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TLO
21,1 Socio-technical systems theory as
a diagnostic tool for examining
underutilization of wiki
48
technology
Received 5 November 2012
Revised 20 May 2013
Andrea J. Hester
Accepted 5 June 2013 Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, USA

Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to examine organizational information systems based on Web 2.0
technology as socio-technical systems that involve interacting relationships among actors, structure,
tasks and technology. Alignment within the relationships may facilitate increased technology use;
however, gaps in alignment may impede technology use and result in poor performance or system
failure. The technology examined is an organizational wiki used for collaborative knowledge
management.
Design/methodology/approach – Results of a survey administered to employees of an
organization providing cloud computing services are presented. The research model depicts the
socio-technical component relationships and their influence on use of the wiki. Hierarchical latent
variable modelling is used to operationalize the six main constructs. Hypotheses propose that as
alignment of a relationship increases, wiki use increases. The partial least squares (PLS) method is
used to examine the hypotheses.
Findings – Based on the results, increased perceptions of alignment among technology and structure
increase wiki use. Further analysis indicates that low usage may be linked to gaps in alignment. Many
respondents with lower usage scores also indicated “low alignment” among actor-task,
actor-technology, and task-structure.
Research limitations/implications – The sample size is rather small; however, results may give
an indication as to the appropriateness of dimensions chosen to represent the alignment relationships.
Socio-technical systems theory (STS) is often utilized in qualitative studies. This paper introduces a
measurement instrument designed to evaluate STS through quantitative analysis.
Practical implications – User acceptance and change management continue to be important topics
for both researchers and practitioners. The model proposed here provides measures that may reveal
predictive indicators for increased information system use. Alternatively, practitioners may be able to
utilize a diagnostic tool as presented here to assess underlying factors that may be impeding effective
technology utilization.
Originality/value – The paper presents a diagnostic tool that may help management to better
uncover misaligned relationships leading to underutilization of technology. Practical advice and
guidelines are provided allowing for a plan to rectify the situation and improve technology usage and
performance outcomes.
Keywords Alignment, Empirical study, PLS method, Socio-technical systems theory, Wiki technology
Paper type Research paper

The Learning Organization

Vol. 21 No. 1, 2014
pp. 48-68 The author would like to thank “SkyCo” for their participation in this study and their continued
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0969-6474
support in publication efforts. Thanks also to the Guest Editor, Gavin Baxter, and the
DOI 10.1108/TLO-10-2012-0065 anonymous reviewers for exceptional reviews that greatly enhanced the quality of this paper.
1. Introduction Underutilization
Despite the increasing maturation of Web 2.0 technology, understanding of of wiki
organizational implementation and user acceptance of Web 2.0 technology continues
to be a difficult and complex process. Web 2.0 technology provides innovative
technology
web-based collaboration systems, that involve layers of complexity rooted in social
dynamics.
A balance between technological capabilities and social structures of organizations 49
is needed for successful system outcomes. This paper suggests consideration of
socio-technical systems theory as a diagnostic tool to examine relationships among
social and technical subsystem components of organizational work systems that utilize
Web 2.0 technology. We suggest that having even just one relationship out of
alignment can impede utilization and overall performance.
More work on drilling down to the source of potential gaps in alignment within
socio-technical systems is needed. This research seeks to answer the question of what
are underlying factors related to situations of misalignment. More specifically, we seek
to identify dimensions that capture the essence of relationships involving aligning
pairs of socio-technical system components: actors, structure, tasks and technology.
The organization studied in this research, “SkyCo”, is a major player in the cloud
computing arena. SkyCo is located in the Midwest and classified as a small business
according to number of employees (less than 50). As a technology provider, SkyCo
utilizes numerous systems as both the product provided to clients, and the means for
conducting internal processes.
As a leader in innovative technologies, SkyCo utilizes a wiki technology-based
system for collaborative knowledge management. Although the wiki has evolved since
its inception, management expressed concerns that the wiki was not utilized to the best
of its abilities. Research involving wiki technology provides an interesting context.
Much of the current literature examining wiki technology has a limited focus on either
technological aspects or cultural aspects (Lykourentzou et al., 2011). This research
provides a more encompassing study that involves both technological and social
dynamics.
In order to uncover potential underlying causes for underutilization of the wiki, the
research approach uses STS as a diagnostic tool. As presented here, the first step in
tackling this problem is to analyze the organization and business process and delineate
the findings into components that comprise a socio-technical work system. The second
step is to ascertain user perceptions of the STS demonstrated by SkyCo. A survey was
administered to SkyCo employees to uncover perceptions of relationships among
socio-technical system components. By incorporating these steps, this paper provides a
“diagnosis” in terms of an assessment of alignment or “fit” among any two
components, and the influence of those relationships on wiki usage. Future work with
this study will address findings of the fit analysis in effort to begin to improve wiki
utilization.
This paper proceeds as follows: section 2 discusses relevant literature; the research
framework is developed in section 3; the research methodology is given in section 4; the
research analysis and results are presented in section 5; and section 6 presents the
discussion with section 7 concluding.
TLO 2. Relevant literature
21,1 2.1 Socio-technical systems theory
In seminal work in socio-technical systems theory (STS), Bostrom and Heinen describe
organizational work systems as being composed of a social subsystem and a technical
subsystem (Bostrom and Heinen, 1977). The social subsystem is comprised of structure
and people, and the technical subsystem is comprised of technology and tasks (see
50 Figure 1). Bostrom and Heinen note that management information systems (MIS) have
a direct effect on technical subsystem components. Nonetheless, MIS problems and
failures often stem from organizational behavior issues which involve social
subsystem components. In their work, the authors propose that a socio-technical
systems approach will provide a realistic view of organizations. Bostrom and Heinen
recommend that when designing MIS a deeper understanding of and focused attention
on the independent yet interacting components of the socio-technical system is needed.
Beyond a qualitative assessment of a given socio-technical system, further work is
required to examine the interaction between technical and social aspects and the extent
to which a gap in a given relationship can be detrimental in successful system use.
When considering a socio-technical system at the work system level, outputs of the
system are realized when interaction takes place between the social subsystem and the
technical subsystem (Bostrom and Heinen, 1977). These interactions may be delineated
as relationships between any two given components, yielding six separate
relationships (actor-structure, actor-task, actor-technology, task-technology,
task-structure, and technology-structure). In further defining the social subsystem,
consideration of the attributes of actors, including attitudes, skills and values, and the
relationships among actors and authority structures is needed. Further understanding
of this social interaction may be drawn from other definitions of structure. Giddens
describes structure as giving “form and shape to social life”, referring to the internal
sense of rules humans resort to as the engage in external action (Giddens, 1989).
Structure may also be viewed as emerging from recursive interactions between
technology and humans (Orlikowski, 2000). In each of these descriptions, there is an
understood interplay among entities. Consideration of these views lends to the focus of
this research to study the interactive relationships among socio-technical system
components.

Figure 1.
Socio-technical system
2.2 Fit and alignment Underutilization
Theories and studies focusing on “fit”, “alignment”, or “appropriation”, aim to uncover of wiki
conditions that facilitate a positively interactive relationship among two or more
entities. A positive relationship can then be characterized as congruence, match, or technology
similarity between the entities. This vast research has examined various contextual
classes of entities including person-environment fit (Edwards and Cooper, 1990),
task-technology fit at the individual level (Goodhue, 1995, Goodhue and Thompson, 51
1995) and group level (Zigurs and Buckland, 1998, Fuller and Dennis, 2009, Zigurs et al.,
1999), and technology system fit at the group level (Dennis et al., 2001) and
organization level (Hung et al., 2011, Strong and Volkoff, 2010).
Problems arise when these relationships are not functioning symbiotically. In
studies of person-environment fit, individuals reflect on organizational characteristics
such as physical working environment, opportunities for growth and development,
terms and conditions of employment, and organizational values (Edwards and
Billsberry, 2010). These characteristics are just a few that comprise multiple
dimensions of overall person-environment fit that include person-vocation fit,
person-organization fit, person-group fit, person-job fit, and person-people fit. A
perceived lack of congruence among individuals and their environment has been
studied as a cause of stress (Edwards and Cooper, 1990), strain (Ayyagari et al., 2011)
and work exhaustion that may ultimately lead to turnover in the IT workforce (Moore,
2000).
Task-technology fit theory posits that insufficient fit among task characteristics
and system characteristics may impede system impact on individual performance in
terms of effectiveness, productivity and overall job performance (Goodhue and
Thompson, 1995). At the group level, performance may be affected by alignment of
technology dimensions that provide communication support, process structuring, and
information processing and task environments characterized as simple, problem,
decision, judgment, and fuzzy (Zigurs and Buckland, 1998). In this case, fit occurs with
an appropriate match between technology support and task environment, for example,
improved group performance occurs when decision tasks are supported by a
technology configuration that emphasizes information processing and process
structuring. The concept of task-technology fit is extended in studies of group or
team appropriation of technology (Dennis et al., 2001, Fuller and Dennis, 2009). The
notion of fit-appropriation suggests that even when tasks and technology capabilities
are in congruence, adequate appropriation of technology is needed to significantly
improve performance (Dennis et al., 2001).
More recently, researchers have examined fit between an organization and an
information system, such as cross-enterprise collaboration systems (Hung et al., 2011)
and enterprise systems (Strong and Volkoff, 2010). Strong and Volkoff suggest that the
extensive research examining this area is often too narrow in scope and neglects to
provide an encompassing view of symbiotic entities functioning at multiple levels of
analysis. Hung et al. do consider organizational fit at three levels: data fit, process fit
and user fit. In their study, Hung et al. posit that the relationship between
organizational fit and successful system implementation is moderated by the
relationship among organizations in terms of trust and interdependence. Strong and
Volkoff look at fit between an enterprise system and an organization in terms of six
domains: functionality, data, usability, roles, control and organizational culture. The
TLO study also describes two types of fit: coverage fit and enablement fit. Coverage fit,
21,1 described as the absence of deficiency, denotes that the system meets requirements and
includes features for operation. Enablement fit is related to increased efficiency and
effectiveness of processes.
In the specific arena of change management involving information systems,
research addressing the issue continues to fall short of providing a generalizable
52 approach that focuses too much on technical aspects and not enough on social aspects
(Bostrom et al., 2009). In line with Strong and Volkoff’s suggestion of considering
multiple levels of analysis, Lyytinen and Newman draw on STS to develop a model
describing information system change as socio-technical events (Lyytinen and
Newman, 2008). In their study, Lyytinen and Newman consider relationships among
socio-technical components in combination with three levels of analysis: work system,
building system and organizational environment. Lyytinen and Newman describe a
“gap” as a misalignment in a given relationship that may cause instability in the
system and ultimately reduce system performance. The findings suggest that critical
events throughout the change process are related to gaps in the socio-technical system.
Adapted from (Lyytinen and Newman, 2008), Table I summarizes definitions of each
socio-technical system component and descriptions of the nature of relationships
among components. Only the definitions pertaining to the work-system level of
analysis are described here.

Socio-technical components Definition

Actor Actors include an organization’s members and its main stakeholders

who carry out or influence the work
Structure The structure covers systems of communication, systems of authority,
and systems of workflow. It includes both the normative dimension,
values, norms, and general role expectations, and the behavioral
dimension, patterns of behavior as actors communicate, exercise
authority, or work
Task Task describes the work system’s goals and purpose and the way in
which work gets done within the organization
Technology Technology tools used in the work system
Component relationships Description of alignment
Actor-structure Actors follow operating procedures, structures provide support to
actors in their tasks
Actor-task Actors understand and carry out tasks, actors are trained to perform
tasks
Actor-technology Actors understand and accept technology, actors adapt technology to
environment
Task-technology Technology is appropriately chosen and adequate to support tasks
Table I. Task-structure Structure is aligned with task, adequate structure defined for tasks
Socio-technical system
components and Technology-structure Technology is adapted and modified for given structure, structure
relationships takes advantage of capabilities of technology
Building on the work of Lyytinen and Newman, this research aims to operationalize the Underutilization
component relationships described in Table I. Constructs were chosen that may of wiki
characterize alignment in each of these relationships. Prior to this study, an
examination of four of the six relationships was conducted, including the relationships technology
of actor-technology, task-technology, task-structure, and technology-structure (Hester,
2012). The research environment for the study provided a mock organization
environment in the form of undergraduate students enrolled in a senior-level project 53
management course. The course involved a real world project with students playing
the roles of members of project sub-teams. The resulting socio-technical system
involved using information systems to plan and develop a “University Student
Housing Wiki” following tenets of project management. Given the confined classroom
setting of this early work, the actors, in this case students, chose team membership
thus pre-determining relevant tasks to be completed. The self-selection of task and
structure prompted the decision not to focus on the actor-task and actor-structure
relationships. Results indicated that an alignment among actor and technology was
present and had a positive influence on use of the technology system, in this case a wiki
utilized for management of the project and the end product itself. On the other hand,
results indicated a possible misalignment among the relationships of task-technology,
task-structure, and technology-structure. This research study aims to build on the
earlier work by including evaluation of all six relationships and improving
operationalization of the relationships.

3. Research framework
3.1 Model development
As depicted in Figure 1 and described in Table I, the social and technical subsystems
are each composed of two components, and then each component has an interacting
relationship with each other component both inside and outside of their corresponding
subsystems. This gives six relationships: actor-structure, actor-task, actor-technology,
task-technology, task-structure, and technology-structure. For this study, the
organizational work system represented as a socio-technical system involves the
over-arching goal of supporting clients and technology systems. As the path to
achieving the goal involves engaging in knowledge processes, use of the system should
denote that users are participating in creating and maintaining a source of knowledge.
Depicted in Figure 2, the research model presents socio-technical component
relationships and their influence on system use. For each relationship, consideration of
the recursive interaction between the given components prompted the selection of
constructs that, when present, may indicate that the relationship is in alignment.
Alternatively, the lack of perceptions of these constructs may indicate a misalignment
within a relationship.

3.2 Hypotheses
From the structure standpoint, alignment with actors involves systems of
communication, authority and workflow, as well as values and norms supporting
actors in their tasks (Lyytinen and Newman, 2008). We may interpret this interaction
by considering the level of support stemming from relationships among actors. From
the actor standpoint, alignment involves understanding, acceptance and alignment
with structure. Negative views of factors that influence user perceptions of fit with
TLO
21,1

54

Figure 2.
Socio-technical alignment

their organization may increase strain (Ayyagari et al., 2011) and work exhaustion
(Moore, 2000). Alternatively, positive views of user fit with their environment may
increase job satisfaction (Rutner et al., 2008). We suggest that increased perceptions of
alignment among technology and structure will increase use of technology.
H1. Alignment among actors and structure will have a positive influence on
system use.
Either by pre-existing qualifications or on the job training, actors should be confident
that they are fully qualified and capable to perform their tasks. The principal factor at
the core of this relationship is self-efficacy. Originating in social cognitive theory,
self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s perception of what they can do with the skills
they possess (Bandura, 1977). We suggest that increased perceptions that users have
the skills and knowledge to perform their tasks will strengthen the actor-task
relationship and increase use of technology.
H2. Alignment among actors and task will have a positive influence on system
use.
In an ideal situation of actors, structure and business processes existing in harmony,
technology is useless if it is not accepted by users. Organizations devote valuable
resources to developing and implementing information systems designed to improve
efficiency and effectiveness of business processes. Studies have shown that users value
systems that are easy to use and useful (Venkatesh, 2000), but further motivation is
often needed to overcome user resistance to change. Technology can only reach full
potential when users embrace the technology. We suggest that increased
understanding and acceptance of technology by users will strengthen the
actor-technology relationship and increase use of technology.
 H3. Alignment among actors and technology will have a positive influence on Underutilization
system use. of wiki
The relationship between task and technology is the subject of extensive research technology
(Goodhue, 1995, 1998, Goodhue and Thompson, 1995, Zigurs and Buckland, 1998,
Zigurs et al., 1999). This body of research indicates that fit between task and
technology impact both system utilization and individual and group performance. We
suggest that increased user perceptions of alignment among tasks and technology will
55
strengthen the task-technology relationship and increase use of technology.
H4. Alignment among tasks and technology will have a positive influence on
system use.
Organizations must leverage their knowledge to maintain viability. Implementing
technology to facilitate knowledge management can be an initiative to harness and
share knowledge. Nonetheless, technology will only be successful if the organization
has an environment that encourages knowledge sharing. We suggest that increased
user perceptions of alignment among tasks and structure will strengthen the
task-structure relationship and increase use of technology.
H5. Alignment among tasks and structure will have a positive influence on
system use.
In this study, we focus on structure as an interpretation of organizational culture. We
consider the hierarchy and lines of communication, as well as values and norms. An
organizational culture misfit may occur if a technology has been implemented that
requires operations that go against organizational norms (Strong and Volkoff, 2010).
We suggest that increased perceptions of alignment among technology and structure
will increase use of technology.
H6. Alignment among technology and structure will have a positive influence on
system use.

4. Research methodology
4.1 Company background
SkyCo provides strategic business solutions that help their clients reduce total cost of
ownership of IT infrastructure by means of cloud computing. The major services
provided by SkyCo include cloud computing environments, colocation, infrastructure
as a service (IaaS) and green technology. The core values of the organization are:
.
passion;
.
integrity;
.
fun;
.
teamwork;
.
superior business value; and
.
improving the community in which we work.

SkyCo is organized into two main units: business development and technology and
operations.
TLO Sky Co utilizes numerous technology systems for both providing technology
21,1 services to their clients and supporting internal processes. As the overarching goal of
the organization is to serve clients, key business processes include acquiring new
clients and supporting and maintaining current clients. The business development
team focuses on direct relationships with the clients. The technology and operations
team focuses on implementing solutions for the clients. The primary systems used for
56 these processes include a customer relationship management system (CRM), a service
desk system, a document management system, and a wiki.
The focus of this study is the wiki, called the “SkyCo knowledge base”. The wiki
was implemented to facilitate collaborative knowledge management of both client
information and software/system information. The wiki was first deployed in 2008.
The process of choosing a technology system to improve knowledge sharing was a
joint effort among the senior engineers and managers within the technology and
operations division. A solution was needed to provide quick and easy knowledge
sharing in a less structured environment. Champions for a wiki-based system proposed
that the capabilities of wiki technology could provide exactly the type of knowledge
sharing the organization was in need of. Contributions by those who knew the most
about certain clients or systems could be easily shared and then retrieved from the wiki
by others.
At the time of this research, the wiki had been implemented for approximately four
years. The wiki was viewed quite favorably by the organization despite some issues
that required addressing. The wiki had a positive impact in supporting knowledge
sharing and collaboration by allowing key information to be more accessible. At the
onset of this study, the wiki contained semi structured data largely composed of
technical information related to clients. For example, equipment specifications and
network diagrams for a given client were used by engineers to implement and maintain
the technology services requested. The primary concern for SkyCo was that the wiki
was underutilized by the organization and that the content was disorganized and
inconsistent across clients and systems. Implementation engineers and cloud service
engineers were dedicated users of the wiki. However, the issues with the wiki largely
resided in what was viewed as a lack of concerted effort to initiate a page for a client by
those who gather the preliminary information and documentation. In addition to client
information, the wiki also provides areas for recording system information. Such pages
include technical support contact information, configuration details, etc.
In addition to inconsistencies in the data, another issue raised by SkyCo employees,
particularly those who had not fully embraced the wiki, included a difficulty with
knowing where to even get started in the wiki. Some were simply unaware of how to
use a wiki. Another major concern was the difficulty in navigating the links,
particularly in the first main entry page of the wiki. These types of issues were noted
throughout the study and combined with the observations of issues focusing less on
the technology itself.

4.2 Research environment

The data collection involves a survey measuring employee perceptions of the
socio-technical environment and self-reported measures of usage of the wiki. The
organizational hierarchy at SkyCo is composed of four executives, seven managers,
and 28 “other” employees. Less than 15 percent of the employees focus purely on
business function support such as accounting, finance and marketing. Of the seven Underutilization
managers, four managers head a team of four to six employees. This gives a hierarchy of wiki
that is essentially three levels. Additionally, within the small teams, the atmosphere is
very balanced and cooperative. Thus, the organizational environment can be described technology
as in essence a flat hierarchy. All organization members were invited to complete the
survey. A total of 26 of the 39 SkyCo employees completed the survey.
57
4.3 SkyCo’s socio-technical system
As described in Table II, the work system presented by SkyCo involves the
overarching goal of client and system support. Data and information are gathered from
clients and other sources, and employees expand data and information into knowledge
that serves as inputs to the system. Outcomes of the system include effective utilization
and performance measures such as efficiency and effectiveness in supporting SkyCo
clients.
The actors of the system are SkyCo employees who are users of the numerous
technology systems. Most of the employees are in the main location of the business and
distributed among two floors. A few of the employees are out in the field serving clients
on location on a fairly permanent basis, and others are occasionally in and out of the
office visiting clients.
The structures in this system involve lines of communication and authority along
with values and norms. Thus, structure, as described here, includes the amalgamation
of organizational hierarchy, communication style and patterns, and elements of
organizational culture. The hierarchical structure at SkyCo is relatively flat with all
employees working closely together and interacting under norms of cooperation and
collaboration. The dynamics surrounding communication can be described as open,
engaging, and unhindered. In one of the main areas of the company, employee work
stations are in a pod formation in a very large open space with designated areas for
conversation settings and informal meetings. Two of the six core values held by SkyCo
are particularly relevant to this study: teamwork and integrity.
The specific tasks studied here are contribution and retrieval of knowledge via the
wiki. One reason effective knowledge sharing is critical is that the client base is
diverse, ranging in size and industry, and thus also ranging in services provided. As
SkyCo employees are collaborating on client support, having the most up to date,
detailed information is crucial. In other words, tasks are not necessarily routine or
simple tasks.

Socio-technical components SkyCo work system

Actor SkyCo’s employees

Structure Four executives, seven managers, 28 other; core
values of teamwork and integrity; norms of
cooperation and collaboration
Task Client and system support through knowledge
sharing Table II.
SkyCo’s socio-technical
Technology Wiki – SkyCo knowledge base system
TLO Numerous technology systems are utilized at SkyCo. Part of the goal at SkyCo is to
21,1 support and maintain those systems. Other technologies are used to directly support
and maintain the client base. Wiki technology-based systems have been examined as a
solution to facilitate corporate collective intelligence by providing expert matching
(Lykourentzou et al., 2010). In this case, SkyCo’s wiki facilitates knowledge sharing by
providing a central location for collaborative knowledge related to both the numerous
58 technology systems and the client base.

4.4 Measures
Hierarchical latent variable modeling is used to operationalize the six main constructs
of the research model. Each construct denoting alignment among two components is a
second-order latent variable measured by dimensions captured by first-order latent
variables (see Table III). Questionnaire items measuring the variables and their sources
are given in the Appendix (Table AI). All items were measured on a seven-point Likert
scale. In this study we control for organization tenure, education level, IT/IS
certifications, gender and age.
4.4.1 Socio-technical system relationships. The actor-structure relationship is
characterized by actors having a sense of belonging in their organization and a feeling
that their values match those of the organization. To capture this relationship, we
consider the notion of identification. Identification is defined as the perception of
similarity of values, membership, and loyalty with the organization (Kankanhalli et al.,
2005). Positive perceptions of identification may overcome barriers to system use by
motivating users to put organizational needs before their own. When actors are able to
identify with the organization, we can say that actor and structure are aligned.
The actor-task relationship is characterized by users being capable of performing
tasks. Training and self-efficacy have been studied extensively in user acceptance
studies. The focus of this study involves the task of knowledge sharing. Thus we
consider training, as it is related to use of data, and knowledge self-efficacy as key
dimensions. The training construct used by Goodhue in task-technology fit theory
specifies finding, accessing and using data effectively (Goodhue, 1998). We adopt two
measures used by Goodhue along with a third measure that was adapted to reflect
basic job training. To reflect user perceptions of their own abilities, we include
knowledge self-efficacy, defined as confidence in one’s ability to provide knowledge

Construct First-order latent variables

Actor-structure alignment Identification

Actor-task alignment Knowledge self-efficacy
Job/task training
Actor-technology alignment Perceived ease of use
Perceived external control
Task-technology alignment Perceived usefulness
Codification effort
Task-structure alignment Generalized trust
Reciprocity expectation
Table III. Technology-structure alignment Teamwork
Relationships and Pro-sharing norms
measures Presenteeism
that is valuable to the organization (Kankanhalli et al., 2005). When actors have been Underutilization
adequately trained and are confident of their knowledge sharing abilities, we can say of wiki
that actor and task are aligned.
The actor-technology relationship is characterized by actors understanding and technology
accepting technology. Dimensions that may capture this relationship include perceived
ease of use and perceived external control. Perceived ease of use is the degree to which
a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort (Davis, 1989). 59
Perceived external control relates to an individual’s perception of availability of
knowledge, resources, and opportunities required to perform the specific behavior
(Venkatesh, 2000). When actors are able to easily use technology or at least perceive
that they have the means available to use technology, we can say that actor and
technology are aligned.
The task-technology relationship reflects system users’ perceptions that technology
is adequate to support tasks. Dimensions that may capture the relationship between
task and technology include perceived usefulness and codification effort. Going
beyond capability to perform tasks, users also want technology to have an impact
when it comes to their performance. Perceived usefulness is the degree to which a
person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job
performance (Davis, 1989). Codification effort is defined as time and effort required to
codify and input knowledge into the system. We suggest that this dimension directly
ties the knowledge sharing process with a knowledge management system. When
actors perceive that using the system enhances their performance and does not impede
the knowledge sharing task, we can say that task and technology are aligned.
The task-structure relationship is described as having adequate structure defined
for tasks. Structure involves norms and behaviors associated with systems of
communication, authority and workflow. The approach taken here is to use dimensions
that capture perceptions that engaging in required tasks will be valued by peers and
superiors within the structure. Additionally, suggested dimensions of generalized trust
and reciprocity expectation are reflective of two of SkyCo’s core values: integrity and
teamwork. As adopted by Kankanhalli et al., generalized trust is the belief in good
intent, competence, and reliability of employees with respect to contributing and
reusing knowledge (Kankanhalli et al., 2005). For SkyCo, this type of trust directly
relates to integrity. Reciprocity expectation is the belief that current contribution to a
knowledge system would lead to future request for knowledge being met (Kankanhalli
et al., 2005). Reciprocity expectation reflects the notion of teamwork when it comes to
knowledge sharing. When users perceive a connection between values and norms of
the organization and the task of knowledge sharing, we can say that task and structure
are aligned.
The relationship between technology and structure can be described as technology
being adapted and modified for a given structure, and structure taking advantage of
capabilities of technology. When using technology as a collaborative knowledge
management tool, capabilities of technology should foster a cooperative and
supportive environment. In capturing this relationship, we want to again focus on a
SkyCo core value, teamwork, and norms of sharing and cooperation. Additionally, we
want to ensure that communication structures are supported by technology.
Collaborative technologies have the capability of ubiquitous computing that allows
users to participate and contribute any time and any place. Presenteeism is defined as
TLO the degree to which technology enables users to be reachable (Ayyagari et al., 2011).
21,1 Perceptions of presenteeism enhance communication structures. Pro-sharing norms are
defined as the prevalence of norms that are intended to facilitate knowledge sharing in
the organization (Kankanhalli et al., 2005). We adapted these measures to reflect
technology facilitation of pro-sharing norms. To further explore the notion that
teamwork is supported by the technology system, we developed new measures. These
60 new items draw on select individual measures of perceived group well-being and
perceived member support (Dennis and Reinicke, 2004), as well as an adaptation of one
pro-sharing measure. Awareness of this kind of accommodating environment may
indicate technology support for teamwork. The proposed dimensions of teamwork,
pro-sharing norms and presenteeism are indicative of perceptions of
technology-facilitated cohesiveness and connectivity. When these factors are present,
we can say that task and structure are aligned.
4.4.2 Dependent variable. Measures for the dependent variable of system use include
both self-reported and actual measures of usage. This study attempts to capture a more
rich assessment of self-reported usage by measuring usage according to three
dimensions. Frequency (Burton-Jones and Straub, 2006) is measured as less than once a
month, once or twice per month, several times per month, several times per week, once
or twice per day, or several times per day. Duration (Burton-Jones and Straub, 2006) is
measured as almost never, less than 1/2 hour, 1/2-1 hour, 1-2 hours, 2-3 hours, or more
than 3 hours. A third dimension was developed as simple statements measured on a
Likert scale of agree/disagree. The validity of self-reported usage is a highly debated
topic. Therefore, this study also includes actual usage. One advantage of wiki
technology is the ability to track history, and if necessary roll-back to previous
versions. As each transaction occurs in the wiki, it is recorded in the history and users
have the option of receiving e-mail notification of transactions. The transaction log was
analyzed to provide a measure of actual usage.

4.5 Method
The partial least squares (PLS) method was used to examine the hypotheses. PLS is
recommended as an analysis method for complex models focusing on prediction, and
allows for minimal demands on measurement scales, sample size, and residual
distribution (Chin et al., 2003). PLS also allows for hierarchical latent variable models,
necessary for this research model (Wetzels et al., 2009). A two-stage analysis was
performed using confirmatory factor analysis to assess the measurement model
followed by examination of the structural relationships. Path modeling and analysis
was performed using Smart-PLS (Ringle et al., 2005).

5. Research analysis and results

In the first stage of analysis, the measurement model was assessed for reliability and
validity. After dropping seven of the survey items (indicated with an asterisk in the
Appendix, Table AI), the standards for reliability and validity were achieved. The
composite reliability scores exceed the recommended threshold of 0.70 (Chin, 2010).
The AVE scores exceed the recommended threshold of 0.50. And, item indicator
cross-loadings indicated sufficient convergent and discriminant validity. The second
stage of analysis assessed the structural model, including examination of path
coefficients and R2 value. Figure 3 presents resulting path values and R2 value.
 Underutilization
of wiki
technology

61

Figure 3.
Structural model results

H1 through H6 examine the relationships between the independent variables

representing alignment among socio-technical system components and the dependent
variable of system use. Results are based on the t-test with corresponding t-values and
p-values given in Table IV. Supported hypotheses are indicated with an x and
corresponding p-value highlighted with bold text. H6 was supported; however, H1, H2,
H3, H4, and H5 were not supported.

6. Discussion
The research presented in this paper is subject to limitations. The sample size is rather
small; however, results may still give an indication as to the appropriateness of

Hypothesis t-value p-value

H1. Alignment among actor and structure will have

a positive influence on system use 1.3521 0.089
H2. Alignment among actor and task will have a
positive influence on system use 1.1946 0.117
H3. Alignment among actor and technology will
have a positive influence on system use 1.1099 0.134
H4. Alignment among task and technology will have
a positive influence on system use 1.3069 0.096
H5. Alignment among task and structure will have a
positive influence on system use 0.1188 0.453
H6. Alignment among technology and structure will Table IV.
have a positive influence on system use x 2.1949 0.015 Hypotheses results
TLO dimensions chosen to represent alignment relationships. One caveat to note is that the
21,1 STS presented here is an exemplification of just one particular scenario. Each STS
component presented by the SkyCo environment is unique to the goals and mission of
the organization. Generalizations of the findings to other tasks and processes or
technologies may not be applicable.
Conclusions can be drawn from analysis of results. H6 was supported by the data.
62 This may be interpreted to mean that an alignment among technology and structure
was present and had a positive influence on system use. H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 were
not supported, indicating a possible misalignment among corresponding components.
To examine the relationships more closely, analysis was performed to ascertain any
possible gaps in a given relationship. This was accomplished by utilizing latent
variable scores calculated by the PLS analysis for both usage and each relationship
construct. The average and standard deviation of the latent variable scores for each
relationship construct were calculated. The relationship was considered to be “in
adequate alignment” if the score fell within one standard deviation of the average.
Scores falling below that range were considered as “low alignment” and scores falling
above that range were considered as “strong alignment”.
The respondents were then sorted according to usage latent variable scores. On
viewing the data in this order, analysis of resulting alignment scores was performed.
With only a couple of exceptions, many respondents with lower usage scores also had
“low alignment” in one or more relationships. Furthermore, relationships with the most
frequent low scores were actor-task (5), actor-technology (6), and task-structure (5). The
actor-structure, task-technology and technology-structure relationships each had only
three low scores. Although these relationships did not have a significant positive effect
on usage, they were deemed to have “adequate alignment”.
Findings from the survey in conjunction with the alignment analysis described
above may be used to improve utilization of the wiki. A fairly straight-forward
approach may be recommended to address two of the relationships with lower
alignment, actor-task and actor-technology. The actor-task relationship involves actors
having the knowledge and training to complete tasks. Tasks actors udergo when using
the wiki include creating new pages for technology systems and clients, building on
current pages by expanding or updating the information and knowledge, searching for
relevant information within the pages, and organizing pages and content within pages.
SkyCo may be able to develop training sessions for both new and current employees to
better prepare them for acquiring and sharing knowledge pertaining to both
technology systems and clients. This process may involve listing and describing data
and information that is deemed pertinent to the larger processes of client support.
Guidelines for identifying and collecting key information will foster confidence in
employees’ capabilities. These guidelines may be in the form of manuals, help
documentation or templates.
Additionally, a point of misalignment may be the ambiguity of parties responsible
for initiating and maintaining pages. Clearly defined roles for each member within the
SkyCo organizational structure that specify necessary contributions to creation and
maintenance of knowledge within the wiki would be beneficial. For example, a more
detailed description of a given process, such as client acquisition, should include the
members involved at each stage and exactly which tasks should be completed in the
wiki as part of that process. Furthermore, identifying a wiki champion for specific
areas of the wiki may allow for better maintenance of the knowledge. In addition to Underutilization
monitoring specific areas, champions may also engage in shaping or “gardening” of wiki
content that includes actions such as editing, integrating, refactoring and reducing
errors in content (Majchrzak et al., 2007). technology
The actor-technology relationship involves employees’ comfort level with the wiki
technology-based system. Misalignment can occur when employees chose not to
participate in the wiki simply because they feel they do not know how to use the wiki. 63
In this case, training sessions can be developed to focus specifically on how to use the
wiki. Additionally, documentation on frequently asked questions and common tasks
may be created and made available to employees. Observations and conversations with
SkyCo employees did in fact indicate that some employees did not use the wiki due to
fear of “messing things up”, while others assumed the effort to learn how to use the
wiki would be too time intensive. An easily accessible source of how to use the wiki
should improve the actor-technology relationship.
The task-structure relationship will be more difficult to address. Some work may
need to be done to reassure employees that cooperation and joint effort at building a
knowledge base will be fruitful. The notion of teamwork is intact, thus the issue of
trusting each other may be stemming from the fact that there are issues with missing
data in the wiki. For example, when new clients are acquired, the page for a client
needs to be created in the wiki. A member of the business development team initiates
the relationship with the client. Ideally, this member would create the page in the wiki.
However, the page is most often created by the implementation manager. The manager
must gather and often times decipher the necessary basic information to begin the
page. Further drilling down into this issue is required. The measures chosen may not
be clear enough to distinguish between trusting other employees in general as opposed
to trusting whether fellow employees are fully contributing to the collective knowledge.
For SkyCo, the structure component of the socio-technical system is unique. The
organizational culture at SkyCo reflects their dedication to their core values of passion,
integrity, fun, teamwork, superior business value and improving the community in
which we work. The SkyCo employees are actively involved in numerous charities.
SkyCo also holds events and activities at the workplace to encourage taking a break
and having some fun. SkyCo has also been officially recognized as a healthy work
environment. The evidence is clear that what SkyCo is doing to promote a positive
work environment is working. The scores for the actor-structure relationship were in
fact the highest. SkyCo employees do feel connected to their organization. The strength
of the actor-structure alignment at SkyCo may be compensating for minor issues with
tasks and technology. The employees are dedicated to SkyCo and willing to do
whatever it takes to get the job done. Nonetheless, by addressing the areas of
misalignment mentioned above, SkyCo may enjoy more successful use of their wiki.

7. Conclusion
Despite the limitations, the research presented here provides a first step in a rigorous
effort to develop a model that captures the essence of alignment of relationships among
socio-technical system components. User acceptance and change management
continue to be important topics for both researchers and practitioners. The model
proposed here provides measures that may reveal predictive indicators for increased
information system use. Further research should involve a larger data sample as well
TLO as multiple environments exhibiting a variety of actors, structures, tasks and
21,1 technologies. Moreover, for this particular study, further research is needed to evaluate
the continued progress of SkyCo. Recommendations were made to address the results
of the initial STS “diagnosis”. The next step should involve another diagnostic check to
ascertain any changes to the STS balance that may result from addressing the findings
and recommendations.
64 On further development, practitioners may be able to utilize a diagnostic tool as
presented here to assess underlying factors that may be impeding effective technology
utilization. Management may be focused on one or more aspects of the socio-technical
system while ignoring others. Alternatively, perhaps management may assume that
certain factors are aligned when constituents think otherwise. Taking time to explore
all avenues may better uncover potential problems and lead to a plan to rectify the
situation and improve technology usage and performance outcomes.
As a socio-technical system analysis is performed, patterns may become evident
indicating one or more of the components as the source of misalignment. When
relationships involving actors or structure are misaligned, addressing the issues may
be more difficult. Changing employee perceptions and the organizational culture is not
an easy endeavour. Efforts made to boost morale and improve employees’ connection
to the organization’s values will take time, but should be worthwhile. As indicated by
the findings of this study, a healthy organizational environment may boost acceptance
of wiki technology by facilitating users positive perceptions of technological solutions
that may improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the business processes.
Relationships involving the task component may be first addressed with training.
As employees increase their understanding of how to perform tasks, they will be more
confident in their capabilities. Relationships involving the technology component
should be considered carefully. Management should consider whether a technology
implemented to assist in work processes is in fact adequate and appropriate for those
processes. Even when deemed a good solution, user acceptance of technology may need
work. Training on the technology and clear evidence of the usefulness of the
technology’s capabilities to improve work processes should bolster user acceptance.

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Appendix Underutilization
of wiki
Construct Definition and survey items technology
Identification a The perception of similarity of values, membership and loyalty with the
organization
I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected to help my organization to be
successful
67
I find that my values and my organization’s values are very similar
In general the people employed by my organization are working toward the same goal
I feel that my organization cares about me
I feel a sense of belonging towards my organization
I am proud to be an employee of this organization
Knowledge self-efficacy a The confidence in one’s ability to provide knowledge that is valuable to
the organization
I have confidence in my ability to provide knowledge that others in my organization consider
valuable *
I have the expertise needed to provide valuable knowledge for my organization
It doesn’t really make any difference whether I add to the knowledge others are likely to share through
technology systems
Most other employees can provide more valuable knowledge than I can *
Training Instruction and guidance on the job, process, and task
There is not enough instruction on how to find, understand, access or use customer-related
knowledgeb
I am getting the training I need to be able to use customer-related knowledge effectively in my jobb
I am getting the training I need to perform my job duties adequatelyf
Perceived ease of use c The extent to which a person believes that using a technology will be free
of effort
My interaction with the wiki is clear and understandable
Interacting with the wiki does not require a lot of mental effort
I find the wiki to be easy to use
I find it easy to get the wiki to do what I want it to do
Perceived external control c An individual’s perception of availability of knowledge, resources, and
opportunities required to perform the specific behavior
I have the resources necessary to use the wiki
I have the knowledge necessary to use the wiki
Given the resources, opportunities and knowledge it takes to use the wiki, it would be easy for me to
use the wiki
The wiki is not compatible with other systems I use *
Perceived usefulness c The degree to which a person believes that using a particular system
would enhance his or her job performance
Using the wiki improves my performance in my job
Using the wiki in my job increases my productivity
Using the wiki enhances my effectiveness in my job
I find the wiki to be useful in my job
Codification effort a The time and effort required to codify and input knowledge into system
I do not have the time to enter my knowledge into the wiki
It is laborious to codify my knowledge into the wiki
The effort is high for me to codify my knowledge into the wiki *
I am worried that if I share my knowledge through the wiki, I will have to spend additional time
answering follow up questions *
(continued) Table AI.
TLO Construct Definition and survey items
21,1 a
Generalized trust The belief in good intent, competence, and reliability of employees with
respect to contributing and reusing knowledge
I believe that people in my organization give credit for other’s knowledge where it is due
I believe that people in my organization do not use unauthorized knowledge
68 I believe that people in my organization use other’s knowledge appropriately
I believe that people in my organization share the best knowledge that they have
Reciprocity expectation a The belief that current contribution to the system would lead to future
requests for knowledge being met
When I share my knowledge through the wiki, I believe that I will get an answer for giving an answer
When I share my knowledge through the wiki, I expect somebody to respond when I’m in need *
When I contribute knowledge to the wiki, I expect to get back knowledge when I need it
Teamwork As teamwork is a core value of SkyCo, existing measures were adapted
to measure the perception that using the system facilitates teamwork
Using the wiki contributes to the organization’s cohesiveness f,d
Using the wiki is a good way to interact with others in my organization f,d
Using the wiki facilitates teamwork in my organization f,a
Pro-sharing norms f,a The prevalence of norms that are intended to facilitate knowledge
sharing in an organization. (These items were adapted to reflect use of
the wiki as a facilitator of pro-sharing norms)
Using the wiki enhances cooperation in my organization
Using the wiki improves collaboration in my organization *
Using the wiki enables expression of conflicting views in my organization
Presenteeism e Degree to which technologies enable individuals to be reachable
The use of the wiki enables others to have access to me
The wiki makes me accessible to others
The use of the wiki enables me to be in touch with others
The wiki enables me to access others
Notes: a Kankanhalli et al. (2005); b Goodhue (1998); c Venkatesh (2000); d Dennis and Reinicke (2004);
e
Table AI. Ayyagari et al. (2011); f Adapted and re-developed item; * item dropped

About the author

Andrea J. Hester, PhD, is Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Management and
Information Systems at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. She holds a PhD in Computer
Science and Information Systems from the University of Colorado and a Master’s degree in
Computer Management and Information Systems from Southern Illinois University
Edwardsville. She teaches in the areas of Java programming and web development. Her
research interests focus on collaborative knowledge management and the use of Web 2.0
technologies in organizations as well as the classroom. She has published in Information
Technology and Management and International Journal of Social and Organizational Dynamics in
IT, as well as proceedings of international and national conferences. Andrea J. Hester can be
contacted at: [email protected]

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