Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Regional Office IX, Zamboanga Peninsula

SHS

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
2nd Semester - Module 1
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Name of Learner: ___________________________

Grade & Section: ___________________________
Name of School: ___________________________
General Chemistry 2 – Grade 11/12
Support Material for Independent Learning Engagement (SMILE)
Module 1: Intermolecular Forces
First Edition, 2021

Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of
the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such
agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.

Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders.
Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their
respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do not represent nor claim ownership
over them.

Development Team of the Module

Writer: Mahal B. Rosel
Editor: Zyhrine P. Mayormita
Reviewer: Zyhrine P. Mayormita
Layout Artist: Chris Raymund M. Bermudo
Management Team: Virgilio P. Batan Jr. - Schools Division Superintendent
Lourma I. Poculan - Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Amelinda D. Montero - Chief Education Supervisor, CID
Nur N. Hussien - Chief Education Supervisor, SGOD
Ronillo S. Yarag - Education Program Supervisor, LRMS
Zyhrine P. Mayormita - Education Program Supervisor, Science
Leo Martinno O. Alejo - Project Development Officer II, LRMS
Maria Lisa E. Valdehueza - School Principal, DCNHS

Printed in the Philippines by

Department of Education – Region IX– Dipolog City Schools Division

Office Address: Purok Farmers, Olingan, Dipolog City

Zamboanga del Norte, 7100
Telefax: (065) 212-6986 and (065) 212-5818
E-mail Address: [email protected]
 What I Need to Know
This module was designed and written in a way that suits your understanding
and needs. It aims to help you master the concepts behind intermolecular forces.
The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons
and activities are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. These are
anchored on the General Chemistry 2 curriculum standards.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Use the kinetic molecular model to explain the properties of liquids and solids
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-99)
2. Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-100)
3. Describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of
intermolecular forces on these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor
pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-
102)
4. Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular
forces (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-103)

What's In
Lesson 1: THE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL
AND THE PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

In the previous lessons in Grade 8, you have learned about the kinetic molecular
model of gases. The first activity will mainly focus on the kinetic molecular model of
solids and liquids.

Matter can exist in three main different states: namely, solid, liquid, and gas.
The most common example of which is water. You only have to think about water to
appreciate how different the three states of matter are. Steam bathing, drinking, and
ice skating are all done in contact with water in its various forms. But how do these
states of matter differ from each other? Understanding the kinetic molecular model
of the three states will answer this question.

1
Activity 1: What's the Matter?
Directions: Based on the picture below, identify what state of matter is being
represented. Write a brief description based on the arrangement of their particles and
give three examples for each state.

1 2 3

Figure 1 Image Source: https://webstockreview.net/pict/getfirst

State: (1)________ State: (2) ________ State: (3)________

Arrangement of Arrangement of Arrangement of
Particles: Particles: Particles:
_________________ _________________ _________________
_________________ _________________ _________________
_________________ _________________ _________________
Examples: Examples: Examples:
• ______________ • ______________ • _____________
• ______________ • ______________ • _____________
• ______________ • ______________ • _____________

What's New
What is the Kinetic Molecular Theory?

The kinetic-molecular theory is based on the idea that matter is composed of

tiny particles that are always in motion. The theory helps explain the observable
properties and behaviors of solids, liquids, and gases. It helps to explain why matter
exists in different phases (solid, liquid, and gas) and how matter can change from
one phase to another.

The state of a substance depends on the balance between the kinetic energy
of the individual particles (molecules or atoms) and the intermolecular forces. The
kinetic energy keeps the molecules apart and moving around, and is a function of
the temperature of the substance. The intermolecular forces are attractive forces that
try to draw the particles together.

Postulates of Kinetic Molecular Theory

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is based on a series of postulates. Some of the
postulates of KMT are as follows:
1. Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in
motion is called kinetic energy.

2
 2. The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
Increased temperature means greater speed.
3. There is space between particles. The amount of space between particles is
related to the substance's state of matter.
4. Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes
sufficiently.
5. There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces.
The strength of these forces increases as particles get closer together.

KMT in Relation to Liquids and Solids

The principal difference between the condensed states (liquids and solids) and
the gaseous state is the distance between molecules. In a liquid, the molecules are
so close together that there is very little empty space between particles. Thus, liquids
are much more difficult to compress than gases, and they are also much denser
under normal conditions. Molecules in a liquid are held together by one or more types
of attractive forces. A liquid also has a definite volume, because molecules in a liquid
do not break away from the attractive forces. The molecules can, however, move past
one another freely. So, a liquid can flow, can be poured, and assumes the shape of
its container.
In a solid, molecules are held rigidly in position with virtually no freedom of
movement, so they only vibrate only about fixed positions. There is even lesser empty
space between particles in a solid than in a liquid because their particles are tightly
packed. Thus, solids are almost incompressible and possess definite shape and
volume. This is due to the stronger intermolecular force of attraction compared to
liquids.

Figure 2. Change in phase.

Retrieved from: https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-8/particle-model-of-matter/06-
particle-model-of-matter?id=toc-id-4

Figure 1 shows the orientation of particles in each state of matter and the
direction of phase change due to the addition and removal of kinetic energy.

3
Activity 2: Be a Science Detective!
Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Explain the phenomenon.

Based on the kinetic molecular model, solids usually have higher densities
compared to liquids. However, ice, a solid form of H 2O floats on liquid water which
means ice is less dense than water. What do you think is the reason for this
observation? What is the biological significance of this concept?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Activity 3: Describe Me
Directions: Compare the properties of solids and liquids by completing the table
based on the kinetic molecular model. Provide a short description of each
characteristic for the given state of matter.

CHARACTERISTIC SOLID LIQUID

Intermolecular force
Shape
Volume
Density
Compressibility
Arrangement of particles
Motion of molecules
Fluidity

What Is It
Lesson 2: TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
In the preceding lesson, we have noted the differences in the properties of
matter in the gas phase from those in the liquid and solid phases. Such difference
can be attributed to the strong attractive forces in solid and liquid molecules. Gas
molecules have negligible or no attractions at all.

The condensation of gaseous substance to form liquids which in turn form

solids could be explained by the attractive forces called intermolecular forces.

Intermolecular forces vs. Intramolecular forces

It is important to note the difference between intermolecular forces and

intramolecular forces. As discussed in General Chemistry 1, atoms can form stable
units called molecules by sharing or transfer of electrons. This is called
intramolecular bonding.

4
 Intramolecular (within molecules) forces hold
atoms together in a molecule. Intramolecular forces
stabilize individual molecules. Generally, these forces are
simply chemical bonds such as ionic and covalent
bonding.
Figure 3. Molecule of water

On the other hand, intermolecular

forces are attractive forces between
molecules. Intermolecular forces are
responsible for the non-ideal behavior of
Figure 4. Intermolecular force in water
gases, but they exert more influence in the molecule which hold two molecules together.
condensed phases of matter - liquids and
solids.

Types of Intermolecular Forces

The intermolecular forces of attraction in substances include dipole-dipole,

London dispersion forces, hydrogen bonding, and ion-dipole forces.

London Dispersion Forces

London dispersion forces, or simply dispersion forces, are intermolecular

forces of attraction between all atoms and molecules. In addition, dispersion forces
are the only kind of intermolecular forces present among symmetrical nonpolar
substances such as O2 and CO2 and monoatomic species such as noble gases.
Without dispersion forces, such substances could not condense to form liquids or
solidify to form solids.
Dispersion forces are weak attractive forces that result from the continuous
movement of electrons in particles. Nonpolar molecules have zero dipole moment
because their electron density is uniform and symmetrical. Nevertheless, the
electrons have some freedom to move around the molecule. This induces temporary
dipoles (instantaneous dipoles) in neighboring atoms or molecules. As electron clouds
become larger and more diffuse, they are attracted less strongly by their own positive
nuclei. Thus, they are more easily distorted or polarized by the adjacent/nearby
nuclei.
Polarization increases with increasing numbers of electrons and therefore with
increasing size of molecules. Therefore, dispersion forces are generally stronger for
molecules that are larger or have more electrons. For example, between Helium and
Argon, two Argon atoms will have greater dispersion force because they are bigger
than Helium atoms.

Dipole-dipole Forces

Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules, that is,
between molecules that possess dipole moments. Their origin is electrostatic, and
they can be understood in terms of Coulomb's law. The larger the dipole moment, the
greater the force. Dipole-dipole forces are the attraction between the positive end of
one molecule and the negative end of another.

5
 Dipoles form when there is a large difference in electronegativity between two
atoms joined by a covalent bond.

Hydrogen Bonding

The hydrogen bond is a special case of very strong dipole-dipole interaction. It

is not a chemical bond in a formal sense. Strong Hydrogen bonding occurs among
polar covalent molecules containing H and one of the three small, highly
electronegative elements – F, O, or N. Like ordinary dipole-dipole interactions,
Hydrogen bonds result from the attraction between + (partial positive) atoms of one
molecule, in this case H atoms and the − (partial negative) atoms of another molecule.
The + H is attracted to a lone pair of electrons on an F, O, or N atom. Typically, a
Hydrogen bond is about five to ten times stronger than other dipole-dipole
interactions.

Ion-Dipole Forces

Ion-dipole force acts between an ion (either cation or anion) and a polar
molecule. When an ionic compound is placed in an aqueous solution, the positive
end of the ionic compound becomes surrounded by the partial negative end of the
ionic compound. In turn, it becomes surrounded by the partial positive Hydrogen ion
in water. In short, the positive pole is attracted to the negative ion (anion), while the
negative pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation).

Ion-dipole interactions are involved in the dissolution process, like in the case
of sodium chloride (table salt) dissolving in water. The Na+ and Cl- ions are dispersed
among water molecules. The Na+ ions will be surrounded by the partial negative
Oxygen of the water molecule, while the Cl- ions will be surrounded by the partial
positive H of the water molecule.

The strength of this interaction depends on the charge and size of the ion and
on the magnitude of the dipole moment and size of the molecule. The charges on
cations are generally more concentrated because cations are usually smaller than
anions. Therefore, a cation interacts more strongly with dipoles than does an anion
having a charge of the same magnitude.

These four intermolecular forces vary in strength. Ion dipole forces are the
strongest of the four, followed by Hydrogen bonding being a special type of dipole-
dipole. Dipole-dipole is weaker than the ion-dipole and Hydrogen bonding, while
London dispersion forces are the weakest.

6
 What's More
Activity 4: Operation Crossword Puzzle
Directions: Complete the crossword by filling in the boxes to form a word that
fits each clue. Disregard space between two-word phrases or hyphens.

Across:
1. This is a special case of a very strong dipole-dipole interaction.
4. The force that holds atoms together in a molecule.
6. Intermolecular forces present among symmetrical nonpolar substances.
8. The attractive force between molecules.
Down:
2. This is an intermolecular force that acts between an ion and a polar molecule.
3. A collective term used to define the attraction of intermolecular forces.
5. These are attractive forces between polar molecules.
7. The atom of this element forms hydrogen bonding.

Activity 5: What If?

Directions: Investigate and analyze the given situation. Provide a detailed
explanation for each case.

Water is present in almost every living thing, including human beings. It was
discussed that water molecules are held by Hydrogen bonds. What do you think
will happen if Hydrogen bonding in water does not exist at all?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Adapted from Department of Education Regional Office No. 02 (Cagayan Valley) (2020). General Chemistry 2 Quarter
1 Learning Activity Sheets

7
 Lesson 3. PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

Liquids are made up of particles that are close to each other and have kinetic
energy. The particles are not confined to a rigid position, and they move, but they
can only travel at a short distance before they collide with each other and change the
direction of motion. They roll and slide on top of one another and flow. Since the
molecules flow, they take the shape of their container and diffuse moderately to a
fixed volume.
Liquids have moderately high density since they occupy a fixed volume, and
the particles are attracted to each other. They also have low compressibility and
thermal expansion.
The kinetic energy of the molecules break away from their neighbor, and thus,
the particles are joined by intermolecular forces. Most liquids exist as molecules at
room temperature. The presence of the intermolecular forces results in special
properties. The physical properties of liquids depend on the type of the different
intermolecular forces.

Surface Tension
Surface tension is the force that causes the surface of a liquid to contract. It
is the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force due
to the cohesive nature of its molecules.
Phenomena such as insects walking on the surface of the water, droplets of
liquid being spherical in shape, and needles remaining suspended on the surface of
the water can all be explained in terms of surface tension.
The strength of surface tension depends on the intermolecular force of
attraction. If the intermolecular force of attraction of a liquid is strong, then there is
a greater force needed to break through the surface and the greater the surface
tension is. Since the intermolecular forces vary in nature and strength, surface
tension is different for various forms of liquids. Water has a high surface tension
because of its ability to form a Hydrogen bond.
Temperature affects surface tension. An increase in the liquid's temperature
causes water molecules at the surface to evaporate, resulting in the weakening of the
force of attraction. Therefore, there is less force needed to break through the surface
of the molecules, and this decreases surface tension.
Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces.
Molecules at the surface are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not
upward away from the surface.
These intermolecular forces tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and
cause the surface to tighten like an elastic film or "skin".
Capillary action is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn
into small openings such as those between grains of a rock. Capillary action, also
known as capillarity, is a result of the intermolecular attraction between the liquid
and solid materials.
Capillary action is shown by water rising spontaneously in capillary tubes. A
thin film of water adheres to the wall of the glass tube as water molecules are
attracted to atoms making up the glass (SiO 2). Surface tension causes the film of
water to contract and pulls the water up the tube.

Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:

1. Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the liquid
molecules).
8
 2. Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in water
and in the particles that make up the glass tube).
These forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid in a cylindrical
container (the meniscus!)

Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of fluids to flow. A liquid's resistance (friction) to
flow exists between the molecules of liquid when they move past each other. The
greater the resistance in flowing, the more viscous the liquid is.
Maple syrup in pancakes is usually made from the xylem sap of sugar maple,
red maple, or black maple trees. It is boiled down, so it becomes a more concentrated
and viscous liquid. Maple syrup is more viscous than water. The difference in
viscosity between the two liquids is a measure of their intermolecular force of
attraction. In order to flow, molecules must move, roll and slide over one another. A
liquid with low intermolecular force allows its molecules to move freely and has a
lower viscosity.
An increase in temperature causes kinetic energy to increase. Heat breaks the
intermolecular forces causing the liquid molecules to move faster. This makes the
molecules flow more readily. Therefore, an increase in temperature decreases
viscosity.
Since the structure of maple syrup contains a lot of O-H bond compared to
water, more H-bonds are formed in maple syrup. The greater the number of H-bonds,
the stronger the intermolecular force of attraction is, and the higher the viscosity of
the liquid.
Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise. The table below gives the
viscosities of liquids of some pure substances. Water has 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s
at 20 °C. Substances with lower viscosities include carbon tetrachloride and benzene.
Glycerol has a resistance to the flow of more than a thousand times greater than
water.
Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces have higher viscosities than
those that have weak intermolecular forces. Viscosity decreases as temperature
increases: hot molasses flows much faster than cold molasses.

Vapor Pressure
Vaporization is a phase change from liquid to gas, while the opposite process
(gas to liquid) is condensation. When liquid molecules break free from their neighbors
and escape into the gas phase, the process is called evaporation.
Vaporization is a broader term that includes evaporation and boiling. Gas and
vapor are similar but not the same. Vapor is used to refer to the gaseous phase of a
substance, which is normally a liquid or solid at room temperature. The average
kinetic energy of the liquid molecules of a substance depends on temperature. Most
liquid particles have higher kinetic energy, and some others move at a slower pace.
Substances that evaporate readily are volatile. They have weak intermolecular
forces of attraction. Some examples of volatile liquids are alcohol, gasoline, paint
thinner, and dry-cleaning solvents. Volatile substances burn more readily since they
easily combine with Oxygen. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to
its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures. As the
faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic
energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases. Therefore, evaporation is
accompanied by cooling.
In a closed container half-filled with liquid, the fast-moving molecules also
escape into the gas phase forming vapor at the space above the liquid.
9
 Gas molecules move in random directions, collide with other gas particles and
the walls of the container. Some will strike the liquid surface and condense back into
it. In the closed flask, none of the gas particles are able to get out of the container.
Eventually, the number of molecules that goes into the gaseous state would equal
the number of molecules that condenses back.
When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of
evaporation of the liquid, the gas in the container is said to be in equilibrium with
the liquid.
Like any gas sample, the molecules in the gaseous state over its liquid create
a pressure. The greater the number of gaseous particles, the greater the pressure
exerted by the gas. The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a liquid in a
closed container at a given temperature is called the equilibrium vapor pressure or
simply vapor pressure of the liquid.
The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor pressure of a liquid at
a given temperature and that it is constant at a constant temperature. It increases
with temperature. Vapor pressure is independent of the amount of liquid as well as
the surface area of the liquid in contact with the gas. When the temperature is high,
more molecules have enough energy to escape from the liquid. At a lower
temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the liquid. When
liquids evaporate, the molecules have to have sufficient energy to break the attractive
forces that hold them in the liquid state. The stronger these intermolecular forces
are, the greater the amount of energy needed to break them.
For some substances with weak intermolecular forces, the energy requirement
is easily obtained from collisions with other molecules and absorption of energy from
the surroundings. Many molecules can vaporize, resulting in high vapor pressure.
For molecules with strong intermolecular forces, gathering enough energy may not
be as easy and register low vapor pressures. The stronger the intermolecular forces
of attraction, the lower the vapor pressure of a liquid.

Molar Heat of Vaporization

The relationship between vapor pressure and strength of intermolecular forces

is consistent with the trends in two other properties of liquids, the enthalpy or molar
heat of vaporization and the boiling point of the liquid.
The molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is the energy required to vaporize 1
mole of a liquid at a given temperature. H is the symbol for enthalpy, which means
heat content at a given standard condition.
The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of the strength of
intermolecular forces in a liquid. If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a
lot of energy to free the molecules from the liquid phase, and the heat of vaporization
will be high.
It is easier to vaporize acetone (lower Hvap) than water (higher Hvap) at a given
temperature, and more acetone escapes into the vapor phase at a given temperature.
Acetone is a polar substance but has no H-bonding. It has weaker intermolecular
forces than water, and therefore acetone molecules are held less tightly to one
another in the liquid phase.
A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar heat of vaporization is
by rubbing acetone on your hands. Compare what you feel when water is used.
Acetone has a lower ΔHvap than water, so that heat from our hands is enough to
increase the kinetic energy of these molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize
them. As a result of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.

10
Boiling Point

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid changes
into a gas. A liquid boils when its vapor pressure equals the pressure acting on the
surface of the liquid. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure
of a liquid is equal to the external pressure.
The normal boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid converts to a
gas when the external pressure is 1 atm. The normal boiling point of water is 100 °C.
The boiling point of a liquid depends on the external pressure. For example, at 1 atm,
water boils at 100 °C, but if the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atm, water boils at only
82 °C.
The boiling point is related to the molar heat of vaporization; the higher ΔHvap,
the higher the boiling point.

Activity 6: I Can Do It!

Directions: Identify the concept that is described in each statement below. Choose
the correct answer from the list below.
Surface tension Viscosity
Vapor pressure Capillary action
Molar heat of vaporization Boiling point
Vapor Liquid flow
Fluid Vaporization
_________________1. The measure of the elastic force on the surface of a liquid.
_________________2. A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
_________________3. The tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn
into small openings.
_________________4. The measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
_________________5. A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a liquid or solid at
normal temperature.
_________________6. The change of phase from liquid to vapor (gaseous phase).
_________________7. The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid; that is, the
the pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed container.
_________________8. The temperature at which a liquid boils.
_________________9. The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of
a liquid at a given temperature.
________________10. The movement of liquids and gases; describes how fluids behave
and how they interact with their surrounding environment.

11
Activity 7: Picture Shows What I Know
Directions: Describe what is happening to the water molecules in the two flasks
shown in the picture.
Questions:

What happens to the molecules of

water in the container when the
temperature increases?

Container B shows equilibrium. How

does it happen in such a balance?

Answer: ____________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
Image Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide
/10887756/ _____________________________________
_____________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Lesson 4: PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water makes up a large proportion of the entire biosphere, where 95% is

saltwater, and the remaining 5% is freshwater.
Water is locked up in ice and glaciers, deep and shallow underground lakes,
soil, atmosphere, and rivers. The human body consists of 50-75% water. Water
serves important purposes for life on earth. Water's unique properties result from
the strong intermolecular force of attraction characterized by the hydrogen bond.
Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very easily.
When placed in water, sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The positively charged
sodium ion (Na+) binds to Oxygen, while the negatively charged chloride ion (Cl -)
attaches to hydrogen. This property of water allows for the transport of nutrients
vital to life in animals and plants. A drop of rainwater falling through the air dissolves
atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the land,
lakes, and rivers.

The following are properties of water:

Boiling point and freezing point. The high boiling point of water is a
consequence of its strong intermolecular forces of attraction caused by the formation
of the H-bond. It also explains why water is liquid at room temperature. Due to
Hydrogen bonding, water molecules cling to each other (cohesion) and remain in the
liquid state under temperatures favorable to plants and other living organisms. Pure
water at sea level boils at 100 0C and freezes at 0 0C, but extra energy is needed to
push water molecules into the air. This is called latent heat—the heat required to
change water from one phase to another. At higher elevations (lower atmospheric
pressure), water's boiling temperature decreases. This is why it takes longer to boil
an egg at higher altitudes. The temperature does not get high enough to cook the egg
properly.

If a substance is dissolved in water, the freezing point is lowered. Energy is

lost when water freezes. A great deal of heat is released into the environment when
12
liquid water changes to ice. It is lost when the high energy phase of liquid water
moves to the low energy phase of ice. Thus, nights when ice freezes often feel warmer
than nights when the ice melts.

Specific heat. Specific heat refers to the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 oC. For water, its specific heat is 1cal/g
oC. It means that water can absorb and release large quantities of heat without a

change in temperature. This is the reason why body temperature remains at 37 oC

even when there's a change in the surrounding. This also explains why oceans and
lakes exert an influence on the climate. If there were no large bodies of water, the
earth would experience significant temperature variations. Water has high specific
heat. The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of water by one degree
Celsius is quite large. Because so much heat loss or heat input is required to lower
or raise the temperature of the water, the oceans and other large bodies of water have
relatively constant temperatures. Thus, many organisms living in the oceans are
provided with a relatively constant environmental temperature. The high-water
content of plants and animals living on land helps them to maintain a relatively
constant internal temperature. The specific heat of water is five times greater than
that of sand.

Density in its liquid form. Water is the only substance that contracts when
cooled. For most substances, their solid form is denser than their liquid form. This
is because the H-bond is more extensive in its solid state than in its liquid state. Ice
has an open structure because the hydrogen bonds could not get inside the
hexagonal ring structure. This more open structure of the solid form of water causes
the ice to have a smaller number of molecules packed in a given volume. This causes
the mass to be lower. Hence, the density of ice is lesser than the liquid water, and,
as a result, ice floats on water. This also causes the water in ponds or lakes to freeze
from the top down. Water is most dense at 4 0C and then begins to expand again
(becoming less dense) as the temperature decreases further. This expansion occurs
because its Hydrogen bonds become more rigid and ordered. The expansion of water
takes place even before it actually freezes. As water temperature drops, the colder
water (0-4 0C), where it is less dense— rises to the pond or lake surface. It freezes to
form a lid of ice. This ice insulates the water below from the wintry chill so that it is
less likely to freeze. Organisms that inhabit the pond are able to survive the frigid
winter below the icy surface.
For most substances, solids are denser than liquids. But the special properties
of water make it less dense as a solid. Ice floats on water! Strong hydrogen bonds
formed at freezing 0 0C lock water molecules away from each other. When ice melts,
the structure collapses, and molecules move closer together. Liquid water at 4 0C is
about 9% denser than ice. This property plays an important role in water ecosystems.
Floating ice often insulates and protects animals and plants living in the water below.

Surface tension. The hydrogen bond formation among water molecules

causes water to have high surface tension, as described earlier. This high surface
tension causes water to move from the roots of a tree to the top of very tall trees and
explains why water moves into the fibers of a towel.

This phenomenon is called capillarity. Water molecules at the surface (next to air)
hold closely together, forming an invisible film. Water's surface tension can hold a
weight that would normally sink. You can carefully float a paper clip on top of the
water. Some aquatic insects, such as the water strider or pond skater, rely on surface
13
tension to walk on water. Surface tension is essential for the transfer of energy from
wind to water to create waves. Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes
and seas. Next to mercury, water has the highest surface tension of all commonly
occurring liquids.

Cohesion—Water molecules stick to each other. This is due to the hydrogen

bonds among the molecules. Water molecules at the surface have a much greater
attraction for each other than for molecules in the air. This cohesiveness creates a
high surface tension at the surface of the water. The water molecules at the surface
crowd together, producing a strong layer as they are pulled downward by the
attraction of other water molecules beneath them.

Adhesion—Water molecules stick to other substances. You can see this

property when water creeps up the inside of a drinking glass. Think of a sponge or a
paper towel used to "soak up" spilled water. This is how water makes things wet.
Water also clings to living things. Most plants have adapted to take advantage of
water's adhesion that helps move water from the roots to the leaves. This is called
capillary action. This can also be seen as blood moves through our capillaries,
carrying nutrients to each cell within our body. One of the tallest plants is the
redwood tree. Water moves from its roots to its leaves, more than 90 m above the
ground. As a plant loses water through pores in the leaves, more water moves up
from roots and stems to replace the lost water. The process of water loss by leaves is
known as transpiration.

Thermal properties - Water absorbs or releases more heat than many

substances for each degree of temperature increase or decrease. Because of this, it
is widely used for cooling and for transferring heat in thermal and chemical
processes. Differences in temperature between lakes and rivers and the surrounding
air may have a variety of effects. For example, local fog or mist is likely to occur if a
lake cools in the surrounding air enough to cause saturation—small water droplets
are suspended in the air. Large bodies of water, such as the oceans or the Great
Lakes, have a profound influence on climate. They are the world's great heat
reservoirs and heat exchangers and the source of much of the moisture that falls as
rain and snow over adjacent landmasses. When water is colder than the air,
precipitation is curbed, winds are reduced, and fog banks are formed. These
properties of water are crucial in stabilizing temperatures on earth.

Heat of vaporization. A large amount of heat is needed to vaporize a given

amount of water. This causes a significant drop in temperature during evaporation.
When molecules of water absorb heat energy, they move fast in the water. Eventually,
the speed of movement of some molecules becomes so fast, allowing them to overcome
the intermolecular attraction, detach from the multi-molecular water, form bubbles,
and leave the water surface in the gas state. This property of water helps to cool down
the body of living organisms. This is called evaporative cooling.

In humans, body heat is used to vaporize sweat; in plants, heat is likewise

used in converting liquid water to water vapor, which then escapes into the
atmosphere. This natural process of vaporizing plant water is called transpiration.

pH. Water molecules have a tendency to ionize. They dissociate into ions
(charged particles), Hydrogen ions (H+), and hydroxide ions (OH-). In pure water, a
14
very small number of water molecules form ions in this way. The tendency of water
to dissociate is balanced by the tendency of Hydrogen ions and Hydroxide ions to
reunite to form water. A neutral solution contains an equal number of Hydroxide ions
and Hydrogen ions. A solution with a greater concentration of Hydrogen ions (H+) is
said to be acidic. A solution with a greater concentration of Hydroxide (OH-) ions is
said to be alkaline or basic.

Activity 8: Mind Power

Direction: Identify what property of water each picture shows below.

Source: https://dlc.dcccd.edu/biology Source: https://water.mecc.edu/ Source: https://www.usgs.gov/media

1-2/water courses/ENV211/lesson10.htm /images/paper-clip-can-float-water-
due-high-surface-tension-water
1. ______________ 2. ________________ 3. ______________

Source: https://food.ndtv. Source:

com/health/benefits-of https://www.istockphoto.com/photos/boiling-
-alkaline-water-health-benefits-how-to- water
make-alkaline-water-and-its-side-
effects-
4. ______________ 5. ________________
Activity 9: Word Hunt
Part A. Directions: Fill in the blanks with words that correspond to each statement
below. Choose the word from the word bank.

covalent solvent deposition dissolve cohesion

adhesion polar viscosity negatively positively

1. In a water molecule, the hydrogen and oxygen atoms are held together by
_________________ bonds.
2. The electrons are not shared equally between covalenty bonded atoms in a
_________________ molecule.
3. The polarity of water allows it to _________________ most substances.
4. ______________ refers to the attraction of molecules for other molecules of the same
kind.
5. For adjacent water molecules, hydrogen bonds form between a hydrogen with
a partial __________ charge and the __________ charged end of oxygen.

15
Part B. Direction: Answer the following questions briefly and concisely. You may use
a separate sheet of paper for your answer.

Q1: When you warm up oil and water, which temperature will rise faster? Support
your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q2: What items can you gently "float" on the water surface? (e.g., paperclips, needles,
etc.). Explain.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q3: What happens to the bonds (Hydrogen bonds) when water boils?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

What I Have Learned

Activity 10: Conceptual Problems
Directions: Read and answer the questions briefly but concisely. Write your answer
in the space provided.

Q1: Why are solids and liquids considered as condensed states?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q2: Explain why ice floats in water.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q3: How is a lake or river that freezes over helpful to the organisms in the water?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

16
 What I Can Do
Activity 11: Wrap-Up Hunt Time!
Directions: Let us wrap up this module by answering the word search to boost your
working memory. Find and circle all hidden terms in the grid. The words may be
hidden horizontally, vertically, diagonally, and backward.

17
 Assessment
Direction: Read each item carefully. Encircle the letter that corresponds to the
correct answer.

1. Which statement below is NOT consistent with the Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
A. Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion.
B. The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.
C. There is space between particles.
D. Phase changes do not happen when the temperature of the substance
changes sufficiently.
E. There is an attractive force between particles called intermolecular forces.

2. Many substances, for example, salt (NaCl) and sucrose, dissolve quickly in water.
Which property of water is related to this phenomenon?
A. Water molecules are cohesive; they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
B. Water molecules are adhesive; they form hydrogen bonds with polar
surfaces.
C. Water is liquid at normal physiological temperature.
D. Water has high specific heat.
E. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

3. Water drops that fall on a surface tend to form rounded drops or beads.
A. Water molecules are cohesive; they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
B. Water molecules are adhesive; they form hydrogen bonds with polar
surfaces.
C. Water is a liquid at normal physiological temperature.
D. Water has high specific heat.
E. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

4. If you put the end of a paper towel to colored water, the water will move up into
the towel. Which property of water is related to this phenomenon?
A. Water molecules are cohesive; they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
B. Water molecules are adhesive; they form H-bonds with polar surfaces.
C. Water is a liquid at average physiological temperature.
D. Water has high specific heat.
E. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

5. A paper clip can float on water. Which property of water explains this?
A. Water molecules are cohesive; they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
B. Water molecules are adhesive; they form H-bonds with polar surfaces.
C. Water is a liquid at average physiological temperature.
D. Water has high specific heat.
E. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

18
6. When you place a straw into a glass of water, the water seems to climb up the
straw before you even place your mouth on the straw. Which property of water is
related to this phenomenon?
A. Water molecules are cohesive; they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
B. Water molecules are adhesive; they form H-bonds with polar surfaces.
C. Water is a liquid at normal physiological temperature.
D. Water has high specific heat.
E. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

7. Water is most dense at about 4°C. As a result, the water at the bottom of a lake or
the ocean usually has a temperature of about 4°C. Which property of water is related
to this phenomenon?
A. Water molecules are cohesive; they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
B. Water molecules are adhesive; they form H-bonds with polar surfaces.
C. Water is a liquid at normal physiological temperature.
D. Water has high specific heat.
E. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

8. If you drop a tiny amount of water onto a very smooth surface, the water molecules
will stick together and form a droplet rather than spread out over the surface. Which
property of water is related to this phenomenon?
A. Water molecules are cohesive; they form hydrogen bonds with each other.
B. Water molecules are adhesive; they form H-bonds with polar surfaces.
C. Water is a liquid at normal physiological temperature.
D. Water has high specific heat.
E. Water has a high heat of vaporization.

9. Rank the matter based on decreasing the relative strength of attractive forces
between particles.
A. liquid, solid, gas
B. solid, liquid, gas
C. gas, liquid, solid
D. liquid, gas, solid
E. liquid, solid, gas, plasma

10. What happens to water molecules when cooled?

A. The water molecules become excited.
B. The water molecules slide past each other.
C. The water molecules become fixed in position.
D. The forces between molecules break.

11. The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given
temperature.
A. Density C. Capillary action
B. Viscosity D. Molar heat of vaporization

12. The tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn into small
openings.
A. Density C. Capillary action
B. Viscosity D. Molar heat of vaporization

19
13. A measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
A. Density C. Capillary action
B. Viscosity D. Molar heat of vaporization

14. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are held together by __________ bonds.
A. Polar C. Covalent
B. Viscosity D. Molecular

15. Electrons that are not shared equally between or among covalently bonded atoms
creating a _________ molecule.
A. Polar C. Covalent
B. Viscosity D. Molecular

20
 Additional Activities
Reflection:

I learned that:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.
I enjoyed most on:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________.
I want to learn more on:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________.

Answer Key General Chemistry 2 Module 1

Activity 1: What's the Matter

Activity 2: Be a Science Detective!

21
Activity 3: Describe Me Activity 4. Operation Crossword Puzzle

Activity 5: WHAT IF?

Activity 6: I CAN DO IT! Activity 7: PICTURE SHOWS WHAT I KNOW!

Activity 8: MIND POWER Activity 9: WORD HUNT

Activity 10: CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS

22
Activity 11: WRAP-UP HUNT TIME

ASSESSMENT

23
 Reference
Department of Education Regional Office No. 02 (Cagayan Valley) (2020). General Chemistry
2 Quarter 1 Learning Activity Sheets. Regional Center, Carig Sur, Tuguegarao City
PPT – The kinetic-molecular theory is based on the idea
....https://www.powershow.com/view4
/750d54-NTMxY/The_kinetic-molecular_theory_is_based_on_the_idea_that_particles_of
_matter_are_always_in_motion_powerpoint_ppt_presentation
M2-W1.docx - Kinetic Molecular Theory MODULE 1 I Learning ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/78445316/M2-W1docx/
Gen. Chem. 2_Module1.docx - GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 Name Grade ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/77612201/Gen-Chem-2-Module1docx/
Ch 11_Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids.pdf .... https://www.coursehero.com
/file/57109368/Ch-11-Intermolecular-Forces-and-Liquids-and-Solidspdf/
Based on the kinetic molecular model, solids usually have ....
https://brainly.ph/question/4071071
Answered: Based on the kinetic molecular model,… | bartleby. https://www.bartleby.com
/questions-and-answers/based-on-the-kinetic-molecular-model-solids-usually-have-
higher-densities-compare-two-liquids.-howev/fb364600-bda1-4501-a43b-dbcff0b4acee
[Solved] Activity 3: Describe Me Directions: Compare the ....
https://www.coursehero.com/tutors-problems/Physics/26893024-Answer-Activity-3-
and-4/
It is important to note the difference between changes in .... https://www.coursehero.com
/file/p1numd7/It-is-important-to-note-the-difference-between-changes-in-the-quantity-
demanded/
122.docx - INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/44785832/122docx/
define dispersion force? | Yahoo Answers.
https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090316051032AAA5aHr
Example of dipole induced dipole forces. http://pharmahealth.net/koongamia/example-of-
dipole-induced-dipole-forces.php
What are dipole-dipole forces? + Example. https://socratic.org/questions/what-are-dipole-
dipole-forces
The strongest secondary bonding type the hydrogen bond is ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/p1qb6nh/The-strongest-secondary-bonding-type-the-
hydrogen-bond-is-a-special-case-of/
Intermolecular Forces - Definition, Types, Explanation ....
https://byjus.com/chemistry/different-types-of-intermolecular-forces/
Activity 7: Crossword Puzzle Directions Complete the ....
https://estudyassistant.com/chemistry/question20514926
Answered: Water is present in almost every living… | bartleby. https://www.bartleby.com
/questions-and-answers/water-is-present-in-almost-every-living-thing-including-human-
beings.-it-was-discussed-that-water-po/f272e320-7e6c-4b6e-bd47-fc68b16473f3
Answered: Water is present in almost every living… | bartleby. https://www.bartleby.com
/questions-and-answers/water-is-present-in-almost-every-living-thing-including-human-
beings.-it-was-discussed-that-water-po/f272e320-7e6c-4b6e-bd47-fc68b16473f3
Gen.-Chem.-2-Module-3.docx - GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 Name ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/77614006/Gen-Chem-2-Module-3docx/
General Chemistry 2 - Chapter 1: The Kinetic Molecular ....
https://www.slideshare.net/marvinnbustamante1/general-chemistry-2-chapter-1-the-
kinetic-molecular-model-and-intermolecular-forces-of-attraction-in-matter
Molecules at the surface are pulled downward and
sideways.https://www.coursehero.com/file
/p5e0l6t6/Molecules-at-the-surface-are-pulled-downward-and-sideways-by-other-
molecules/
Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise The table. https://www.coursehero.com/file
/p4n2jkd/Viscosity-is-expressed-in-units-of-centipoise-The-table-below-gives-viscosities/
Phase Equilibrium | Boundless Physics. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-
physics/chapter/phase-equilbrium/
The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum vapor .... https://www.coursehero.com
/file/p2ll7pl/The-equilibrium-vapor-pressure-is-the-maximum-vapor-pressure-of-a-
liquid-at-a/

24
A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/p68cblu1/A-practical-way-to-demonstrate-differences-
in-the-molar-heat-of-vaporization-is/
11.6 Phase Changes.
http://html1.mhlearnsmart.com/smartbook2/data/144798/highlighted
_epub/OPS/s9ml/chapter11/ch11_reader_6.xhtml
Capillary Action | Encyclopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-
environment/ecology-and-environmentalism/environmental-studies/capillary-action
Vapor Pressure - Purdue Chemistry.
https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/vpress.html
Effect of cooling rate on the survival of cryopreserved ....
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378432016302494
PROPERTIES OF WATER.
http://mimoza.marmara.edu.tr/~zehra.can/CHEM209/00%20Properties%20of%20Wate
r.pdf
4. The Heat of Vaporization and Boiling Point of Water are ....
https://www.cropsreview.com/heat-of-vaporization.html
Properties of Water--Notes. http://mvhs.shodor.org/riverweb/jigsaw/PoW.pdf
Water Properties - KWC Emergency response.
https://sites.google.com/site/kwcemergencyresponse/water-properties
Specific Heat | Boundless Physics - Lumen Learning.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/specific-heat/
Wh questions lesson pdf | browse wh questions resources on te. http://ceux-
pensez.fun/5586524681/2846/wh-questions-lesson-pdf.html
3 Cohesion Cohesion refers to the attraction of molecules ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/pfpom9t/3-Cohesion-Cohesion-refers-to-the-
attraction-of-molecules-for-other-molecules/
Word Search Puzzle Game - Apps on Google Play.
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.softdiv.puzzlegame.wordsearch&hl=
en_US&gl=US
3.11: Biochemical Properties of Water - Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_(Wak
im_and_Grewal)/03%3A_Chemistry_of_Life/3.11%3A_Biochemical_Properties_of_Water
Capillary Action | Encyclopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-
environment/ecology-and-environmentalism/environmental-studies/capillary-action
Chapter 12. http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/ilubad/files/2010/02/Chapter_121.doc
The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are held together by.
https://educationexpert.net/biology/2819011.html

25