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Encyclopedia of
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Category: Gaming 3039

Gamification G
Lincoln C. Wood
Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand & School of Information Systems, Curtin University, Bentley,
Australia

Torsten Reiners
School of Information Systems, Curtin University, Australia

INTRODUCTION relating to the behaviours, interactions, and intentions

of players). Gamification examples are followed by
The concept of ‘gamification’ is about the use of play criticisms of the approach.
and passion to drive user engagement in an activity
(Groh, 2012); which follows the idea of games where
“players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by BACKGROUND
rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” (Salen
& Zimmermann, 2003, p. 96). This is achieved by Gamification is “the use of game design elements
the use of game-based elements and mechanisms in in non-game contexts” (Deterding, Dixon, Khaled,
a non-game environment. Gamification is not about & Nacke, 2011, p. 10) with the intent of injecting
turning routine activities into a game; but to redesign fun, play, and passion into tasks and processes. The
work processes with game mechanisms for a fun and redesign of processes embeds characteristics that are
enjoyable experience. Gamification is, in a nutshell, more commonly found in games, into the non-game
the combination of various components which drive a activities (Deterding et al., 2011, p. 13). Therefore, it
sequence of desired mechanics to develop dynamics of is the application of “the motivational properties of
interaction behaviours with the intention of supporting games and layers them on top of other learning ac-
key business processes (Werbach & Hunter, 2012). At tivities, integrating the human desire to communicate
last, gamification is all about changing the way in which and share accomplishment with goal-setting to direct
specific activities and processes operate; predominantly the attention of learners and motivate them to action”
for users to have more fun and greater engagement in (Landers & Callan, 2011, p. 421, emphasis added).
what they are doing. Gamification focus on the user; The term was not widely adopted until 2010 and there
the game mechanisms in a gamified system merely is still significant confusion amongst various terms
exist to ensure a strong sense fun, passion and play which have similar meanings, so that gamification can
that is embedded within the system (Deloitte, 2012). be used interchangeably with terms such as behavioral
Transferring the commitment of gamers to solve games, funware, applied gaming, productivity games,
“just the next level” (as they play over and over again) the game layer of a process, or playful design (Deterd-
into commitment to business processes, is an area of ing et al., 2011).
emerging interest. This draws on several disciplines The increase in motivation of users is accomplished
ranging from psychology and behavioural sciences through the careful combination of a range of building
through to game theory. We follow the framework blocks into the design and structure of a given process.
provided by Werbach and Hunter (2012) and examine This incorporates game-based practices and elements.
key gamification elements: components (tools and It remains distinctly different to the concept of serious
approaches that can be used), mechanics (essential games, which is more tightly concerned with the use
actions describing the way in which these components of games to achieve serious outcomes. For example,
drive micro-level behaviours), and dynamics (outcomes challenges or puzzles in a game, where having multiple

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-5888-2.ch297

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Category: Gaming
Gamification

people working on the puzzle allows the players to MAIN FOCUS OF THE ARTICLE
progress in the game, while having the puzzle solved G
is of real-world purpose to the game-designers (Liu, Even though serious games and gamification of ac-
Alexandrova, Nakajima, & Lehdonvirta, 2011). By hav- tivities have to be distinguished with respect to their
ing the task in some way incorporated into the overall primary objective, they still share several key elements
structure of the game, players accomplish the task as (Ma, Oikonomou, & Jain, 2011). With serious games
a side effect of their gameplay (Oja & Riekki, 2012). (or games in general), the key elements are used to solve
Clearly, fun and engagement in the people’s behav- a serious problem as part of education (rather than a
iour has a strong and rich background in behaviour and game for entertainment), while gamification is about
psychology research. This is necessary to understand applying these key elements in a non-game context to
the motivation of users and how and why they might induce an engaging behaviour. In the context of train-
react in various ways to particular stimuli. The concept ing and learning purposes, gamification means that
provides improved engagement of the user with the key learning objectives for a particular class module
gamified system, relying heavily on recency of inter- are used to apply the key elements of gamification on
actions, duration of interaction, frequent interactions, the activities that would enable participants to infer the
the ability for the system to be Viralised’ and become rules for the key learning objectives. The learner is not
widely adopted, and the ability to rate and evaluate a supposed to be entangled in rules and guidelines how
system (Zichermann & Cunningham, 2011). to achieve the objectives as they would do in serious
Gamification builds on established game-based games, but envision the activities in a ‘playful’ way
approaches and an understanding of the nature of where the participation is voluntary and fun; address-
humankind, founded on behavioral economics and ing the passion of the learner to intrinsically feel the
psychology, to allow system designers to achieve obligation to achieve the objectives (Groh, 2012).
objectives. Gamification is applied in various disci- In this section, the key elements of gamification are
plines to promote and encourage certain behaviours. described and demonstrated on several examples; see
Examples include Health (Nike+ tracks activities also Figure 1.
and shares this in a community for comparison;
http://nikeplus.nike.com/plus), Environment (a speed Key Elements
camera lottery motivates safe and responsible driv-
ing; http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_ One of the very common misconceptions of gami-
embedded&v=iynzHWwJXaA and the world’s deepest fication is it is as simple as the addition of points-,
bin to motivate people not to pollute the environment; badge-, or leaderboard-based systems (the PBLs) to
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_ existing activities. However, by adding these elements
embedded&v=cbEKAwCoCKw), Social Interac- to existing processes particular user behaviours will
tion (Piano Stairs are designed to engage people be influenced and modified. This does not necessarily
using stairs and to encourage them to interact with imply that the desired change of behaviours will be
people around themselves; http://www.youtube.com/ achieved. For example, leaderboards often reflect a
watch?feature=player_embedded&v=2lXh2n0aPyw) snapshot of the latest results. While a new round with an
or Science (the computationally intensive challenge empty leaderboard and equally skilled participants most
of understanding how molecules can be folded can be likely result in a healthy competition, an unbalanced
solved by laypeople when it is turned into a computer group or already existing perfect scores can have the
game; http://www.americanscientist.org/science/pub/ unintended consequence of discouraging participants
behind-the-scenes-of-foldit-pioneering-science- due to the big gap to the leaders. As a consequence,
gamification). the different components and mechanics must be
carefully designed and thought through in such a way
that they will support the design business dynamics.

3040
 Category:
Gamification
Gaming

Figure 1. While (serious) games have a specific rule set and are often well-balanced based on experience and
repeatable application, gamification relies on a very careful consideration of key elements with respect to the
individual applicant. Gamification is only successful if the key elements join and run in unity in favour of the user.
G

These dynamics themselves must be clearly linked • Points: To measure and provide a tally of
to key business processes and desired outcomes. The success.
following presentation of ‘components’, ‘mechanics’, • Badges: To represent success and pre-de-
and ‘dynamics’ is based on the framework by Werbach fined achievements, which can be flexible
and Hunter (2012). and complement leaderboards as a tool for
measuring success. The possible badges are
Components generally known in advance to motivate the
user to achieve personal goals without direct
The selection of components is related to the intention
competition.
and purpose of the system, the target user group, and
• Leaderboards: To display progression of
involved (software) tools. However, the intelligent use
of these components to successfully meet the designer users and relative success in comparison to
requirements is more challenging and requires careful opponents.
thought. The basic leaderboard as shown in the previous • Quests: Where a user moves through a chal-
example might be discouraging as the path to top posi- lenge towards a defined objective, with the in-
tions is out of sight. Introduced handicaps incorporate tention of being rewarded. Quests are defined
the skill and experience level and allow beginner to by objectives (e.g., waypoints or milestones)
be placed alongside expert with the motivational ele- that should be precise, comprehensible, and
ment of decreasing their handicap. Alternatively, direct concise.
comparison can be made to similar opponents with • Competition/challenge: Between two users as
direct (social) links; e.g., co-worker or friends. Instead they strive to outdo another.
of challenging everybody in the leaderboard above the
• Virtual goods: Assets that are perceived to be
own position, just the next know opponent in the list is
valuable, often as they confer an advantage to
targeted for improvements. A similar approach could
a user, or serve to distinguish the user in some
be the display of the next known person down in the
way, providing a sense of individuality.
list including the gap as well as an estimate about when
the person will pass on the leaderboard; addressing the • Gifting/sharing: Of resources between users,
engagement and motivation to stay ahead. allowing users to enjoy the benefits of gifting,
helping, and altruism.

3041
Category: Gaming
Gamification

• Levels: Of difficulty, providing users with new • Stochastic elements, where randomness and
challenge as they progress; incremental in- chance provide a sense of uncertainty and fun. G
creases in difficulty means that users are never
overwhelmed. The beneficial integration of mechanics implies
the availability of feedback, algorithms to analysis and
Mechanics to compare results to objectives, which can quantify
progress and success. In addition, the algorithms are
The mechanics are slightly more abstract than the required to have an instantaneous or extremely rapid
components, and often relate to the ongoing nature response rate in order to smoothly facilitate the gami-
of how specific components evolve over time or how fication of the system - indicating a strong need for
users interact within the framework. The mechanics a comprehensive information system to support the
are concepts that define potential actions by and states gamification process.
of the user; especially guidelines that are defining how
the game progresses, what are the possible reactions on Dynamics
an occurring event, and what influences the behaviour
of the user in what kind. The following list depicts The dynamics are the resulting behaviours and interac-
some possible game mechanics but is not necessarily tions between users that are being incentivised by the
exhaustive. components and mechanics described. They depend on
the nature and experience of the users. The introverted
• Achievements are the objectives for the user user with risk aversion behaves differently compared
and represent milestones in the storyline. An to someone with affinity to explore risky situations;
for example risking a long game period just before
achievement can be the finalisation of a prod-
achieving an objective to gain some extras. Thus, the
uct, activity over a certain time period, or accu-
design of game dynamics has to incorporate the users’
mulation of a number of resources. An achieve-
attributes, which have to be updated throughout the
ment can be awarded with a badge. progress within the gamified system.
• Challenges that require user effort to complete,
such as puzzles or other tasks. Challenges are • Emotions that users experience include a sense
described by a list of objectives to be fulfilled. of curiosity or competitiveness, which can be
• Cooperation between users to reach an objec- harnessed and designed to achieve the desired
tive that is not possible alone; e.g., assembling outcomes of the system.
heavy machinery. • Relationships include the range of interactions
• Feedback, provided through leaderboards, mes- that lead to emotional attachments in users;
sages, or other visual or informational displays, e.g., comradeship and status.
to allow a user to recognise how they are doing • Narratives and storylines are an element im-
and to initiate further activities. ported directly from many successful video
• Ownership of resources that can be acquired, games. They provide an ongoing and compel-
used, and traded. ling storyline, providing context and meaning
• Progression in the storyline; including a visu- for user interactions and adventures (Reiners,
alisation for the user to see their progress in Wood, & Dron, 2014). The storyline spans
an activity. Progress can be induced to prevent multiple stages or levels.
the user from becoming frustrated when they
do not know what to do. This can be facilitated
Intention
using hints, environment changes, or actively
performing the activity for the user. Gamification must occur within a wider context with
• Transactions between users allowing trading of particular outcomes that the system designers desire
resources. to encourage and support. In businesses this may be

3042
 Category:
Gamification
Gaming

largely related to revenue, visitors, or usage of particular procedures or keeps them motivated on long missions
online tools. On social engagements it might be having (Cornelissen et al., 2012). G
people physically visiting establishment or participating Within educational environments, gamification can
in more conversations. The objectives and therefore be used to motivate and engage students (Reiners et
the actual intended key outcomes need to be clearly al., 2012; Wood & Reiners, 2012). Landers and Callan
decided in advance. Failure to do this may result in the (2011) created a social game element in their class,
design and use of several game-based elements that where the desired behaviours by students would make
compel some users to become more engaged within a virtual tree ‘grow’, all incentivised using gamified
a certain part of the system, while driving other users elements. As an extension of active learning, gamifica-
away, or providing others with a disincentive to get tion can be used to structure activities and processes
involved in the system. within a module of learning to increase engagement
and improve outcomes (Wood & Reiners, 2012), while
Information Systems Support other target programs of study (Reiners & Wood, 2013).
The Ubi-Ask system allows users to upload images
While it is possible to incorporate gamification into of unknown symbols or signs; e.g., from a country they
processes without technology support, this is proven are currently travelling in, and receive answers from
challenging to achieve in practice. Many recent appli- the crowd (Liu et al., 2010). This results in high levels
cations appear to be based on social media network- of accuracy and additional information that automatic,
ing applications, an area which is Internet-based and software-based systems cannot provide. The incentives
focuses on strong IT infrastructure support; this IT include points, badges, a localised leaderboard based
support enables rapid and simple implementation and on the time for a reply, and the ability to become a
integration of gamification systems on social media local expert (Liu et al., 2011).
networking websites. Many existing enterprise systems The Opower Social program gamifies electricity
capture significant volumes of transactional data that saving by building a community to compare similar
can be mined with additional applications. Indeed, there households, create a leaderboard using the energy
are many firms that offer supplementary ‘enterprise savings in comparison to your friends, and building
gamification’ packages. These are not without critics, teams to hit savings goals in competition with other
however, as they merely ‘tack on’ to existing systems, teams. An additional incentive is the feedback from
implement a few components or mechanics without users sharing their strategy about how they achieved
carefully, integrative design, and may even lead to their result; allowing others to progress in the next
an unethical and exploitive use of employees, drain- round (Han, 2012, p. 5).
ing the fun from their work (ironically, this entirely
contradicts the concept of gamification!) (Werbach
& Hunter, 2012). CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE

Examples of Gamified Systems The literature offers a variety of definitions for gamifi-
cation, including sets of models, theories and examples
Even the simplest incorporation of game-based ele- of how it can be applied to different scenarios. But with
ments into existing routine processes (e.g., calibrating success and popularity comes criticism and doubt; some
equipment) can result in an increase of user engagement assert that gamification is merely the next buzzword
and participation in the (otherwise) thankless, yet cru- (Chroney, 2012). “If games are to solve problems then
cial, task (Flatla, Gutwin, Nacke, Bateman, & Mandryk, they must address problems” (Chroney, 2012). Can
2011). However, gamification can also be applied in game solve problems, if they intend to distract from the
scenarios where the users are already extraordinarily real-world and provide entertainment? Chorney (2012,
talented and motivated professionals; gamification of p. 3) further argues that game mechanisms are not core
Astronaut training encourages the repetitive training of characteristics, but “strips games of their essential

3043
Category: Gaming
Gamification

characteristic: content, and replaces it with a brand.” university; university students -- and we assume that
In addition, it is claimed that the term gamification students study a subject to gain domain knowledge -- G
is merely promoted by marketeers to ride the wave are interested in the topic but do not yet have complete
created by the game market during its rapid evolution knowledge. Game mechanisms can be used to ‘encode
from a niche market into a mainstream market. Bogost knowledge’ in the same way that a textbook encodes
(2011) considers “gamification [as] marketing bullshit, knowledge using words. Gamification tools are about
invented by consultants as a means to capture the wild, engagement and finding the ‘inner switch’ to influence
coveted beast that is videogames and to domesticate it users to interact with the content.
for use in the grey, hopeless wasteland of big business, Most criticism reveals that gamification has one trait
where bullshit already reigns anyway.” He considers in common with all tools: if used correct and honestly,
gamification as the next consultant’s strategy to “sell it is valuable; if not, it can cause damage. In social
the same bullshit […] over and over again” (Bogost, games, gamification is used to create an asynchronous
2011); Bogost’s critical examination of gamification situation in which the provider has a clear advantage
emphasises the endless thirst for the introduction of over the users that they seek to influence. As gamifica-
new technologies and processes that do nothing novel tion encapsulates the concepts of game mechanisms
in comparison to other technologies and processes and game rules, it requires clear and precise definition
introduced before. during design phase of implementation to specify the
Pixie (2010) claims that gamification, and the desired outcomes of the complete package.
mechanics behind games, can trick or manipulate us-
ers into taking certain actions that they are unlikely to
take otherwise; e.g., using the credit card to progress FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
in the game play. Sitzmann (2011) notes similar oc-
currences in learning, where gaming elements have Some assert that gamification is merely a promotional
influenced the real-world behaviours. The question strategy riding the wave created by the growth of the
we should ask in this context is whether social games game market (Chorney, 2012). The term itself is new
are a perfect realisation of gamification; the few game and as shown in the introduction, several research ar-
mechanisms they regularly employ are implemented eas (e.g., serious gaming and business gaming) were
as a way to drive a source of revenue through engag- already building systems that used games to achieve a
ing users to benefit from changed behaviours in a way certain beneficial outcome. However, gamification is,
that isn’t necessarily reflective of other, more compre- despite its name, not focussing on games and trying to
hensive, systems. Zichermann (2010) mentioned the create a game from a system, but it extracts the core
“anything can be fun” factor of gamification, but also components from games and uses them in the design
draws attention to how the foundation of Farmville’s of a system. The result is not a game, but a system that
success rests on just 8% of players being engaged and is more enjoyable as it engages and motivates the user
willing to use their credit card. Mapping this to (e) to continue working and improving. This distinction
learning would place gamification beyond all or most of gamification and other game-based approaches is
pedagogical models. Yefeng et al. (2011) support this currently discussed in the relevant communities; a
with experiments which showed that subjects identi- commonly agreed position still has to be established.
fied as ‘less interested in the activity’ could not be Many games can be played by individuals; the
influenced by game mechanisms to the same degree component is played by the computer using artificial
as could those identified as ‘interested in the activity’. algorithms to mimic a real opponent as good as pos-
The intensity of influence is also reduced if the user sible. The current hype allows experimental observa-
is already extremely familiar with the provided core tions on (social) networks with many users to compare
service. Here, Chorney’s (2011) argumentation against each other, but over the long run, there is a need to
gamification is flawed. The target audience of ‘social substitute the human being by so-called bots. The bot
games’ (e.g., Farmville) is not the same as those of a technology can have various applications; mainly to

3044
 Category:
Gamification
Gaming

provide competition and an individual to beat in the serious gaming. It is not substituting previous work,
leaderboard. Bots can be used to create scenarios or but extends the ideas into new and innovative ways G
to replay variations to improve the outcome; similar to of thinking about system development that actually
replaying a level in a game to achieve a higher score. considers the user as a crucial component that needs
It would be difficult to recreate the same effect with to be rewarded and motivated.
users, but when bots are used as other characters, re-
winding and replaying is simplified. Bots can also be
adaptive and matched to the skills of the user (Wood ACKNOWLEDGMENT
& Reiners, 2013); e.g., driving slowly in a race if the
user cannot compete, and improve over time in parallel Support for the production of this publication has
to the users’ development. been provided by the Australian Government Office
Privacy and data-use considerations are issues that for Learning and Teaching (Grant: Development of an
must be considered, along with the use of gamified authentic training environment to support skill acqui-
systems involving employees, to avoid criticisms of sition in logistics and supply chain management, ID:
exploitationware where employees are excessively mo- ID12-2498). The views expressed in this publication
tivated rather gamification being used to create playful do not necessarily reflect the views of the Australian
atmosphere (Bogost, 2011). As a tool, gamification is Government Office for Learning and Teaching.
neutral; however, just as a gun can be used for good
or evil, so too can gamification be used to support
positive and negative behaviours. The use of cloud-
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