Earthquakes

• The material for the next two lectures

is based on Chapter 8 (pgs 251-316)

Press and Siever 1994

 Geology in the media
24 February 2003 6.4 M, Southern Xinjiang, China
~250 killed, 1000s injured

[Link]
 Earthquakes

• Earthquakes are one of nature’s most

frightening phenomena and an
indication that Earth is an internally
active planet.
• About 13 million people have died in
earthquakes in the last 4,000 years, 2.7
million in the last century alone.
Some Significant Earthquakes
YEAR LOCATION MAGNITUDE DEATHS
1556 China (Shanxi Province) 8.0 1,000,000
1755 Portugal (Lisbon) 8.6 70,000
1811-1812 USA (New Madrid, Missouri) 7.5 20
1886 USA (Charleston, South Carolina) 7.0 60
1906 USA (San Francisco, California) 8.3 700
1923 Japan (Tokyo) 8.3 143,000
1964 USA (Alaska) 8.6 131
1976 China (Tangshan) 8.0 242,000
1985 Mexico (Mexico City) 8.1 9,500
1988 Armenia 7.0 25,000
1989 USA (Loma Prieta, California) 7.1 63
1990 Iran 7.3 40,000
1993 India 6.4 30,000
1994 USA (Northridge, California) 6.7 61
1995 Japan (Kobe) 7.2 5,000 +
1997 Iran 7.3 2,400 +
1998 Afghanistan 6.1 5,000 +
1999 Turkey 7.4 17,000
 Investigating the Earth
• Direct methods include
• Drilling through the crust
• The deepest hole ever drilled was
~12km deep
• Although oceanic crust is only 8km
thick we cannot drill to the mantle
• Mantle magmas & xenoliths
Murck and Skinner (1999)
• Some magmas bring material from
depth
• Xenoliths are fragments of other
rocks

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Indirect methods

• Meteorites
• Some meteorites were formed at the same
time as the Earth and have retained that
composition (primitive)
• Others have compositions similar to the
Earth’s core (irons/stony irons)
 Indirect methods

• Geophysics
• Magnetism
• Gravity
• Seismic surveys
• Resistivity
• Gas surveys
• Conductivity
Aeromagnetic image
• Ground penetrating radar courtesy of CODELCO

• Satellite imagery
Location of earthquakes

Montgomery (2001)
 Earthquake depth

• Based on focus-depth, there are 3 types

of earthquakes:
1) shallow-focus at depths <70 km,
2) intermediate-focus at depths of 70-300 km
3) deep-focus at depths >300 km.
• Of all earthquakes, 90% occur at depths
<100 km and only 3% are deep-focus.
Earthquakes

Deep &
strong

Shallow -
deep & Shallow
strong & weak
Murck and Skinner (1999)

Shallow-
intermediate
& strong
 Earthquakes
• There is a clear association between earthquakes
and plate boundaries
• But what exactly is an earthquake?
• Earthquake refers to the shaking or trembling of a
portion of Earth’s surface caused by a sudden
release of energy, usually by slippage of rocks
along a fracture (faulting).
• After an earthquake, continuing adjustments along
the fracture may generate a series of generally
smaller quakes known as aftershocks.
 Hanging wall & footwall

The footwall
block lies
beneath the fault
plane and the
hanging wall
block lies above

Chernicoff and Whitney (2002)

 Fault types
We can only think of the movement on
faults in terms of relative movement
• Normal or dip-slip faults
• Reverse faults
• Strike slip faults
• Oblique slip faults
– some combination

Chernicoff and
Whitney (2002)
 Normal dip-slip faults
• All movement on a dip-slip fault is parallel to the dip of
the fault plane, that is, movement is up or down the fault
plane.
• In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves down the fault
plane. Normal faults result from tensional stress.

footwall

hanging wall

Wicander and Monroe (2002)

 Normal faults

Thompson and Turk (1998)

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Reverse dip-slip faults
Reverse faults are dip-slip faults where the hanging
wall has moved up the inclined fault plane. In reverse
faults, the dip of the fault plane is >45°. Formed by
compressional stress

footwall

hanging wall

Wicander and Monroe (2002)

 Reverse faults

Murck and
Skinner (1999)
 Thrust faults
Reverse faults with fault plane dips of
<45° are called thrust faults

Murck and
Skinner (1999)
 Strike-Slip Faults
Strike-slip faults are caused by shearing forces, which
cause blocks on either side of the fault plane to slide
laterally past one another.

San Andreas Fault, Calif.

Wicander and Monroe (2002)
 Strike-slip faults
Sinistral
As the observer looks
across the fault plane
to the opposite side,
the offset feature will
lie to the left for a left-
lateral (sinistral) fault
strike-slip fault and to
the right for a right-
lateral (dextral) strike- Dextral
slip fault.

Murck and Skinner (1999)

San Andreas fault.

• The Pacific
plate appears to
be moving NW
relative to the
North American
plate

Chernicoff and Whitney (2002)

 Oblique-Slip Faults
Movement on most faults is either primarily dip-slip or
primarily strike-slip. On oblique-slip faults, both dip-slip
and strike-slip movement occur. This oblique-slip fault
has undergone a
combination of
normal dip-slip and
right-lateral strike
slip movement.

Wicander and
Monroe (2002)
 Earthquakes
• The movement of the plates past each
other generates stress
• This causes rocks on either side of a
fault to fracture

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Earthquakes

• The movement along

the faults is not
smooth
• Rather the strain
energy is built up until
friction is overcome
• This sudden release of
energy is an
earthquake
Murck and Skinner (1999)
 Elastic rebound theory

• This is based on the

fact rocks undergo
elastic deformation
(reversible changes
in volume or shape)

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Elastic Rebound Theory
This explains how energy is released during earthquakes. On Earth’s surface,
any straight line like a road or a fence (A) crossing a fault would be gradually
deformed or bent (B) as rocks on one side of the fault move relative to those on
the other side.

When the strength of rock is

exceeded, movement
occurs along the fault and
A B energy is released, causing
an earthquake (C). After
energy is released, the
rocks rebound or “snap
back” to their original
undeformed shape (D).
C D
Wicander and Monroe (2002)
 Elastic Rebound Theory
• The first evidence to support this theory came from
the San Andeas fault
• Precise measurements from 1874 onwards showed
that in places the crust was being bent
• However, near San
Francisco the fault
was locked
• On April 18, 1906
the stored energy
was released

Murck and Skinner (1999)

What Is Seismology? Pg 278
Seismology is the study of earthquakes. The
energy released by movement along a fault
travels as seismic waves outward in a
concentric pattern from the place of
movement. The passage of these waves
through Earth materials is detected, recorded,
and measured by [Link] record
made is a seismogram.

Wicander and
Monroe (2002)
 Seismographs
• Because seismographs sit on the
Earth’s surface there is no fixed frame
of reference for measurements
• So most rely on
inertia

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Seismographs
• When the ground vibrates the spring
expands and contracts but the mass
remains stationary
• Difference between the movement of
the ground
and the
pendulum
serves as a
measure of
ground motion
Murck and Skinner (1999)
 What Are Seismic Waves?
Seismic waves are produced as energy is released by
movement along a fault. The passage of seismic waves
through Earth materials produces vibrations that cause an
earthquake. Body waves are seismic waves that travel
through the solid body of Earth, much like sound
waves. Surface waves
travel along the
ground surface and Oakland, Calf., 1989
are similar to waves
on water.

Wicander and Monroe (2002)

Body waves
Compressional waves - P waves
Shear waves - S waves

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Primary waves

• These compressional waves behave

like sound waves
• Move through
solids, liquids
and gas
• 6 km/s

Chernicoff and Whitney (2002)

 Secondary waves
• Shear waves move in alternating
sideways movements
• Move through
solids only
• 3.5 km/s

Chernicoff and Whitney (2002)

 Surface waves (after P and S)
Love
waves Move around the
Earth not through it

Rayleigh
waves

Slowest waves
but do the most
damage

Chernicoff and Whitney (2002)

 Surface Waves
Rayleigh waves, like water waves, move material in an
elliptical path and are slower than Love waves. The
motion of Loves waves is similar to S-waves except that
movement is restricted to a horizontal plane

Wicander and Monroe (2002)

Seismograms

Murck and Skinner (1999)

 Focus and Epicenter
The focus of an earthquake is the point within Earth
where fracturing first begins, that is, the point where
energy is first released. In describing the location of
earthquakes,
however, news
reports refer to
the epicenter,
the point on
Earth’s
surface
directly above
the focus.

Plummer et al. (2001)

 Locating the Epicenter
Earthquake epicenters are located based on the difference
in the arrival time at seismograph stations of the first P- and
S-waves, the P-S time interval. P-waves arrive first,
followed in order by S-, Love, and Rayleigh waves.

Wicander and Monroe (2002)

 Locating the Epicenter
Wicander and Monroe (2002) Seismologists know the
average speeds of P- and S-
waves. Based on these
average speeds, P-S wave
travel times have been
determined for distances
between focus and
seismograph. Time-distance
graphs plot “P-S time interval”
versus “travel distance” and are
used to locate epicenters.
Locating the epicentre

Chernicoff and
Whitney (2002)
 Locating the Epicenter

If the “P-S travel times” are

known from at least three
seismograph stations, then
the epicenter of any
earthquake can be located.
Using the P-S travel time for
each station, travel distance
can be determined from the
time-distance graph. A circle
with a radius equal to the
travel distance is drawn for
each of the three
seismograph stations. The
intersection of the three
circles is the location of the
Wicander and Monroe (2002) epicenter.
 Locating the Epicenter.

Chernicoff and
Whitney (2002)
 Measuring earthquakes
• The Richter Magnitude Scale is a quantitative measure of
earthquake magnitude, the amount of energy released by
an earthquake at its source. It is determined based on the
amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded for a given
earthquake. The Richter Scale ranges from 1 to 9, with 9
assigned to the largest quakes theoretically possible.
• An increase of one unit on the Richter Scale, from 5.5 to
6.5 for example, is equivalent to a 10-fold increase in the
amplitude of the largest seismic wave produced.
• In terms of energy released, each one unit increase on the
Richter Scale equals a 30-fold increase in energy released
at the focus. It would take about 30 quakes of 5.5
magnitude to release as much energy as one 6.5 quake.
 Average Number of Richter Magnitudes
per Year Worldwide
AVERAGE NUMBER
MAGNITUDE EFFECTS PER YEAR

<2.5 Typically not felt but 900,000

recorded
2.5 -6.0 Usually felt; minor to
moderate damage to 31,000
structures
6.1-6.9 Potentially destructive,
especially in populated 100
areas
7.0-7.9 Major earthquakes; 20
serious damage results
>8.0 Great earthquakes;
usually result in 1 every 5 years
total destruction
 The Richter Scale
• Named after Charles Richter who developed it in
1935
• In addition to being logarithmic the Richter scale is
corrected for distance
• So the magnitude for a given quake is the same no
matter how far away you are
• Magnitude is the same but the effects are not
• The largest quakes recorded had amplitudes of 8.6
 Measuring earthquakes (pg 278)
• Intensity is a subjective measure of the damage done by
an earthquake as well as what people felt. The Modified
Mercalli Scale assesses earthquake intensity,
approximating size and strength of an earthquake.
• The scale ranges from 1 to 12 with increasing intensity.
For an earthquake of given Richter magnitude, intensity
will vary with distance from epicenter, local geology,
construction practices, etc. Below are characteristics of
some quake intensities on the Modified Mercalli Scale.

II Felt only by a few people at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.

VI Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved,
a few instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage slight.

IX Damage considerable in specially designed structures. Buildings shifted off

foundations. Ground noticeably cracked. Underground pipes broken.
 The Mercalli scale

• The scale was developed in 1902

• Unlike the Richter scale the Mercalli
scale varies with distance.
• A IX near the epicentre would register
as a I or II further away
• Dependant on rock and soil type
• Useful for classifying historic quakes
but is a subjective scale
 Comparing scales
Richter Mercalli Effects

<3.4 I Recorded only by seismographs

3.5 - 4.2 II & III Felt by some people indoors
4.3 - 4.8 IV Felt by many, windows rattle
4.9 - 5.4 V Felt by all, dishes break
5.5 - 6.1 VI & VII Plaster cracks, bricks fall
6.2 - 6.9 VIII & IX Chimneys fall, houses move on
foundations
7.0 - 7.3 X Bridges twisted, walls fractures,
masonry buildings collapse
7.4 - 7.9 XI Great damage, most buildings collapse
>8.0 XII Total damage, objects thrown in air,
waves seen on ground surface
 The Moment Magnitude scale
• The moment magnitude scale is the scale preferred by
seismolgists as the Richter scale does not accurately reflect
the amount of energy released by large quakes on long faults.
• The scale uses the seismic moment which is proportional to
the displacement on the fault times the rupture area on the
fault surface times the rigidity of the rock.
Earthquake Richter Moment
Chile, 1960 8.3 9.5
Alaska, 1964 8.4 9.2
Loma Prieta, 1989 7.1 7.0
Northridge, 1994 6.4 6.7
 Moment Magnitude

• Moment = (total length of fault rupture)

X (depth of fault rupture) X (total
amount of slip along rupture) X
(strength of rock).

• Measures strength of quake from its

cause (rupture of rocks and distance
rocks moved) rather than from its
effect (seismic waves on seismograph)
 The Moment Magnitude scale
Moment Energy Eqv.
Magnitude
-2 100 W bulb for 1 wk

2 Lightning bolt

4 I kiloton explosives

8 Mt St Helens, 1980

10 Annual US energy
consumption

Equivalent moment magnitudes in ergs, Pipkin and

Trent (1997)
 The Moment Magnitude scale

• The Richter scale is based on the

concept that earthquake foci are points
and is still good for earthquakes where
the energy is released from a small
volume of rock
• The Moment scale accounts for the fact
that energy may be released from a
large area and accounts for variations
in the properties of rock and soil
 Acceleration
• Earthquakes generate
horizontal movement,
these can be measured by
accelerographs. This is
expressed as a fraction of
gravity and is often
critical to building design.
• Ground motion increases
by 10x for each Richter
unit

Montgomery (2001)
 Canadian Quakes
• ~ 1,500 earthquakes each year in Canada. Only
about 100 of these measure > 3 on the Richter scale
or are felt by humans.
• The largest earthquake in Canada this century
(magnitude 8.1) occurred in 1949 in the sparsely
populated Queen Charlotte Islands.
• In 1929, 27 people drowned in a tsunami, (large
ocean wave) generated by an offshore earthquake of
magnitude 7.2 south of Newfoundland.
• A magnitude 6 earthquake in the Saguenay region of
Quebec in November 1988 caused tens of millions
of dollars in damage. It was the largest earthquake
in eastern North America since 1935.
 Canadian Quakes
Some significant quakes in Canada 1600-1900

1663 - M 7 - Charlevoix-Kamouraska Region

1700 - M 9 - Cascadia Subduction Zone
1732 - M 5.8 - Western Quebec Seismic Zone, Montreal
Region
1791 - M 6 - Charlevoix-Kamouraska Region
1860 - M 6 - Charlevoix-Kamouraska Region
1870 - M 6.5 - Charlevoix-Kamouraska Region
1872 - M 7.4 - Washington-B.C. Border
1899 - M 8.0 - Yukon-Alaska Border
 Significant Canadian Quakes
1989, 6.3, Ungava region, Quebec
1988, 5.9, Saguenay region, Quebec
1985, 6.6 and 6.9, Nahanni region, NW Territories
1979, 7.2, Southern Yukon-Alaska Border
1970, 7.4, South of Queen Charlotte Islands, BC
1949, 8.1, Offshore Queen Charlotte Islands, BC
1946, 7.3, Vancouver Island, BC
1944, 5.6, Cornwall region, Ontario-New York border
1935, 6.2, Quebec - Ontario Border, 1929, 7.2, Atlantic Ocean,
south of Newfoundland
1929, 7.0, South of Queen Charlotte Islands, BC
1925, 6.2, Charlevoix-Kamouraska region, Quebec
1918, 7.0, Vancouver Island, BC
 M6.2 1935 Timiskaming quake
On November 1st 1935 at 01:03 a.m. an earthquake
took place approximately 10 km east of Témiscaming,
Québec. This earthquake was felt west to Thunder
Bay, Ontario, east to the
Bay of Fundy and
south to Kentucky and
Virginia.

Isoseismal map of the Timiskaming

earthquake (Modified Mercalli scale,
source Smith, 1966).
Source: Lamontagne, M., and Bruneau, M.
1993. "Impact of the eastern Canadian
earthquakes of 1925, 1929, 1935 and 1944".
Earthquake Engineering Research Institure
slide set, Oakland, California.
 Charlevoix Seismic Zone
• Located some 100 km downstream from Quebec
City the CSZ is the most seismically active region of
eastern Canada.
• Five earthquakes of magnitude 6 or larger: in 1663
(Mag. 7); 1791 (Mag. 6); 1860 (Mag. 6); 1870 (Mag. 6
1/2); and 1925 (magnitude MS 6.2 ± 0.3).
• Between 1978 and 1997
inclusively, the network
detected nearly 2200 local
earthquakes, of which 54
exceeded magnitude 3.0
with 8 equal or larger to 4.0.

[Link]
 Canadian earthquakes
• The majority of earthquakes occur in the Vancouver
area
• However M>6 have occurred in Grand Banks,
Timiskaming, Saguenay and Charlevoix
• In southern Ontario the risk of large quakes in the
next 50 years are
• M=5 57%
• M=6 6%
• M=7 1%

[Link]
 Canadian Earthquakes

2002-12-11 to 2003-01-10

Montgomery (2001)
[Link]
 Southern Ontario
• 80% of quakes in a
20km wide zone
between Toronto and
Hamilton. Typically
shallow quakes
• Ground motion for the
quakes exceeds
design limits for
Pickering and
Darlington reactors

Seismicity and aeromagnetic lineations in

Lake Ontario region. Mohajer (1997)
Environmental Geology of Urban Areas
 Southern Ontario
• US reactors in the NE US
are designed to withstand
ground motion equivalent
to 15% of the force of
acceleration due to gravity
• Pickering and Darlington
are built to withstand 4-8%
• A M=5 quake 17km from a
nuclear plant in Ohio
produced DNE’s of 18-20%
• Awareness in the region is
low, national building code
modified in 1953, local by-
laws delayed the changes
until 1967
 Canadian Earthquakes

• 9 M = 6-7 quakes
within 300 km of
Vancouver in the last
100 years
• Geological evidence
for M>8 in Pacific NW
• On average a M ~8
quake occurs every
500-700 years but
interval is 100-1000yrs Montgomery
(2001)
 Next time

• Earthquake hazards

San Francisco, Calif., 1989

Wicander and Monroe (2002)