVANTAGES OF TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

 It is easy to implement through the use of imperatives and no translation is required.

 TPR requires an instant reaction. As there is no time to think during TPR practice, students can
break the bad habit of over-analyzing language and become more comfortable with “going with
the flow”, or guessing from context.
 TPR does not require a spoken response from students. Also, if implemented properly, students
always understand what is happening during TPR practice, resulting in increased confidence and
a lowering of the affective filter.
 TPR results in long-term retention of language items, and the constant repetition and recycling
involved reinforces this leading to a “magic” learning experience.

16
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

6.4. DISADVANTAGES OF TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

 It is only really suitable for beginner levels.
 It is not a very creative method. Students are not given the opportunity to express their own views
and thoughts in a creative way.
 You can't teach everything with it and if used a lot it would become repetitive. For example,
teachers will have trouble teaching abstract vocabulary or expressions.

7. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

Objective: To learn how to use the target language communicatively in a nondefensive manner
 CLL is the name of the method developed by Charles A. Curran in 1970s. Learning represents the
use of Counseling-Learning theory. (Counseling- Learning), stressing the role of the affective domain in
promoting cognitive learning. It is sometimes cited as an example of a humanistic approach and derives
its primary insights from counseling. CLL involves humanistic techniques which engage the whole
person, including the emotions and feelings as well as linguistic knowledge and behavioral skills.

Influenced by Carl Roger’s humanistic psychology, Curran found that adults often feel threatened by a
new learning situation or fear that they will appear foolish. A way to deal with the fears of students is for
teachers to become language counselors, skillful understanders of the struggle students face as they
attempt to master another language.

7.1. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

 Learning is persons: human individuals need to be understood and aided in the process of
fulfilling personal values and goals; this is best done in community with others striving to attain
the same goals; learning in a relationship of trust, support, and cooperation between teacher and
students and among students

 Students are to be considered as "learner-clients" and the teacher as a "teacher-counselor".

 A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential to the learning process.
 Learning is dynamic and creative: learning is a living and developmental process
 Building a relationship with and among students is important as well as lessening their fears to a
new learning situation. Six elements necessary for nondefensive learning are security,
aggression, attention, reflection, retention and discrimination:
 security—non-threatening learning environment
 aggression—showing what has been learnt for self-assertion ( like children try to prove the
things they have learnt)

17
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 attention—the learners’ involvement in learning

 reflection—when Ss reflect on the language as the teacher reads the transcript three times;
when Ss are invited to stop and consider the active experience they have
 retention—the integration of the new material that takes place within the whole self
 discrimination—sorting out differences among target language forms by listening the teacher
and themselves

 Students are permitted to use their native language, and are provided with translations from the
teacher which they then attempt to apply.
 Students sit in a circle with a tape recorder: a dependent community to cooperate with each other
rather than compete with each other.
 Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.
 "Chunks" of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listened to - they
are also transcribed with native language equivalents to become texts the students work with.
 Students are encouraged to express not only how they feel about the language, but how they feel
about the learning process, to which the teacher expresses empathy and understanding.
 A variety of activities can be included (for example, focusing on a particular grammar or
pronunciation point, or creating new sentences based on the recordings/transcripts).
 In the early stages, typically the students generate the material since they decide what they want
to be able to say in the target language.
 Later on, after students feel more secure, the teacher might prepare specific materials or work
with published textbooks.
 Particular grammar points, pronunciation patterns, and vocabulary are worked with, based on the
language the students have generated.
 The most important skills are understanding and speaking the language at the beginning, with
reinforcement through reading and writing.
 Teachers repeat correct version of what students have said incorrectly without calling further
attention to the error.
 Students are completely dependent on the teachers at first. Students express only to the teacher
and in L1 what he wishes to say to the group. Then the teacher reflects these ideas back to the
client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five
or six words. The client turns to the group and presents his idea in foreign language. He has
the counselor’s aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase.

Typical CLL classroom: a conversation in L1-> translation in chunks recording of the

conversation a transcript with L1 equivalents activities based on the conversation

18
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
 METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

There are five stages which Community Language Learning methodologists have identified for
the movement from dependency to mutual interdependency:
In Stages I, II, and III, the teacher focuses not only on the language but also on being supportive
of learners in their learning process. In Stage IV, because of the students’ greater security in the
language and readiness to benefit from corrections, the teacher can focus more on accuracy. It
should be noted that accuracy is always a focus even in the first three stages; however, it is
subordinated to fluency. In Stage V, The teacher intervenes not only to offer correction but to
add idioms and more elegant constructions.

7.1. TECHNIQUES

 Tape Recording Student Conversation

 Transcription
 Reflection on Experience
 Reflective Listening
 Human Computer
 Small Group Tasks

7.2. ADVANTAGES OF COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

 It create a supportive community in order to lower student anxiety

 It helps them overcome threatening affective factors, such as making errors or competing with
peers.

7.3. DISADVANTAGES OF COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

 The procedure doesn’t ensure that a variety of contexts necessary for coping in the target culture
is included since the content is determined by the participants.
 Students may feel uncomfortable with the apparent lack of structure or sequence in the
introduction of grammatical and lexical items; that is too much reliance on an inductive strategy of
learning. Besides, there is no syllabus for CLL, a posteriori approach to syllabus specification is
adopted.
 The success of CLL depended largely on the translation expertise of the teacher.

8. WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH

 The Whole Language movement is not a teaching method but an approach to learning that sees
language as a whole entity. Language is taught holistically (as a whole) not in pieces like grammar and
vocabulary (it comes from Gestalt psychology where the whole is emphasized rather than the pieces and
segments).It emphasizes that students must learn how to read and write in a natural way, the same way
they learn their native language.

19
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
 METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

Objective: To learn applying the language in a real, social context that are relevant to students.
Language theory: Language is seen through an interactional perspective, i.e., it is considered a vehicle
for establishing personal relations. It is also based on humanistic and constructivist theories. Constructivist
learning theory holds that knowledge is socially constructed, rather than received and discovered, so
constructivist learners create meaning and learn by doing.
Learning theory: There is an emphasis on learning authenticity, because, only applying what has been
learned in a real situation, the subject or topic will be internalized. Learning in “Whole Language” must be
authentic, personalized, student-directed and collaborative.

8.1. PRINCIPLES OF WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH

 Language is a vehicle for human communication in which there is a relationship between readers
and writers.
 Authentic literature and materials are used instead of artificial, texts and exercises prepared for
educational purposes.
 It focuses on real-life events and situations which are relevant to the students, rather than specially
written stories that do not relate to students' life.

 It emphasizes the importance of meaning and creating making in teaching and learning.
 Reading is done for the sake of comprehension and for real purposes
 Writing is done for real audiences not simply to practice writing skills.
 All language skills and areas are taught integratively.
 Learner-centre learning and teaching is emphasized, because students have choice over what they
read and write and their needs are taken into consideration.
 Choice is fundamental in this approach, so learners select learning materials, activities and partners
to work with.
 Errors are accepted as signs of learning rather than failure.
 The teacher is seen as a facilitator and an active participant in the learning community rather than
an expert transmitting the knowledge.
 Learners are collaborators and also evaluators of their own and others’ learning, with the help of the
teacher.
 Students are encouraged to work cooperatively with each other.

8.2. TECHNIQUES USED IN WHOLE APPROACH

 Individual and small group reading and writing

 Reading authentic texts (e.g., literature pieces, newspapers, signs, handbills, storybooks etc.,
brought to class by the students)
 Writing to a real audience
 Ungraded dialogue journals

20
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
 METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 Writing portfolios
 Writing conferences
 Student-made books
 Story writing

8.3. ADVANTAGES OF WHOLE APPROACH

 It focuses on experiences and activities that are relevant to learners’ lives and needs through the
use of authentic materials.
 Whole language learning is thought to provide a better understanding of the text, and a more
interesting and creative approach to reading and writing.
 It can be used to facilitate the development of all aspects of a second language.

8.4. DISADVANTAGES OF WHOLE APPROACH

 Whole Language principles are considered as anti-direct teaching, anti-skills, and anti-materials,
assuming that authentic texts are sufficient to support language learning that skill development
will follow without special attention.
 Since students are not specifically taught pronunciation, they don't learn how to sound unknown
words.

9. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
 Multiple Intelligence theory is based on Howard Gardner work. It characterizes human intelligence as
being multidimensional which must be developed in education. Criticizing the traditional understanding of
intelligence, which is a single, unchanged and inborn capacity, Gardner explains that traditional IQ tests
only measure logic and language, but the brain has other equally important intelligence types.

It is assumed that everyone has all these abilities but at different levels. Each activity may be built up by
using one or more of these intelligences and teachers should be aware of them.

 MI theory provides eight different potential pathways to teaching and learning, proposing 8 different
intelligence types (See Table 1 below).

21
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

Table 1: Eight Intelligence Types, Typical tasks & classroom materials for each
intelligence
Intelligence Brief Definition Language Learning Activities
Type

1. Verbal / Refers to the effective use of spoken Lectures, small & large group
Linguistic language or written language ability. discussions, writing, reading, research,
intelligence These students tend to be good in speaking reciting and word games,
grammar, phonology, language, creating class newspapers etc.
combined with practical learning and the
ability to use them smoothly. Story-telling, journal keeping, memorizing

2. Logical / Refers to the efficient use of numbers Scientific demonstrations, logic problems
Mathematical and reasoning ability. These students are and puzzles, creating codes, story
intelligence good in logic and relationships, problems, Problem Solving, computing,
statements and advocates, functions and calculating, graphing, comparing and
other related abstractions sensitivity. This classifying.
type of children rely on reasoning or
exploring when learning.
3. Visual / Refers to the precise sense of visual Charts, maps, diagrams
Spatial space, and to the perceived
intelligence demonstrated ability. These students are Videos, slides, and movies
good with color, line, shape, form, space painting, drawing, illustrating, visualizing
and they are sensitive of the relationship
between them, they also have the ability imaginative storytelling
to quickly find the direction.
4. Bodily / They are good at using the whole body to hands-on activities, drama, dance, role-
Kinesthetic express thoughts and feelings. These play and performing, mime, field trips
intelligence students learn through bodily sensations.
5. Musical / Refers to the detection, identification, composing, singing, and making up song
Rhythmic change and the ability to express music. lyrics, improvising and writing jingles.
intelligence This smart includes rhythm, pitch,
melody or sound sensitivity.
6. Inter-personal They are aware of and able to negotiation, group work, team activity,
intelligence differentiate between other people's debating, sharing and role-play, conflict
emotions, intentions, motivation and mediation
sensory capabilities. They feel very
comfortable in a crowd, are usually
groups leaders.
7. Intra-personal Refers to self-knowledge, and make the Reflective learning, individual project,
intelligence) appropriate capacity to act accordingly. goal-setting, writing journals, inventories
These students normally are aware of and checklists and self-paced activities
their inner emotions, intentions,
motivations, desire, strengths and
weaknesses
8. Naturalist They are good at observing nature, observation, comparing, classifying,
intelligence

22
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
 METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

identify the capacity of natural discovering and hands on experience.

phenomena, but also able to inter-relate
and to judge.

9.1. PRINCIPLES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

 Learners are viewed having individual learning styles, preferences or intelligences; therefore,
teachers need to be aware of these differences, and accommodate their ways of teaching to their
students' learning styles and intelligence types.
 A multi-sensory view of language is necessary to construct a sufficient theory of language and
effective design for language learning.
 There are no goals stated for MI in linguistic terms, but it aims at making students better designer
of their own learning experiences.
 Variety is the spice: Teachers need to provide rich mixture of learning activities that appeal to 8
different intelligences so that teaching can be occur in an interesting, lively, and effective
classroom.
 Every learner is unique, they have an active part in the classroom and they are aware of their
learning styles, intelligence types, aims and achievements
 Pick a tool suited for the job. Language has many different dimensions, aspects or functions.
These different facets should always be linked to the most appropriate intelligence.
 One size fits all. Everyone has to participate in all the exercises to make sure that they use all
types of Intelligences.

9.2. ADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE INTELLOGENCE THEORY

 Each student is seen as an individual with his or her own strengths and weaknesses.
 The teacher learns how each student may learn best and may give suitable tasks to teach the
content demanded by the curriculum.
 Students may be motivated and confident when using an intelligence they know is one of their
strengths.
 Thanks to many different tasks, the students are more intrinsically motivated.

9.2. DISADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE INTELLOGENCE THEORY

 It might be difficult and impractical to prepare lessons for students with various individual
intelligences, especially within large classes.

23
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

PART III: CURRENT COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES

12. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

Approach: Communicative Approach and Functional Approach

Objective: to enable students to communicate in the target language appropriately within a specific
social context (communicative competence).

 Communication includes functions. Functions are what we do with the language: arguing,
persuading, promising, rejection or accepting an invitation (these are also called as speech acts). All
these functions occur inside a social context.

The linguistic theory behind Communicative Approach is Dell Hymes’ communicative

competence (1972). He believed that Chomsky’s ‘linguistic competence’ was too limited because
linguistic competence doesn't justify social and functional rules of the language.

12.1. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

 The primary function of language is for interaction (pairs, trios, small groups, and whole group)
and communication. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.
 Whenever possible, authentic language should be introduced.
 Being able to figure out the speaker’s or writer’s intentions is part of being communicatively
competent.
 Learning to use language forms appropriately is an important part of communicative competence.
24
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, nor just the object of study.
 One function can have many different linguistic forms. The focus of the course is on real
language use, so a variety of linguistic forms are presented together.
 The emphasis is on the process of communication rather than just mastery of language forms.
 Students should work with language at the discourse level. They must learn about cohesion and
coherence.
 Students use the language through communicative activities such as games, role-plays, and
problem solving-tasks. Truly communicative activities have three features in common: information
gap, choice and feedback.
 True communication is purposeful – a speaker can thus evaluate whether or not his purpose has
been achieved based up the information he receives from his listener
 Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills.
 The students’ errors may not be corrected when an activity is working on fluency, but teacher
takes notes of the errors to return to them at a later point
 Communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among students. It gives
students the opportunity to work on negotiating meaning. The social context of the
communicative event is essential in giving meaning to the utterances.
 The grammar and the vocabulary that the students learn follow from the function, situational
context, and the roles of the interlocutors.
 Learners need knowledge of forms, meanings and functions.
 Fluency and accuracy are emphasized.
 Students work on the four skills from the beginning.
 The students learn about cohesion and coherence in real communication, not in an explicit way
(by scrambling and unscrambling the text).
 L1 has almost no role. Communication happens in L2 context.
 Teachers provide situations to promote communication among students and they are facilitators
for establishing communicative activities, needs analyst and group process manager.
 Students are Communicator, Cooperative, Collaborating and Active participant of their own
learning

12.2 TECHNIQUES USED IN COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

 Authentic materials
 scrambled sentences
 language games
 picture strip story
 role play and dramas
 games

12.3 ADVANTAGES OF COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

 Students can use the language to interact in the target language.

 Students have the opportunity to develop all four language skills.
 Form-meaning-function relationship is established so that students learn how to express one
thing in different grammatical structures.

12.4. DISADVANTAGES OF COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

 It isn't very applicable in crowded class.
 This method increases the workload on the teacher.

25
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 The CLT approach is appropriate for Intermediate and Advanced learners, but for Beginners
some controlled practice is needed.
 Since it focuses more on the communicative intent during the activities, it is very likely that
students’ accuracy is underdeveloped.

13. CONTENT-BASED, TASK BASED & PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES

 Three approaches put communication at the centre, they do not focus on form.
 They give more importance to process of learning over linguistic content.

CONTENT-BASED TASK BASED PARTICIPATORY

 Here instead of ‘learning to  Task based approach also (Paula Freire)
use English’ we try to ‘use uses natural context. ‘Do to
English to learn- ESP Learn’ is the basic concept.  It begins with meaningful
 It integrates language and content and form emerges
content.  You learn better while you from content.
 the selection and sequence perform and interact with
of language items arise from
communicative needs, not
other students.  The content is not about
predetermined syllabi subject matter, but about
 ‘problem solving' is the key
 The subject matter (content) issues of interest with
is the platform for language concept and focus is on which Ss engage (such as
learning. Language learning meaning. unemployment, low
is not happening in general income, addiction).
English text and discourse  The tasks in the class are
 Relevance of language to clear, purposeful and  Education is not value free
the students’ academic challenging. (it is value loaded where
needs motivates them
feelings are involved)
 vocabulary is easier to  The teacher uses normal
acquire as there are language with normal  The class activity is tuned
contextual clues to help
speed and helps Ss find to outside world events, so
convey meaning.
correct answers. Ss see themselves as
 immersion programs can be
given examples for the active participants in the
application of this type of  Language is used to social life.
learning. perform a task, not just for
linguistic development.  The syllabus is not
predetermined or a priori. It
PRINCIPLES  Authentic activity through is a posteriori, determined
authentic language use is through discussion.
& encouraged.
 Learning best occurs when
 Students receive feedback it is experienced-centered
CHARACTERISTICS
for what they did. and when Ss involve
personally.

 Note-taking  Three types of tasks  Letter writing

 Reading academic textbooks (Probhu)  discussions
 writing term papers  student produced
1. Information gap activity: publication,
exchanging information to  autobiographies,
perform a task (students  making a change in their

26
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

exchange information about education/curriculum

their weekly schedules)

2. Opinion gap activity:

TECHNIQUES students give their feelings to
perform (finding solutions for
unemployment)

3. Reasoning gap activity:

students derive new
information from the data
they were given (finding The
best way to a city by looking
at and discussing a map)

 publishing a school
newspaper

14. COOPERATIVE/COLLABRATIVE LEARNING

 Cooperative learning occurs whenever students interact in pairs or groups to share knowledge and
experiences, to accomplish a common goal and create a meaningful project. It requires five defining
elements:

(1)positive interdependence: all members must cooperate to complete the task, Each group
member has a unique contribution to make to the joint effort because of his or her resources
and/or role and task responsibilities.
(2) individual and group accountability: Each member is accountable for the complete final
outcome and they have to contribute and learn. Each student is given an individual test. Each
group is observed to record the frequency with which each member-contributes to the group's
work.
(3)interpersonal skills (Interdependence and small group skills): Social skills,
communication, trust-building, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution/management
skills) must be taught to students.
(4) face-to-face promotive interaction: Members orally explain how to solve problems, teach
what they know to each other, so that they promote their learning.
(5) group processing: Group members reflect on how well the team is functioning and how to
function even better. They describe what member actions are helpful and not helpful and they
make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change.

14. 1. PRINCIPLES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

 Students work together in small groups on a structured activity. They are individually accountable for
their work, and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed.
 Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping
teammates learn.
 Each student helps the other to learn vocabulary items. Cooperation instead of competition and
individualistic learning.
 Groups are fixed for some time and include people of different ethnic, religious, social background
and mixed gender.

27
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 By working in groups they take different roles and learn to cooperate in different circumstances.
 Self evaluation and assessment and judgment about others’ work is urged.
 Social skills-asking for apology, repetition, help, taking turns, reaching a consensus, encouraging
and cooperating ...- are taught.
 They take the test individually to learn to accept the outcome of cooperative effort.

14. 2. TECHNIQUES USED IN PRINCIPLES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

 Peer tutoring,
 Conversation cards
 Think-pair-share
 Role-plays
 Jigsaw,
 Open-ended free conversations
 Information-gap activities,
 Problem solving,
 Storytelling,
 Structured Academic Controversy
 Cooperative projects,
 Paired interviews,
 Sharing opinions, debating, narrating, describing, predicting and explaining

15. NATURAL APPROACH

 Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell published The Natural Approach in 1983, which set forth both the
theory and application of the Natural Approach to language teaching.

 The Natural Approach is supported by Krashen’s famous Monitor Model of Language Acquisition, a
set of five hypotheses:

The Acquisition vs. Learning Hypothesis distinguishes the subconscious process of first-language
acquisition in children from the conscious process language learning in adults.

The Natural Order Hypothesis states certain grammatical structures are acquired before others in
first language acquisition and there is a similar natural order in SLA.

• -ing -> Aux ->Irregular ->Regular Past

• Plural -> article -> past - 3rd Sing.

The Monitor Hypothesis maintains that acquisition, not learning, is responsible for fluency. Learning—
for example, knowledge of grammar and other linguistic structures—functions as a monitor, or editor
during and after the acquisition process.

The Input Hypothesis asserts that language is acquired when students receive comprehensible input
that is a slightly beyond their level of competence (i + 1).

The Affective Filter Hypothesis claims that one cannot acquire a language unless one feels confident,
relaxed, and diverted.

28
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

15. 1. PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL APPROACH

 The purpose of language is to communicate meanings and messages which can be achieved
simply by learning the lexicon of the target language.
 “Silent period” should be honored until students begin to speak naturally; that is, when speech in
the target language emerges of its own accord.
 The students are exposed to comprehensible input that is slightly above their current proficiency
(i+ 1)
 Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does
not require tedious drill.
 Acquisition requires meaningful interactions in the target language – natural communication - in
which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they
are conveying and understanding.
 The typical Natural Approach classroom is teacher-centered. Textbooks are not used and it is the
teacher’s responsibility to make the classroom experience enjoyable and unchallenging.
 Students are not expected to be responsible for their own learning. Their role is to absorb the
input provided by teachers.
 The order of business is to give students a steady flow of comprehensible input and just enough
extra information to help them acquire, rather than consciously learn, the target language.
 In the Natural Approach classroom, the teacher plays the role of actor and prop person and
students play the role of “guessers and immersers”

15. 2. TECHNIQUES USED IN PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL APPROACH

 Questions-answers
 Charts, pictures, advertisements and other realia
 Meaningful communication activities
 Whole-class discussions
 Using inputs like pictures, objects
 Mime
 Body language
 Audiovisual aids

15. 3. ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL APPROACH

1. Students acquire the target language in a natural and easy way.

2. Teaching materials are designed very well. Students can acquire language from easy to difficult, from
simple to complex, and from concrete to abstract.

15. 4. DISADVANTAGES OF NATURAL APPROACH

1. Students may use the target language fluently, but they may not use it accurately because the method
rarely concerns about correctness
2. Teachers should collect various teaching aids and use them appropriately.
3. It requires a lot of time and energy on the part of the teacher.

29
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

16. LEXICAL APPROACH

(Michael Lewis)

This approach concentrates on developing learners’ proficiency with lexis, or words and word
combinations and it reflects a belief in the centrality of the lexis to - language structures - language use -
multiword lexical units or “chunks/'lexical phrases', 'formulaic language', 'frozen and semi-frozen phrases'
or collocations'”

'Lexical chunk' is an umbrella term which includes all the other terms. We define a lexical chunk as
any pair or group of words which is commonly found together, or in close proximity.

'Collocation' is also included in the term 'lexical chunk', but we refer to it separately from time to time,
so we define it as a pair of lexical content words commonly found together. Following this definition,

Examples:

Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations) by the way

up to now
upside down
If I were you
a long way off
out of my mind

Lexical Chunks (that are collocations)

totally convinced
strong accent
terrible accident
sense of humour
sounds exciting
brings good luck

16. 1. PRICNIPLES OF LEXICAL APPROACH

 Grammaticalised lexis: "Language is grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar" (Lewis

1993). In other words, lexis is central in creating meaning, grammar plays a subservient
managerial role. Therefore, we should spend more time helping learners develop their stock of
phrases, and less time on grammatical structures.
 native speakers carry a pool of hundreds of thousands, and possibly millions, of lexical chunks in
their heads ready to draw upon in order to produce fluent, accurate and meaningful language.
 It is much more efficient for the brain to recall a chunk of language as if it were one piece of
information
 Language is not learnt by learning individual sounds and structures and then combining them, but
by an increasing ability to break down wholes into parts.
 Grammar is acquired by a process of observation, hypothesis and experiment.
 We can use whole phrases without understanding their constituent parts.
 Acquisition is accelerated by contact with a sympathetic interlocutor with a higher level of
competence in the target language.
 The noticing is guided by the teacher i.e. the teacher directs the students' attention to lexical
features thought to be useful

30
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 The noticing is 'self-directed', i.e. the students themselves select features they think will be useful
for them.
 Sometimes the noticing is explicit, e.g. when items in a text are highlighted;
 It can also be implicit e.g. when the teacher reformulates a student's text ( how reconstruction
and reformulation can enhance noticing and practical suggestions for reformulating).
 Language Awareness: Learning materials and teachers can best help learners achieve noticing
of lexical chunks by combining a Language Awareness approach to learning.
 'Paying deliberate attention to features of language in use can help learners to notice the gap
between their own performance in the target language and the performance of proficient users of
the language.
 The first procedures are usually experiential rather than analytical and to engage students with
the text. [That is, learners read a text, and respond with their own views and opinions before
studying the language in the text or answering comprehension type questions.]
 Learners are later encouraged to focus on a particular feature of the text, identify instances of the
feature, make discoveries.

13. 2. TECHNIQUES USED IN LEXICAL APPROACH

 Individual collocations
 Keeping a lexical notebook
 Exercises focusing explicitly on lexical phrases
 Teaching conversational gambit (phrases used to start a conversation: hey!, guess what, I tell
you what etc.)
 print-out version of computer corpora in text format
 computer concordance program
 Listening and Reading intensively and extensively.
 Repetition and recycling of activities.
 Guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context.
 Noticing and recording language patterns and collocations.
 Working with dictionaries and other reference tools.

e.g. for a question used in an activity:

Underline the word which does not collocate with 'theme':
main theme / large theme / important theme / central theme / major theme

16. 3. ADVANTAGES OF LEXICAL APPROACH

 Students can build up their vocabulary knowledge greatly, and use contextually appropriate
words thanks to learning collocations and formulaic chunks
 Teachers spend less time explaining English language grammar, more time exposing Ss to
useful language and doing awareness arising activities.

16. 4. DISADVANTAGES OF LEXICAL APPROACH

 It only refer to only one component of communicative competence.

 It lacks the full characterization of an approach or method.

31
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
 METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

17. NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING (NLP)

 As an alternative form of therapy, NLP was developed in 1970's by John Grindler and Richard
Bandler who examined successful people’s thought patterns and beliefs.

 NLP is interested in how people affect each other and how the successful people's behaviors can be
duplicated. The components of NLP are explained as in the followings (Revell and Norman 1997: 14).

Neuro part of NLP is based on the idea that we experience the world through our senses and
represent it in our minds via our neurological processes.
Linguistic part of NLP refers to the way we use language to make sense of the world,
conceptualize and experience. In NLP, linguistics is the study of how the words you speak influence
your and other's experiences.
Programming part of NLP is related to training ourselves to think, speak and act positively with the
aim of releasing our potential and reaching our aims.

It aims to educate people in self-awareness and effective communication, and to change their thought
patterns and emotional behaviors in order to fulfill their aims.

By means of relaxation techniques such as breathing exercises or guided imagery activities, learners
become emotionally calm and mentally alert. It strongly suggests that our behaviors undergo changes in
accordance with our thoughts and emotions. Therefore, NLP trains learners to reduce their negative
behaviors and anxiety and transform them into positive ones.

17. 1. FOUR KEY PRINCIPLES OF NLP

1. Outcomes: knowing 2. Rapport: minimizing 3. Sensory acuity: 4. Flexibility: trying

what you want helps the differences and noticing what other to manage things in
you to achieve. maximizing the people are different ways and
Namely, setting a similarities between expressing verbally having a wide range
target initiates the people in order to and non-verbally by of skills to fulfill your
process of success. establish rapport not using our senses. aims
only with yourself but
also with others.

People perceive, process and store information in different ways through their own senses, which is
called as representational systems (VAKOG system):
• Visual means to look and see
• Auditory, that we hear and listen
• Kinesthetic, that we feel, which includes touch, movement and emotion;
• Olfactory, that we rely on our sense of smell; and
• Gustatory, that we rely on our sense of taste

Thirteen presuppositions of NLP are listed to guide language teachers and educators:

1. Mind and the body are interconnected: they are parts of the same system, and each
affects the other
2. The map is not the territory: we all have different maps of the world
3. There is no failure, only feedback…and a renewed opportunity for success
4. The map becomes the territory: what you believe to be true either is true or becomes
true

32
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

5. Knowing what you want helps you to get it

6. The resources we need are within us
7. Communication is non-verbal as well as verbal
8. The non-conscious mind is benevolent
9. Communication is non-conscious as well as conscious
10. All behavior has a positive intention
11. The meaning of my communication is the response I get
12. Modeling excellent behavior leads to excellence
13. In any system, the element with the greatest flexibility will have the most influence on
that system (Revell & Norman 1997: 15).

Modeling is central to NLP practice. If the teachers want to be successful, the teachers are expected
to model other teachers they admire and find successful. Likewise, if the students want to speak like
native speakers, they are advised to model native speakers.

Example for rapport building/applying to the following statement from students in the class:
E.g.,1. S: I hate this staff. It's such a waste of time
T: Is a part of you saying that you want to make sure your time is well spent today?
E.g.,2. S: I can't do it.
T: What specifically, can't you do?

A suggested lesson sequence to teach perfect tense in English:

 Lesson starts off with a guided fantasy of eating a food item and then reflect on the experience.
 Students are told they are setting off for an 'inner grammatical experience as they eat a biscuit'.
 They are asked to close their eyes and relax and listen to the teacher-produced fantasy (making
use of the five senses).
 Later, students are encouraged to share how they are feeling.
 They are also asked to compare and contrast the feeling f preset perfect with the feeling of past
simple.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING (CALL)

 It is an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer-based sources are utilized as a
tool to the present, reinforce and assess the materials to be learned. Its aim is to supplement face-to-
face language education with internet, computer, and software programs.

On the basis of the historical development of computer technology and changes in perspectives and
beliefs in language teaching, CALL is categorized into three main phases—(1) behavioristic CALL, (2)
communicative CALL, and (3) integrative CALL.

1. Behavioristic CALL 2. Communicative CALL 3. Integrative CALL

-Due to the technological
-It was based on the -With the emergence of advancements such as multimedia
behaviorist theories of communicative language and Internet, learners are enabled
learning. teaching, use of the target to access a more authentic
language in real situations was learning environment.
-It included drill and practice. the focus of the Software
programs designed. - Multimedia provides the chance
-The computer was used as a to integrate four skills, and the
tutor for vocabulary drills, - The computer was used as a Internet enables learners to
grammar explanations and tool. interact in an English language
drills, and translation tests environment whenever they want.
33
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

 Integrative CALL coincides with the development of multimedia technology, which supplies us
with text, graphics, sound and animation along with the computer-mediated communication. There
was a definitive shift of use of computer for drill and tutorial aims to a medium for extending
education beyond the classroom.

 Computer-mediated communication (CMC) refers to the type of interaction used by the learners to
communicate one-on-one or one to many as well as share audio and video file. It is divided into
two: asynchronous (such as email and forums) and synchronous (such as text and voice chat).

PRINCIPLES OF CALL

 CALL is focused not on technology but on language learning, but the technology only facilitates
the language learning process.
 Educators need to avoid putting technology ahead of learning in their classrooms.
 Learners have opportunities to interact socially and negotiate meaning.
 Learners interact in the target language with an authentic audience and work on authentic tasks.
 Learners are exposed to and encouraged to produce varied and creative language.
 Learners work in an atmosphere with an ideal stress/anxiety level.
 Learner autonomy is supported and developed.
 Optimal use of learning time is possible as the learners have the flexibility of using computer to
choose the appropriate time for themselves.

ECLECTIC APPROACH/ECLECTISM
 The teacher makes decisions as to which aspects of the methods or approaches to make use of
depending on the purpose of the lesson and the learners. In other words, the teacher utilizes the best
and the most appropriate and/or useful parts of existing methods or approaches.

A typical lesson might combine elements from various methods and approaches such as the
communicative approach, (e.g., in communication gap activities); the lexical approach, (e.g., focusing on
lexical chunks in reading); and the structural-situational approach, (e.g., establishing a clear context for
the presentation of new structures).

The advantages of an eclectic method

Safety: The use of a variety of ideas and procedures from various approaches and methods increases
possibility for learning to take place
Interest: Teachers need to use different techniques to hold the learners' attention.
Diversity: Different learning/teaching contexts require different methodologies.
Flexibility: Awareness of a range of available techniques will help teachers exploit materials better and
manage unexpected situations.

34
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN
METHODOLOGY-LECTURE NOTES 1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. White Plains,
NY: Longman.
• Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Language Teaching Approaches. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching
English as a Second or Foreign Language. (pp.3-10). Boston, Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle.
• Demirel, Ö. (2004. ELT Methodology.Pegem A. Yayıncılık.
• Larsen-Freeman, Diane. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. (Second Edition).
Oxford University.
• Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (1993). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Linse, C.T. (2005). Practical English language teaching: Young learners. New York: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc
• Revell, J. and Norman, S. (1997). In your Hands. London: Saffire Press.
• Richards, J.C. & Renandya, W.A. (eds.) (2002). Methodology in language teaching: an anthology of
current practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1990). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A
description and analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press.

35
COMPILED BY SEVGI SAHIN