Republic of the Philippines ACTIVITY 1

Department of Education
Region III – Central Luzon Determine the sign of entropy change (+∆S or -∆S) for the
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CITY OF BALANGA following reactions.
BATAAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL – SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL _____1. Evaporation of a liquid
City of Balanga, Bataan _____2. Water freezes
_____3. Precipitation of a solid from solution
_____4. Expansion of gas
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
_____5. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
4th QUARTER - Week 5, LC 23: Predict the spontaneity of
_____6. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
a process based on entropy
_____7. CH3OH(l) → CH3OH(g)
LECTURE:
_____ 8. 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
System – a definite area where thermodynamic processes may
_____ 9. N2O4(g) → 2NO2(g)
take place.
_____ 10. CO2 (g) + H2O (g) → HCOOH
Surrounding – the area or region outside the system.
Universe – the system plus the surroundings.
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
4th QUARTER - Week 5, LC 24: Explain the second law of
Thermodynamics
thermodynamics and its significance
Thermodynamics studies how changes in energy, entropy and
LECTURE:
temperature affect the spontaneity of a process or chemical
Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the total entropy
reaction. But thermodynamics cannot predict how fast a
of the universe always increases for a spontaneous process.
reaction will happen. Using thermodynamics we can predict
Hence, it is always positive and never can be negative.
the direction a reaction will go, and also the driving force of a
Another way that the second law could be stated is "the
reaction or system to go to equilibrium
natural tendency of the heat is to flow from the high
temperature reservoir to the low temperature reservoir.”
Spontaneity
Simply put, heat transfer spontaneously occurs from hot to
A spontaneous process is one that occurs without outside
cold temperature and not the other way round.
intervention. In other words, it can be physical or chemical
Mathematically, we expressed the second law as:
change that occurs by itself, it doesn’t need application of
energy to take place. Examples include:
 a ball rolling downhill ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem+ ΔSsurroundings ≥ 0
 gases expanding to fill their container Entropy change in the universe is determined as the sum of its
 Iron exposed to water and oxygen forms rust, but system and surroundings.
rust does not spontaneously change back into iron Think of the second law of thermodynamics as your room,
 a waterfall flows downhill, but never up, how come that whenever you cleaned it up, after some time, it
spontaneously will turn up messy again? We can say that your messy room
generally increases the entropy and when cleaned, the entropy
A reaction is said to be spontaneous if it favors the formation of the room is decreased.
of products at the conditions under which the reaction is
occurring. On the other hand, a nonspontaneous reaction The second law also explains why exothermic and
occurs if it does not favor the formation of products at a given endothermic reactions can be spontaneous. For endothermic
set of conditions. reactions, the disorder within the system increases so that the
Generally, a reaction occurs if there is a decrease in enthalpy change in disorder of the system is greater than the decrease
and an increase in the entropy of the system. of the surroundings, then the total change in disorder can be
Enthalpy is the thermal energy stored in a system positive and the reaction becomes spontaneous. While for the,
Enthalpy change, ∆H is the thermal energy change at a exothermic reactions, the heat released by the reaction
standard condition increases the disorder of the surroundings of the system is
decreased, then the large amount of heat released to the
Entropy surroundings causes large increase in entropy resulting to a
Entropy, ∆S, is a measure of randomness or disorder. The net increase in entropy of the universe.
natural tendency of things is to tend toward greater disorder.
This is because there are many ways (or positions) that lead to How do we determine the entropy change in a reaction?
disorder, but very few that lead to an ordered state. The greater The exact entropy change for any reaction can be determined
the disorder of the system, the greater is its entropy. by subtracting the standard absolute entropy of the products by
The value of entropy depends on the state of the system. the standard absolute entropy of the reactants. The symbol °
Particles in gas phase are more disorderly compared to those refers to the standard condition of a substance under the
in liquid phase (Sgas > Sliquid) which results in a positive ∆S conditions of 1 atm pressure, a concentration of 1 mole and a
The SI unit of entropy is Joules per Kelvin ( J/K) temperature of 298 K.
Table of Standard Entropy

Mathematically, we can express it as ∆S= qrev/T

where ∆S is the entropy, qrev is the heat and T is the ΔS°reaction = ΔS°products - ΔS°reactants
temperature in Kelvin.

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Sample Problem: The change in Gibbs free energy during a reaction provides
Calculate the change of entropy of the reaction at 25°C. information about the reaction's spontaneity. A simple
definition of the change in Gibbs free energy is written as:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
1. Look for the values of each reactant and product from ∆G = Gfinal - Ginitial
the table of standard absolute entropies.
H2(g) = 131.0 J/K.mol The standard Gibbs free energy of the reaction can also be
O2(g) = 205.0 J/K.mol determined according to: (the calculation for ∆G° is the same
H2O(l) = 69.9 J/K.mol as the calculation for ∆S°)

2. Substitute the values to the formula. ΔG°(reaction) =ΔG°f(products)−ΔG°f(reactants)

∆S°reaction = ∆S°product - ∆S°reactants
Table of Standard Gibb’s Free Energy

What are the applications of the second law of

thermodynamics?
 Heat engine used in cars, motorcycles, ships, and
even in airplane. The fuel inside the engine or called
the source, is generated to heat. When the automobile
is in use, it gives off the heat into the atmosphere or
also called as the sink. And according to the second
law, the higher the temperature of the source and the
lower the temperature, the higher the efficiency of the
engine
 The use of fossil fuel, specifically petroleum. Fossil Sample Problem: Calculate the ΔG° for the following
fuels are nonrenewable source, once all of our equation using the values in the table:
sources has been converted to thermal energy and CO(g) + O2(g)→CO2(g)
radiated to space, it will not be converted back once
more. *Remember that substances in elemental form (such as O2)
have ΔG°f values equal to zero. It is also important to
ACTIVITY 2 remember that the table provides per mole values. If the
A. Determine ΔS for the following reactions. Show balanced equation calls for more than one mole
complete your solution.
1. H2(g) + I2(g) ⇄ 2HI(g) ΔG°(rxn)=ΣΔG°f(products) − ΣΔG°f(reactants)
Substance S° (J/mol · K) ΔG°=(−394.4 kJ)−(−137.2 kJ+0 kJ)
H2(g) =130.58 ΔG∘=−257.2 kJ
I2(g)= 116.73
HI(g)= 206.3 A negative ∆G release free energy and therefore described as
2. N2O4(g) ⇄ 2NO2(g) a spontaneous reaction (exergonic reaction). This also means
Substance S° (J/mol · K) that the reactants or the initial state has more free energy than
N2O4(g) = 304.3 the products or the final state. On the other hand, positive ∆G
NO2(g) = 240.45 requires energy for the reaction to proceed and is described as
3. What is the entropy change to make 1 mole of SO3 non-spontaneous reaction (endergonic reaction) which
for the reaction SO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) → SO3(g)? means that the products or the final state have more free
Substance S° (J/mol · K) energy than the reactants or the initial state of the reaction.
SO2(g) = 248.2
O2(g) = 205.0 Summary of Gibbs Free Energy
SO3(g) = 256.8 Enthalpy Entropy Gibbs free
Spontaneity
B. Answer the following questions. change change energy
1. In your own opinion, what is the importance of yes, if the
the second law of thermodynamics? Expound depends on T,
positive positive temperature is high
your answer. may be + or -
enough
2. We eat food every day for sustenance. Relate the
idea of eating foods to the second law of always
negative positive always spontaneous
thermodynamics. How does the second law negative
apply to it? Explain. yes, if the
depends on T,
negative negative temperature is low
may be + or -
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 enough
4th QUARTER - Week 5, LC 25: Use Gibb’s free energy to positive negative always positive never spontaneous
determine the direction of a reaction
LECTURE: ACTIVITY 3
Gibb’s Free Energy is defined as a combined Answer the following questions to the best of your knowledge.
enthalpy/entropy function that determines spontaneity of a
process on the amount of energy that is left after a reaction
1. Why the Gibb’s free energy is such a useful state
takes place. Another definition is that it is the amount of
function?
usable energy that only works in the system regardless of its
surroundings. 2. The entropy and enthalpy of a reaction are
∆G = ∆H - T∆S both negative. Is the reaction spontaneous?
where ∆G is the Gibb’s free energy, ∆H is the enthalpy Explain.
change, T is the temperature and ∆S is the entropy change. 3. What does the sign of ∆G indicates? How
does this affect the direction of the reaction?
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 4. Does an increase in reaction temperature
makes it more or less likely to occur
spontaneously? Explain your answer.
5. What is the ΔGrxn for the reaction given:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) D CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) For reaction that is not in equilibrium, the similar equilibrium
Substance in ∆G (kJ/mol): constant expression is written, it is referred to as the reaction
CH4(g) =50.8 quotient (Q)
CO2(g) =394.4
ACTIVITY 4
H2O(g) =228.57 A. Answer the following questions.
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 1. What is meant when a reaction is described as “having
4th QUARTER - Week 5, LC 26: Explain chemical reached equilibrium?” What does this statement mean
equilibrium constant in terms of reaction rates of forward regarding the forward and reverse reaction rates? What does
and the reverse reaction this statement mean regarding the amounts or concentrations
LECTURE: of the reactants and the products?
Chemical Equilibrium is the state wherein the rate of 2. Is it correct to say that the reaction has “stopped” when it
forward and backward reaction is at equal. As the reaction has reached equilibrium? Explain your answer and support it
moving towards the equilibrium, the free energy of the system with a specific example.
continuously decreases. 3. Why is chemical equilibrium described as a dynamic
All reactions tend to move towards the state of chemical process? Describe this process in the context of a saturated
equilibrium. And since the forward and backward reaction solution of NaCl in water. What is occurring on a microscopic
rates are at equal, the concentration of reactants and products level? What is happening on a macroscopic level?
are now in constant at equilibrium.
B. Rewrite the following reaction to equilibrium constant
Chemical Equilibrium Constant (Kc / Keq) is a ratio that expression. Write your answer after each item.
expresses the relationship between the concentration or the (a) 3O2(g) ⇌ 2O3(g)
amount of reactants and products at equilibrium in a reversible (b) N2(g)+ 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
reaction. It is represented by the general equilibrium reaction
(c) 4NH3(g) + 7O2(g) ⇌ 4NO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
below:
(d) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
The lower case letters represent the coefficient of each (e) C4H8(g) ⇌ 2C2H4(g)
substance in the reaction.
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
Each concentration is raised to the power of its coefficient in
4th QUARTER - Week 5, LC 27: Calculate equilibrium
the balanced chemical equation. From the general reaction
constant and the pressure or concentration of reactants or
above, the equilibrium constant expression can be written as:
products in an equilibrium mixture
LECTURE:
Before we can calculate for the value of Kc, we must first
rewrite the chemical equilibrium expression from its general
The concentrations of each substance, indicated by the square
form:
brackets around the formula, are measured in molarity units
(mol/L).
The brackets "[ ]" represent the concentration of the species
Although the concentrations are constant at equilibrium,
(moles per liter or molarity). While the superscript (the
recation is still happening, that is why this state is also called
numbers above outside the bracket) represent the coefficients
as dynamic equilibrium.
used to balance the equation.
Chemical Equilibrium Constant and the Reactions
The value of the equilibrium constant for any reaction is only
determined through experiments. Thus, chemical equilibrium
Now, that you understand the relationship between chemical
of a reaction doesn’t depend on the initial concentrations and
equilibrium constant and the rate of reaction rate in terms of
so the value of the equilibrium constant is truly constant.
forward and backward reactions; let us try to calculate Kc from
However, it does depend on the temperature of the reaction.
the equilibrium constant.
This is because equilibrium is defined as a condition resulting
Sample Problem:
from the rates of forward and reverse reactions being equal.
1. Let's take a look at the equilibrium reaction that takes
The equilibrium constant can help us understand whether the
place between sulfur dioxide and oxygen to produce
reaction tends to have a higher concentration of products or
sulfur trioxide:
reactants at equilibrium. We can also use Kc to determine if
2SO2(g)+O22(g)⇌2SO3(g)
the reaction is already at equilibrium. The value of Kc,
The reaction is at equilibrium at some temperature T,
provides us some information about the reactant and product
and the following equilibrium concentrations are measured:
concentrations at equilibrium:
[SO2] = 0.90 M
 If Kc is very large, 1000 or more, we will have
[O2] = 0.35 M
mostly product species present at equilibrium.
[SO3] = 1.1 M
(product favored reaction)
We can calculate Kc, for the reaction at temperature T by
 If Kc is very small, 0.001 or less, we will have mostly
solving following expression:
reactant species present at equilibrium. (reactant
Kc=[SO2]2 [O2][SO3]22
favored reaction)
If we substitute the given concentrations in the chemical
 If Kc, is in between 0.001 and 1000, we will have a
equilibrium constant, we will get:
significant concentration of both reactant and product
Kc=[SO2]2[O2][SO3]2
species present at equilibrium.
=[0.90]2[0.35][1.1]2
= 4.3
The final answer is unitless. Notice that the value obtained is

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between 0.001 and 1000 which indicates that both reactant and ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
product concentration is at equilibrium. 4th Quarter, Week 6, LC 29-30: Define Bronsted acids and
bases; Discuss the acid-base property of water
ACTIVITY 5 LECTURE:
Calculate the value of equilibrium constant for the following The Bronsted -Lowry theory is defined by the following
reactions. Show complete solution. Use the space provided reaction: acid + base <=> conjugate base + conjugate acid. A
below for your answers conjugate base forms after the acid loses a proton, while the
1. 2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g) conjugate acid forms when the base accepts the proton. The
[NO2] = 0.016 M reaction can proceed in either direction. The Bronsted -Lowry
[N2O4] = 0.042 M acid-base theory has several advantages over the Arrhenius
2. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) theory: for example, only the Bronsted theory describes the
[SO2] = 0.90 M, reaction between acetic acid and ammonia, which does not
produce hydrogen ions in solution. Water is amphoteric,
[O2]= 0.35 M
which means it can act as either an acid or a base.
[SO3] = 1.1 M
In conjugate acid, the species formed after a base accepts a
3. CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO2(g) + H2(g) proton; typically, a weak acid. For conjugate base, the species
[CO]=0.020 M formed after an acid donates its proton; typically, a weak base
[H2O]=0.020 M Bronsted -Lowry base, means any chemical species that acts
[CO2]=0.0040 M as an acceptor of protons. In Bronsted-Lowry acid, any
[H2]=0.0040 M chemical species that acts as a donor of protons.

ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 ACTIVITY 7

4th QUARTER - Week 5, LC 28: State Le Chatelier’s Classify the following as Bronsted acids, bases or both.
principle and apply it qualitatively to describe the effect of 1. 𝐻2 O
changes in pressure, concentration and temperature on 2. 𝑂𝐻 −
system at equilibrium 3. 𝑁𝐻3
LECTURE: 4. 𝑁𝐻4+
Le Chatelier’s Principle states if an equilibrium system is 5. 𝑁𝐻2−
stressed, the system will experience a shift in response to the
stress that re-establishes equilibrium. Stresses include: ACTIVITY 8
changes in concentration or pressure of reactants or products A. What is the conjugate base of the following acids?
by the addition or removal changes in pressure as a result of 1. 𝐻𝐶𝑙𝑂4
changes in volume of container changes in temperature (value 2. 𝑁𝐻4+
of K will change) addition of a catalyst
3. 𝐻2 O
4. 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
Effect of change in concentration to equilibrium B. What is conjugate acid of the following bases?
If the concentration or pressure of a substance is increased by
1. 𝐶𝑁 −
the addition of more reactant or product, the equilibrium
2. 𝑆𝑂42−
position will shift in the direction that consumes the added
3. 𝐻2 O
substance. Likewise, if the concentration or pressure of a
4. 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
substance is decreased by the removal of reactant or product,
the equilibrium position will shift in the direction that
replenishes the removed substance. ACTIVITY 9
Answer the following questions briefly.
Define Bronsted acids and bases.
Effect of Changing Pressure on Equilibrium Position
2. Discuss the acid base property of water.
There are 3 ways to change the pressure of a chemical reaction
system: First, the addition or removal of gas phase reactant.
The result of adding or removing gas phase reactant or product ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
4th Quarter, Week 6, LC 31: Calculate the pH from the
can be predicted according to the guidelines stated above for
concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in
effect of changing concentration. Second, the addition of inert
aqueous solutions
gas. The addition of an inert gas to a system changes the total
LECTURE:
pressure of the system, but not the partial pressures (i.e.
The pH of an aqueous solution is the measure of how acidic or
changing concentrations) of gas phase reactants or products.
basic it is. The pH of an aqueous solution can be determined
And third, the change the volume of the container. An increase
and calculated by using the concentration of hydronium
in pressure resulting from reduced container volume will bring
ion concentration in the solution.
about net reaction in the direction that decreases the number of
The pH of an aqueous solution is based on the pH scale which
moles of gas phase species (the volume of the chemical
typically ranges from 0 to 14 in water (although as discussed
system will decrease). On the other hand, a decrease in
below this is not a formal rule). A pH of 7 is considered to be
pressure resulting from increased container volume will bring
neutral. A pH of less than 7 is considered acidic. A pH of
about net reaction in the direction that increases the number of
greater than 7 is then considered basic. Acidic solutions have
moles of gas phase species (the volume of the chemical
high hydronium concentrations and lower hydroxide
system will increase).
concentrations. Basic solutions have high hydroxide
concentrations and lower hydronium concentrations.
ACTIVITY 6
Restricted Essay. The connection between chemistry and
carbonated soft drinks goes back to 1767, when Joseph Calculating pH
To calculate the pH of an aqueous solution you need to know
Priestley (1733–1804) developed a method of infusing water
the concentration of the hydronium ion in moles per liter
with carbon dioxide to make carbonated water. Once you open
(molarity). The pH is then calculated using the expression:
a bottle of carbonated drink, it produces a loud pop and then
pH = - log [H3O+].
hisses until it goes flat. How does the concept of Le
Example: Find the pH of a 0.0025 M HCl solution. The HCl
Chatelier’s Principle apply to this? Limit your answer up to 3
is a strong acid and is 100% ionized in water. The hydronium
sentences.
ion concentration is 0.0025 M. Thus:
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 pH = - log (0.0025) = - ( - 2.60) = 2.60 H+ ions so that the pH can remain around the same value
despite the addition of an acid. The presence of carbonic
Calculating the Hydronium Ion Concentration from pH acid/bicarbonate ion in your bloodstream is one of the main
The hydronium ion concentration can be found from the pH ways that your body regulates the pH of your blood to avoid
by the reverse of the mathematical operation employed to find acidosis or alkalosis, both of which are life threatening
the pH. conditions resulting from changes in your blood pH level.
[H3O+] = 10-pH or [H3O+] = antilog (- pH)
Example: What is the hydronium ion concentration in a ACTIVITY 11
solution that has a pH of 8.34? Answer the following questions briefly.
8.34 = - log [H3O+] 1. What is a buffer?
- 8.34 = log [H3O+] 2. What would happen if you drop acid to a beaker that
[H3O+] = 10-8.34 = 4.57 x 10-9 M contains a buffer vs. a beaker that doesn’t contain a buffer and
On a calculator, calculate 10-8.34, or "inverse" log ( - 8.34). why?
3. Why is it important in the ecosystem to have buffers in
Calculating pOH lakes and in the sea?
To calculate the pOH of a solution you need to know the
concentration of the hydroxide ion in moles per liter ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
(molarity). The pOH is then calculated using the expression: 4th Quarter, Week 6, LC 33: Calculate the pH of a buffer
pOH = - log [OH-] solution using the Henderson Hasselbalch equation
Example: What is the pOH of a solution that has a hydroxide LECTURE:
ion concentration of 4.82 x 10-5 M? The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relates pH, pKa, and
pOH = - log [4.82 x 10-5] = - ( - 4.32) = 4.32 molar concentration (concentration in units of moles per liter):
Calculating the Hydroxide Ion Concentration from pOH pH = pK + log ([A-]/[HA])
The hydroxide ion concentration can be found from the pOH [A-] = molar concentration of a conjugate base
by the reverse mathematical operation employed to find the [HA] = molar concentration of an undissociated weak
pOH. acid (M)
[OH-] = 10-pOH or [OH-] = antilog ( - pOH)
Example: What is the hydroxide ion concentration in a The equation can be rewritten to solve for pOH:
solution that has a pOH of 5.70? pOH = pKb + log ([HB+]/[ B ])
5.70 = - log [OH-] [HB+] = molar concentration of the conjugate base (M)
-5.70 = log[OH-] [ B ] = molar concentration of a weak base (M)
[OH-] = 10-5.70 = 2.00 x 10-6 M
On a calculator calculate 10-5.70, or "inverse" log (- 5.70). Sample Problem Applying the Henderson-Hasselbalch
Equation:
ACTIVITY 10 Calculate the pH of a buffer solution made from 0.20 M
Solve the following problems. Show your solution. HC2H3O2 and 0.50 M C2H3O2- that has an acid dissociation
1. What is the pH of 0.0235 M HCL solution? constant for HC2H3O2 of 1.8 x 10-5.
2. What is the pOH of 0.0235 M HCL solution? Solve this problem by plugging the values into the Henderson-
3. A solution with a H+ concentration of 1.00 x 10−7 M is said Hasselbalch equation for a weak acid and its conjugate base.
to be neutral. Why? pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA])
pH = pKa + log ([C2H3O2-] / [HC2H3O2])
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 pH = -log (1.8 x 10-5) + log (0.50 M / 0.20 M)
4th Quarter, Week 6, LC 32: Describe how a buffer pH = -log (1.8 x 10-5) + log (2.5)
solution maintains its pH pH = 4.7 + 0.40
LECTURE: pH = 5.1
A buffer is any substance that minimizes change in the pH of a
solution. Most buffers consist of a combination of a weak acid ACTIVITY 12
and the weak base, where the base is the anion remaining after Solve the following problems. Show your solution.
the weak acid dissociates (separates) to release H+ ions. This 1. A solution was prepared by dissolving 0.02 moles of acetic
may sound confusing, but it is actually a fairly simple back acid (HOAc; pKa = 4.8) in water to give 1 liter of solution.
and forth reaction where the buffer acts as a “friend” to What is the pH?
H+ ions when necessary, but also to OH- ions when necessary, 2. To this solution was then added 0.008 moles of
maintaining a constant balance in the pH value. concentrated sodium hydroxide (NaOH). What is the new pH?
In solutions, a chemical buffer acts similarly. For example, (In this problem, you may ignore changes in volume due to the
carbonic acid (H2CO3) is a weak acid. When it is put into addition of NaOH).
solution, a small amount of carbonic acid dissociates into 3. An additional 0.012 moles of NaOH is then added. What is
H+ ions and the remaining bicarbonate anion (HCO3-). This the pH?
increases H+ ion concentration and lowers pH values (toward
acidic). The bicarbonate ion is considered a weak base ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
because if there are a lot of H+ ions in solution, it will re- 4th Quarter, Week 7, LC 34-35: Define oxidation and
associate (chemically bind) with the excess H+ ions to re-form reduction reactions; Balance redox reactions using the
the weak acid, which reduces H+ ion concentration, bringing change in oxidation number method
pH values up (back toward basic). LECTURE:
Buffers maintain the pH of a solution by adjusting the Oxidation-Reduction (REDOX) Reaction
direction of their chemical reactions (dissociating or re- Oxidation – is the process in which an atom loses an electron
associating) in response to increases or decreases in H+ ion resulting in an increase in the oxidation number of the atom.
concentration that can be caused by other substances entering An oxidizing agent makes oxidation happen.
or exiting the solution. If you add a strong acid like
hydrochloric acid (HCl) to a buffered solution, there will Reduction – is the process where an atom gains an electron
suddenly be an excess of H+ ions from dissociation of the resulting in a decrease in its oxidation number. The oxidation
HCl. The buffers in the solution will respond by binding these number of an atom in a molecule or ion indicates the number
excess H+ ions to re-form the weak acid, using up the excess

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of electrons that have been removed or added to get to its new B. Essay
state. A reducing agent makes reduction happen. In your own words, differentiate a reducing from an oxidizing
agent in not more than 3 sentences.
Oxidation and reduction always come together and always
involve the transfer of electrons and changes in oxidation Here are some examples for Redox reactions. The first thing
numbers. The substance that is oxidized is called the reducing that you have to do is to supply the correct oxidation numbers
agent because it causes the reduction of the other substance. for each of the elements in every compound following the
The substance that is reduced is called the oxidizing agent general rules in assigning oxidation numbers. Afterwards,
because it causes the oxidation of the reducing agent. compare the charges from the reactant and the product side.
 To make oxidation happen, something has to take Determine which among the elements changed its oxidation
electrons. from the reactant compared to the product’s side. Simply
 To make reduction happens, something has to give apply the acronym LEORA and GEROA to identify the
electrons. reducing and the oxidizing agent. Just a reminder, the
Example: coefficient in every compound will not affect the charges.

Sample Problems:
What is the oxidation number of each of the elements in the
reactants and products in every equation below? Identify the
oxidizing and the reducing agents.

1. H2 + F2 → 2HF
A loses electrons B gains electrons 2. 3Cu + 8HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
A is oxidized B is reduced 3. ZnS + 2O2 → ZnSO4
A gives electrons to B, B takes electrons from A,
reducing it. oxidizing it. Solutions:
A is the reducing agent B is the oxidizing agent

Oxidation: Loss of electrons, oxidation number increases.

Reduction: Gain of Electrons, oxidation number decreases.

L E O R A – Loose Electrons, the process is Oxidation,

therefore the element or the compound is the Reducing Agent.
G E R O A – Gain Electrons, the process if Reduction,
therefore the element or the compound is the Oxidizing Agent.

The key to identifying a redox reaction is knowing the

oxidation numbers of the elements in a chemical formula.
How to determine Oxidation Numbers:
 Element by itself: 0 Ex. Cl20, Na0, S60, P40
 Group 1A: always +1
 Group 2A: always +2
 Halogens: usually (not always) -1 (F, Cl, Br, I, At);
positive with oxygen
 Monatomic ion (ions made of 1 atom) = ion charge
Ex. K+ = +1; N3- = -3; Mg2+ = +2
 H: +1 with nonmetals; -1 with metals ACTIVITY 14
Supply the oxidation numbers of each elements. Identify the
 O: usually -2; -1 in peroxides
reducing and the oxidizing agent in every equation. Write your
 Sum of oxidation numbers for a neutral compound =
answers on your paper.
0
1. Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2
 Sum of oxidation numbers for a polyatomic ion = ion
2. HNO3 + H2S → S + NO + H2O
charge
3. 2Al + 3Ni(NO3)2 → 2Al(NO3)3 + 3Ni
Examples:
The Oxidation-Number Method
The total increase in oxidation numbers (oxidation) must equal
the total decrease in oxidation numbers (reduction) of the
atoms involved in the reaction. This balancing technique is
called the oxidation-number method.

Example:
Balance the following redox equation.
Cu + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
1. Analyze the problem
Use the rules for determining oxidation number. The increase
ACTIVITY 13
in oxidation number of the oxidized atoms must equal the
A. Supply the correct oxidation numbers for each element in
decrease in oxidation number of the reduced atoms. Adjust the
the compound. Apply the rules in determining oxidation
coefficients to balance the equation.
numbers. Show your complete solution.
1. MgO
2. Solve for the Unknown
2. CO
Assign oxidation numbers to all atoms in the equation.
3. CaC2
4. HNO3
5. Al(NO3)3
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Identify which atoms are oxidized, which are reduced, and eventually causes the blue copper (II) sulfate solution to
which do not change. become colorless.

Cu is oxidized. The process that occurs in this redox reaction is shown below
N is reduced. as two separate half-reactions, which can then be combined
H does not change. into the full redox reaction.
O does not change.
N does not change in the nitrate ion (𝑁𝑂3 − ).

Determine the change in oxidation number for the atoms that

are oxidized and for the atoms that are reduced.
As you know, the oxidation and reduction processes occur
Change in oxidation number: simultaneously. Breaking the process apart into separate
Oxidized: Cu +2 (Copper loses electrons. It is oxidized.) oxidation and reduction half-reactions is helpful for analyzing
Reduced: N -1 (Nitrogen gains electrons. It is reduced.) the overall reaction.

Make the change in oxidation numbers equal in magnitude by The electrical potential of a cell results from a competition for
adjusting coefficients in the equation. electrons. In the zinc-copper voltaic cell described in the
previous lesson, the copper (II) ions were reduced to copper
metal. That is because the Cu2+ ions have a greater attraction
for electrons than the Zn2+ ions in the other half-cell. Instead,
the zinc metal is oxidized. A reduction potential measures
Use the conventional method to balance the remainder of the the tendency of a given half-reaction to occur as a reduction in
equation. an electrochemical cell. In a given voltaic cell, the half-cell
that has the greater reduction potential is the one in which
reduction will occur. In the half-cell with the lower reduction
potential, the reverse process (oxidation) will occur.
The cell potential (E⁰cell) is the difference in reduction
potential between the two half-cells in an electrochemical cell.
The oxidation potential is the potential at which oxidation
3. Evaluate the answer.
occurs at the anode of an electrochemical cell.
The number of atoms of each element is equal on both sides of
the equation.
No subscripts have been changed. Standard Cell Potentials
The standard cell potential (E0cell) is the potential of an
electrochemical cell when the temperature is 25°C, all
ACTIVITY 15
Use the oxidation-number method to balance the following aqueous components are present at a concentration of 1 M,
and all gases are at the standard pressure of 1 atm. The
redox equations. Show your complete solution on a clean
standard cell potential can be calculated by finding the
sheet of paper.
difference between the standard reduction potentials of the
1. Combustion of carbon disulfide:
two half-cells.
𝐶𝑆2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔)

2. 𝐵2 𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑀𝑔(𝑠) → 𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) + 𝑀𝑔3 𝐵2 (𝑎𝑞)

ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 Since the reduction potentials for half-cells cannot be
4th Quarter, Week 8, LC 36-38: Identify the reaction measured independently, it is necessary to establish a standard
occurring in the different parts of the cell; define reduction to serve as a reference. This reference is given a reduction
potential, oxidation potential and cell potential; calculate potential of 0 volts by definition. Every other half-cell can
the standard cell potential then be compared to this standard electrode in order to
LECTURE: determine the reduction potential for any half-cell.
Electrochemical Reactions
The standard hydrogen electrode is a reference electrode
Chemical reactions either absorb or release energy, and when
that is used with another electrode (half-cell) to determine its
they are set up in certain ways, that energy can be in the form
of electricity. Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that standard reduction potential. The standard hydrogen electrode
deals with the interconversion of chemical energy and (SHE) is shown below.
electrical energy. Electrochemistry has many common
applications in everyday life. Batteries of all sorts, including
those used to power a flashlight, a calculator, or an
automobile, rely on chemical reactions to generate electricity.
Electricity can also be used to plate objects with decorative
metals like gold or chromium. Electrochemistry is also
relevant to the transmission of nerve impulses in biological
systems. Redox chemistry, the transfer of electrons, is the
underlying force behind all electrochemical processes.

Direct Redox Processes

When a strip of zinc metal is placed into a blue solution of
copper (II) sulfate, a reaction immediately begins as the zinc
strip begins to darken. If left in the solution for a longer period The standard hydrogen electrode is an arbitrary reference cell that is
of time, the zinc will gradually decay as it is oxidized to zinc assigned a standard reduction potential of 0.00 V.
ions, which enter the solution. Meanwhile, the copper (II) ions
from the solution are reduced to copper metal, which

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The electrode itself is made of platinum, which serves as an reduction half-reaction had to be doubled to balance the
inert surface upon which the oxidation or reduction reaction overall redox equation.
takes place. The electrode is then placed in contact with both
hydrogen gas (at a pressure of 1 atm) and an acidic solution in ACTIVITY 16
which the concentration of H+ is 1.0 M. Written as a reduction, Answer the following questions on a clean sheet of paper.
the following half-reaction takes place in a SHE: 1. What are the reactions occurring in the different parts of the
cell?
2. Define the following terms:
Depending on the relative electrical potential of the other half- a. reduction potential
cell that the SHE is combined with, the hydrogen ions may be b. oxidation potential
reduced or the hydrogen gas may be oxidized. In general, c. cell potential
reversing a reaction will also reverse the sign of the 3. For the following cell combinations, write the overall cell
corresponding electrical potential. However, reversing the reaction and calculate the standard cell potential.
above reaction has no effect on the standard potential because a. Cd|𝐶𝑑 2+ and Cu|𝐶𝑢2+
the opposite of zero is still zero. b. Al|𝐴𝑙 3+ and Mg|𝑀𝑔2+

ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

Calculating Standard Cell Potentials 4th Quarter, Week 8, LC 39-40: Relate the value of the cell
In order to function, any electrochemical cell must consist of potential to the feasibility of using the cell to generate an
two half-cells. The half-cell with the higher reduction electric current
potential, according to the table, will undergo reduction, while LECTURE:
the half-cell with the lower reduction potential will undergo Electrochemistry of Some Common Batteries
oxidation. If those specifications are followed, the overall cell A common dry-cell battery is the zinc-carbon battery, which
potential will be a positive value. The cell potential must be uses a cell that is sometimes called the Leclanché cell. The
positive in order for the redox reaction in the cell to be cell is made up of an outer zinc container, which acts as the
spontaneous. If a negative cell potential were calculated, the anode. The cathode is a central carbon rod, surrounded by a
reaction would not be spontaneous. However, that reaction mixture of carbon and manganese (IV) dioxide (MnO2). The
would be spontaneous in the reverse direction. electrolyte is a paste of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). A
fibrous fabric separates the two electrodes, and a brass pin in
Sample Problem: the center of the cell conducts electricity to the outside circuit.
Calculate the standard cell potential of a voltaic cell that uses
the Ag|Ag+ and Sn|Sn2+ half-cell reactions. Write the balanced Chemical reactions occur in every part of the battery to allow
equation for the overall cell reaction that occurs. Identify the
for energy storage; the reactions can be described using
anode and the cathode.
balanced chemical equations that delineate the electron flow.
Step 1: List the known values and plan the problem. The paste of ammonium chloride reacts according to the
Known following half-reaction:
E⁰Ag=+0.80 V 2NH4(aq)+2e−→2NH3(g)+H2(g)2NH4(aq)+2e−→2NH3(g)+H2
E⁰Sn=−0.14 V (g)
The manganese (IV) oxide in the cell removes the
Unknown hydrogen produced by the ammonium chloride, according to
E⁰cell=? V the following reaction:
2MnO2(s)+H2(g)→Mn2O3(s)+H2O(l)2MnO2(s)+H2(g)→Mn2O
The silver half-cell will undergo reduction because its 3(s)+H2O(l)
standard reduction potential is higher. The tin half-cell will The combined result of these two reactions takes
undergo oxidation. The overall cell potential can be calculated place at the cathode. Adding these two reactions together, we
by using the equation E⁰cell=E⁰red−E⁰oxid. get:
2NH4(aq)+2MnO2(s)+2e→Mn2O3(s)+2NH3(g)+H2O(l)2NH4(a
Step 2: Solve. q)+2MnO2(s)+2e→Mn2O3(s)+2NH3(g)+H2O(l)
Finally, the anode half-reaction is as follows:
Zn(s)→Zn2++2e−Zn(s)→Zn2++2e−
Therefore, the overall equation for the cell is:
Before adding the two reactions together, the number of Zn(s)+2MnO2(s)+2NH4(aq)→Mn2O3(s)+H2O(l)+Zn2+2NH3(g
electrons lost in the oxidation must equal the number of )Zn(s)+2MnO2(s)+2NH4(aq)→Mn2O3(s)+H2O(l)+Zn2+2NH3(
electrons gained in the reduction. The silver half-cell reaction g)
must be multiplied by two. After doing that and adding to the The potential for the above reaction is 1.50 V.
tin half-cell reaction, the overall equation is obtained.
A mercury battery, also called a mercuric oxide battery or a
mercury cell, is a non-rechargeable electrochemical battery.
These batteries have been used in the shape of button cells for
watches, hearing aids, and calculators, and in larger forms for
other devices, including walkie-talkies.

Mercury batteries use either pure mercuric oxide or a mixture

Step 3: Think about your result.
The standard cell potential is positive, so the reaction is of mercuric oxide with manganese dioxide as the cathode.
Mercury oxide cells are constructed with a zinc anode, a
spontaneous as written. Tin is oxidized at the anode, while
mercury oxide cathode, and potassium hydroxide or sodium
silver ion is reduced at the cathode. Note that the voltage for
hydroxide as the electrolyte. Since mercuric oxide is a non-
the silver ion reduction is not doubled, even though the
conductor, some graphite is mixed with it. This helps prevent
the collection of mercury into large droplets. During discharge,
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zinc oxidizes to zinc oxide, and mercuric oxide gets reduced to 2. Button battery
elemental mercury. A little extra mercuric oxide is put into the
cell to prevent evolution of hydrogen gas at the end of its life.

In a mercury battery, sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide

is used as an electrolyte. Sodium hydroxide cells have nearly
constant voltage at low discharge currents, making them ideal
for hearing aids, calculators, and electronic watches. Potassium
hydroxide cells, in turn, provide constant voltage at higher
currents, making them suitable for applications requiring
current surges, such as photographic cameras with flash and
watches with a backlight. Potassium hydroxide cells also have
better performance at lower temperatures. 3. Fuel cells

A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into

electrical energy. Fuel cells are similar to batteries but require
a continuous source of fuel, often hydrogen. They will continue
to produce electricity as long as fuel is available. Hydrogen fuel
cells have been used to supply power for satellites, space
capsules, automobiles, boats, and submarines.

In a hydrogen fuel cell, the reactions are

anode: 2H2 + 2O2− 2H2O + 4e−

− 2- 4. Lead storage battery
cathode: O2 + 4e 2O
overall: 2H2 + O2 H2O
The voltage is about 0.9 V. The efficiency of fuel cells
is typically about 40% to 60%, which is higher than the typical
internal combustion engine (25% to 35%) and, in the case of the
hydrogen fuel cell, produces only water as exhaust. Currently,
fuel cells are rather expensive and contain features that cause
them to fail after a relatively short time.

The lead storage battery is the type of secondary battery used

in your automobile. It is inexpensive and capable of producing ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
the high current required by automobile starter motors. The 4th Quarter, Week 8, LC 41: Apply electrochemical
reactions for a lead acid battery are: principles to explain corrosion
LECTURE:
anode: Pb(s) + HSO4 -(aq) PbSO4(s) +H +(aq) + 2e− Corrosion of Metals
cathode: PbO2(s) + HSO4-(aq) + 3H+(aq) + 2e− PbSO4(s) + Corrosion is a general term used to refer to
2H2O(l) deterioration of metals through an electrochemical process.
overall: Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 2PbSO4(s)+
There are many examples of metal corrosion such as the tarnish
2H2O(l)
in silver, green patina in copper and brass and the most common
Each cell produces 2 V, so six cells are connected in series to which is the rust in iron. (Figure 1)
produce a 12-V car battery. Lead acid batteries are heavy and
contain a caustic liquid electrolyte, but are often still the
battery of choice because of their high current density. Since
these batteries contain a significant amount of lead, they must
always be disposed of properly.

ACTIVITY 17
Directions: Observe the diagram, of common batteries
provided in each number and describe the electrochemistry
Silverwares tend to form a layer of silver sulfide, Ag 2S when it
involved in each battery. Write your answers on a clean sheet
comes into contact with foodstuffs over time. This is referred to
of paper.
as the tarnish in silver. Silver tends to be oxidized to Ag+. It’s
1. Leclanche dry cell negative oxidation potential suggests that the process takes
place slowly.

Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e– (E°oxd’n = –0.80 V)

Copper is also prone to corrosion. Upon atmospheric exposure,

copper forms a layer of green patina which is basically copper
(II) carbonate, CuCO3. This is a result of the oxidation of Cu
metal into Cu2+ which also occurs in a relatively slow pace as
suggested by the negative oxidation potential:

Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e– (E°oxd’n = –0.34 V)

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The patina layer that forms on the surface of the copper metal in deposition of metals from solution (electroplating).
protects the metal underneath from further corrosion. The Metallic sodium and chlorine gas are produced by the
Statue of Liberty in New York, USA, is made from copper. electrolysis of molten sodium chloride; electrolysis of an
Prior to its restoration in 1986, the statue appears green aqueous solution of sodium chloride yields sodium hydroxide
because of the green patina layer. Likewise, the second tallest and chlorine gas. Hydrogen and oxygen are produced by the
statue of National Hero Jose Rizal in Calamba City, which electrolysis of water.
was made from bronze (an alloy of primarily made up of
copper), is already showing evidences of corrosion (Figure 2) ACTIVITY 20
Directions: Using the diagram below explain the electrode
reactions during electrolysis of water.

ACTIVITY 18
Directions: Use the diagram below to explain how corrosion
occurs in iron, apply electrochemical principles.

ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2

4th Quarter, Week 8, LC 43: Describe the reactions in some
commercial electrolytic processes
LECTURE:
Commercial Applications of Electrolysis
Electroplating
In electroplating, the plating metal is generally the anode, and
the object to be plated is the cathode. A solution of a salt of the
plating metal is the electrolyte. The plating metal is deposited
on the cathode, and the anode replenishes the supply of positive
ions, thus gradually being dissolved. Electrotype printing
plates, silverware, and chrome automobile trim are plated by
ACTIVITY 19 electrolysis.
Directions: Answer the following questions.
The English scientist Michael Faraday discovered that the
1. What are the economic impacts of corrosion? amount of a material deposited on an electrode is proportional
to the amount of electricity used. The ratio of the amount of
2. Give measures to prevent corrosion of metals. (Much better material deposited in grams to the amount of electricity used is
if you will be able to look for the electrochemical reactions the electrochemical equivalent of the material. Actual electric
involved in explaining mechanism of the preventive measures) consumption may be as high as four times the theoretical
consumption because of such factors as heat loss and
ACTIVITY SHEETS in GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2
undesirable side reactions.
4th Quarter, Week 8, LC 42: Explain the electrode
reactions during electrolysis Electric Cells
LECTURE:
Electrolysis, process by which electric current is passed An electric cell is an electrolytic system in which a chemical
through a substance to effect a chemical change. The chemical reaction causes a current to flow in an external circuit; it
change is one in which the substance loses or gains essentially reverses electrolysis. A battery is a single electric
an electron (oxidation or reduction). The process is carried out cell (or two or more such cells linked together for additional
in an electrolytic cell, an apparatus consisting of positive and power) used as a source of electrical energy. Metal corrosion
negative electrodes held apart and dipped into a solution can take place by electrolysis in an unintentionally created
containing positively and negatively charged ions. The electric cell. The Italian physicist Alessandro Volta discovered
substance to be transformed may form the electrode, the principle of the electric cell in 1800. Within a few weeks
may constitute the solution, or may be dissolved in the solution. William Nicholson and Sir Anthony Carlisle, English scientists,
Electric current (i.e., electrons) enters through the negatively performed the first electrolysis, breaking water down into
charged electrode (cathode); components of the solution travel oxygen and hydrogen.
to this electrode, combine with the electrons, and are
ACTIVITY 21
transformed (reduced). The products can be neutral elements or
Directions: Describe the reactions of the two given electrolytic
new molecules. Components of the solution also travel to the
processes used commercially. Write your answers on a clean
other electrode (anode), give up their electrons, and are
sheet of paper.
transformed (oxidized) to neutral elements or new molecules. If
1. Electroplating
the substance to be transformed is the electrode, the reaction is
2. Electric Cells
often one in which the electrode dissolves by giving up
electrons.

Electrolysis is used extensively in metallurgical processes, such

as in extraction (electrowinning) or purification
(electrorefining) of metals from ores or compounds and
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