SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

CE6012

HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB REPORT

GAYAN WAIDYARANE/K2163810
RAMESH NITHUSHAN/K2162908
RAFAH RASMY/K2172016
AKHILESH PERERA/K2163774
 CONTENT

1. SECTION 01
The California Bearing Ratio Test

2. SECTION 02
The Skid Resistance of Concrete Pavements

3. SECTION 03
Determination of Resistance to Fragmentation by the LOS Angeles test method
 SECTION 01

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The CBR test is carried out by measuring the pressure required to penetrate a soil sample with a
standard-area plunger. The measured pressure is then divided by the pressure required to achieve equal
penetration through standard crushed rock material.
 Figure 1: CBR Testing Instrument

OBJECTIVES:

 To determine and compare the C.B.R values of a given soil sample tested under un-soaked
condition.
 To evaluate the subgrade strength of roads and pavements.
 To determine the thickness of the pavement and its layers.

APPARATUS:

 NGC mould (filled with a detachable baseplate and removable extension.

 Balance
 Loading machine (with 2.5 kg rammer)
 Steel straightedge
 Metal Hammer
 Testing Machine
 Annular surcharge weight
 Cylindrical metal plunger
 Apparatus for moisture content determination
 Penetration Piston
 Sieves
 Mixing Tools

PROCEDURE:

The sample was prepared in an automatic compactor with a 2.5kg rammer, 62 drops per layer (3), and
a drop size of 300mm. The original soil should be sieved to remove particles larger than 20mm in size,
and a 6kg sample should be taken. The base plate was attached to the mould, then measured and
weighted the diameter and depth of the mould to the nearest 0.5mm. After that, the collar was attached
and the mould was placed in the compacting machine. The sample was divided into three equal
portions, and each portion was compacted in the mould with 62 rammer blows. Then, removed the
collar, levelled the soil to the top of the mould, and weighted the mould base plate and soil to
determine their respective weights. Then, the mould containing the compacted soil was placed on the
platen of the test machine and placed a surcharge disc on the soil surface. Checked the machine was
set to 1mm/ minute speed. Next, the plunger was brought down to pass into the hole in the surcharge
disc. It should not be allowed the plunger to touch the soil surface. Then, the load ring dial gauge was
set to zero, then applied a seating force of 50N and reset the dial gauge to zero. After that, the
penetration dial gauge was set so that it touches the rim of the mould and set it to zero or note the
initial reading. Started the machine and immediately set the timer. Then, recorded the force at 0.25mm
intervals of penetration until a value of 7.5mm was reached. Removed the mould from the machine
and removed approximately 350g of soil from immediately below the penetration. Then, a pre-
weighed tray was placed and recorded the mass of the tray and soil and dry overnight before recording
the mass of the tray and dry soil. This information was used to calculate the moisture content of the
soil. The CBR value was calculated by plotting the force against penetration, applying any corrections
needed and calculating CBR at 2.5mm and 5.0mm penetration.

DATA:

N = 24

Therefore, X =3 and Y = 2

Table 01: Test data

Sample ID and Soil Description:

Name(s): Load ring Date:
Calibration:
1 Force gauge
reading = 0.018 kN

Diameter of the mould, mm 152 Depth of the mould, mm 127

Mass of mould + base plate, kg 5.635 Mass of mould + base plate + 11.15
soil, kg
Density of soil as tested, kg.m-3
Penetration of Force Gauge Force on Penetration Force Gauge Force on
plunger reading Plunger of plunger reading Plunger
mm div kN mm div kN
0 0 0 4.00 68 1.224
0.25 8 0.144 4.25 77 1.386
0.50 11 0.198 4.50 84 1.512
0.75 13 0.234 4.75 91 1.638
1.00 15 0.27 5.00 103 1.854
1.25 17 0.306 5.25 114 2.052
 1.50 20 0.36 5.50 126 2.268
1.75 24 0.432 5.75 135 2.43
2.00 26 0.468 6.00 151 2.718
2.25 29 0.522 6.25 164 2.952
2.50 33 0.594 6.50 181 3.258
2.75 37 0.666 6.75 197 3.546
3.00 43 0.774 7.00 214 3.852
3.25 47 0.846 7.25 235 4.23
3.50 54 0.972 7.50 257 4.626
3.75 60 1.08
CBR value (%) at penetration of: 2.5mm 5.0mm Accepted CBR
4.5 9.0 9.0
Moisture Content
Mass of container, g 550 Mass of moisture, g 110

Mass of wet soil + container, g 932 Mass of dry soil, g 272

Mass of dry soil + container, g 822 Moisture content, % 40.4

ANALYSIS AND PLOTTING OF DATA

4.5
Force (kN)

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Penetration (mm)
 Figure 2: Force – Penetration curve for a material having CBR = 100 %

Force on plunger at 2.5 mm penetration = 0.594 kN

Force on plunger at 5.5 mm penetration = 1.854 kN

25
Force - penetration curve for a material having CBR=100% (standard
curve)
20

15
Force (kN)

y = -0.1875x2 + 4.175x + 3.9

R² = 1
10 Penetrat Force
ion (mm) (kN)

2 11.5
5
4 17.6
6 22.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
penetration (mm)

Figure 3: Force – Penetration curve for a material having CBR = 100 % (Standard curve)

Standard force on plunger at 2.5 mm penetration = 13.3 kN

Standard force on plunger at 5.5 mm penetration = 20.5 kN

CBR value (%) at penetration of 2.5 mm;

= (Force on plunger at 2.5 mm penetration/ Standard force on plunger at 2.5 mm penetration) *100%
= 4.5

CBR value (%) at penetration of 5 mm;

= (Force on plunger at 2.5 mm penetration/ Standard force on plunger at 2.5 mm penetration) *100%
= 9.0

Moisture content, % = (Mass of moisture/ Mass of dry soil) * 100%

 = (110/272) * 100%
= 40.4 %

DISCUSSIONS

(a) All sources of error and how they can be minimised.

CBR value of a soil sample can be varied from its expected results due to many reasons. Some of them
are silt particle content, initial water content, different salt and salt content of the soil sample, and
changes of overload pressure. In addition to that, some possible sources of errors are trash in the test
area, recent rain, old stream bed, missing the standard height during compaction, compacting slower
than compaction rate, and hitting the mould against hard objects in order to remove the contents after
compaction can remove it from calibration. Further, the annular surcharge weight should be placed on
the specimen in such a way that the plunger does not touch the edges of the central hole of the weight.
The resulting curve is usually convex upwards. However, the curve here is concave upwards. This
could be due to irregularities, a low moisture content, or a lack of compaction. If the curve's initial
portion is concave upwards, correct it by drawing a tangent to the curve at the point of greatest slope
and shifting the origin. To minimize these errors following things can be done. Compacting the
samples with the recommended compaction rate and having a good idea about the area and its rainfall
before taking the sample can minimize the errors. Make sure to compact the samples with the
recommended compaction rate.

(b) How the moisture content influences the measured CBR and hence justify why moisture
content must be reported alongside the CBR in road design practice.

Because we cannot guarantee that rainwater will not penetrate the pavement down to the base and
subgrade. Second, as water content increases, soil strength (especially shear strength) decreases. As a
result, the CBR value of a soaked sample is always less than that of the same dry sample. As a result,
even if the subgrade is dry at the time of construction, we design the pavement for a wet subgrade.
Otherwise, the soil will deteriorate during the wet season, and the entire pavement will deteriorate as a
result of traffic load.

(c) How the design value of CBR for a soil sub-grade layer can be determined taking into account
the compaction characteristics (maximum dry density versus moisture content) of the soil.
When the compacted densities are high and the clay content, liquid limit, and plasticity index are low,
CBR values are higher. The correlation was statistically significant, indicating that as the OMC rises,
so will the CBR.

Figure 4: Variation of CBR value with Maximum dry density

(d) Why in some countries road sub-grade soils are designed on the
basis of CBR values determined from soaked samples.

The CBR test is carried out on a soil sample that has been soaked or
submerged in water to simulate the worst-case scenario for the
subgrade material after the pavement is built. Because it is
necessary to replicate laboratory conditions in order to create a practical
and environmental situation for soil. When the soil beneath the foundation and underneath the
pavement is disturbed. Changes in climatic conditions and environmental variation cause alternate
drying and wetting. Flooding causes an increase in moisture content. As a result, the CBR value should
be determined using soaked samples when designing roads in such situations.

CONCLUSIONS Figure 5: Variation of CBR value with Optimum moisture content

The CBR test is one of the most commonly used methods for evaluating the strength of a subgrade
soil, sub base, and base course material for highway and airfield pavement thickness design. It was
oobserved that the CBR values of soil in 2.50mm and 5.00mm are 4.5 and 9.0, respectively, after
conducting the experiment. In general, the CBR value at 2.50mm penetration will be higher than the
CBR value at 5.00mm penetration.
The thickness of subgrade is determined by the CBR value; subgrade with a lower CBR value will
have thicker pavement than subgrade with a higher CBR value, and vice versa.

Figure 6: Variation of Pavement thickness with CBR value

Therefore, assuming the traffic condition of the road as medium traffic the suggested pavement
thickness is 275 mm.

HMA Surface course

Unbound granular base course

Unbound granular subbase course 275 mm

SECTION 02
Subgrade MR= 13,500 psi

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: The Skid Resistance of Concrete Pavements

Skid resistance is the force developed when a tire that is prevented from rotating slides along the
pavement surface. Inadequate skid resistance increases the chances of skid-related automobile
accidents, prompting agencies to assess roadways for safety and upgrade those roadways if needed.
Skid resistance is also used to evaluate the quality of various materials and construction practices.

Figure 7: Portable skid resistance tester

OBJECTIVES:

 To check the resistance of road surfaces to skidding under different conditions.

APPARATUS:

 Portable skid resistance tester

  Thin ruler
 Surface thermometer
 Spare mounted rubber slider
 TRL rubber

PROCEDURE:

The base level was set by means of the spirit level and the three levelling screws on the base-frame.
Firstly, the bubble was adjusted to make itis at the center of the circle line. Then, the zero setting was
adjusted using the friction adjustment rings. Once the zero setting is done, the head was raised so that
the pendulum arm swings clear of the surface. Then, the zero setting was checked. The head was re-
clamped when it has been raised to a suitable height. Then, zero setting was checked by raising the
pendulum until it locks in the release catch, bringing the pointer in line with the pendulum and then
release the pendulum, catching it on its return swing. The pendulum was released to its release position
and noted the pointer reading. If it was not zero ask the technician to adjust the apparatus. The
pendulum was allowed to hang free and raise the rubber slider using the lifting handle and placed the
spacer under the lifting handle setting screw. Next, the head of the tester was lowered until the slider
just touches the pavement surface and clamp in position. Then the pendulum was raised and removed
the spacer. After that, the sliding length of the rubber slider was checked by gently lowering the
pendulum until the slider just touches the pavement surface and mark the position. The rubber slider
was raised using the lifting handle and moved the pendulum up on the left side. The pendulum was
then gently lowered until the slider just touches the pavement again. Mark this side and using the
gauge check the sliding distance is correct (124.5 – 127.0mm). If the distance is to short lower the
head slightly and recheck. If it is too long raise the head slightly. Set up the tester as directed above.
Ensure the pavement was free of loose grit and wet the surface and rubber slider. Note the temperature
of the water. The pendulum was placed in its release position and brought the pointer up to its stop.
The pendulum was released using the button on the release catch and catch it on its return before it hits
the pavement. Replaced the pendulum in its release position and recorded the reading indicated by the
pointer. Repeated this for a total of 5 times and averaged the results. Then the tester was turned
through 900 on the pavement and repeated from Setting up the portable skid-resistance tester.

DATA AND ANALYSIS:

Table 02: Correction of PTV when the test is carried out at a temperature other than 20oC

Measured temperature oC Correction to measured PTV

40 +3
 30 +2
20 0
15 -2
10 -3
5 -5

Table 03: Results of skid resistance tests

Results of skid resistance tests using the Portable Skid Resistance Tester
Location: Date
Test details Skid Average Remarks
Resistance
Surface type Dry concrete 1 93
Distance from kerb (edge) 10 cm 2 91
Surface texture Med roughness 3 89 92.2
Temperature of water N/A 4 93
5 95
Test details Skid Average Remarks
Resistance
Surface type Wet concrete 1 61
Distance from kerb (edge) 10 cm 2 63
Surface texture Med roughness 3 65 61.8
Temperature of water 150C 4 59
5 61

For dry sample, there is no temperature correction required.

For wet sample, Temperature correction need to be carried out. Hence (-2) was added to the obtained
PTV values.

Considering wet concrete,

Skid resistance of 3rd sample = 67

Correction for 150C = -2

Therefore, corrected kid resistance = 65

DISCUSSIONS:
(a) Sources of error and how they can be minimised.

In this experiment it is required to make sure the Portable Pendulum Skid resistance tester is balanced
and satisfactory for as long as taking the readings at one location. Because, when the pendulum arm
swings, it's delicate to insure that the rubber slider is in contact with the road face over 150 mm
distance. Also, during the trial, the running of the outfit may have moved the outfit from its original
position or come unbalance when trying to repeat the swings to get the several readings. This causes
the rubber slider to contact with a different surface which will give a different reading. Therefore,
Make sure the apparatus does not move away from its original position and ensure the rubber slider
contacts the same surface for all readings at one location. Other possible errors are parallax errors such
as misreading the measurement on the scale. To avid parallax errors be sure to read the measurements
on eye level. Another step that could be done to minimize the error is to take more readings such as 8
or 10 readings for each location and condition.

(b) Why it is important to report the following details about the test location on a real road: the
chainage, the distance from edge of road, the angle of testing relative to the direction of traffic.

When calculating the volumes of a road section, the area of cross section should be parallel to that
plain (ie vertical) and perpendicular to the string line, making the length along the string line
horizontal (chainage). In addition to that, is important because it is used in conjunction with
“elevation” and “offset” to draw up construction plans. Distance from the edge of the carriageway to
an obstruction is also an important factor which can affect capacity.

(c) How coarse-textured and very smooth road surfaces may affect the precision of the test.

Skid resistance, also known as surface friction, refers to the ability of the pavement surface to provide
enough friction to avoid skid-related safety issues. Skid resistance is affected by a variety of factors,
including pavement construction materials, pavement roughness, and surface conditions.

(d) How a bituminous pavement surfacing would compare with a concrete surface as regards skid
resistance? Quote some specified values from Standards.
The skid resistance of concrete with glass sand is 61, about four units lower than the
control concrete of 65, but is still significantly higher than the minimum requirement of 44 – 48.
According to the Specification for highway works, for a bituminous layer PSV should be less than 50.

(e) How data obtained from this test compare with those from the “polished stone value test”,
which is another method for measuring skid resistance of a surface. Discuss situations for
which each test is appropriate.

Friction is defined as (ASTM, 2011)

SN=F/W×100

where SN = skid number; F = traffic force (horizontal force applied to the test tire at the tire–pavement
contact patch, Newton or lb; W = dynamic vertical load on the test wheel, Newton or lb.

The friction of the sample's surface, which was prepared by the Accelerated Polishing Machine,
determines the distance the head travels after striking it. The Polished-Stone Values displayed by the
Skid-Tester are the coefficient of friction multiplied by 100. The Polished Stone Value of aggregate
measures resistance to the polishing action of vehicle tyres under conditions similar to those found on
a road's surface. The action of road vehicle tyres on road surfaces results in polishing of the top,
exposed aggregate surface, and the state of polish is one of the primary factors influencing skid
resistance.

CONCLUSIONS:

the Skid Tester is an important instrument for testing existing roads and is a low-cost alternative to
special-purpose vehicles. In developing countries, the purchase and use of an Accelerated Polishing
Machine is usually preceded by the use of a Skid Tester. Polished Paver Value and Polished Mortar
Value tests also make use of a Skid Tester: The Polished Stone Value of aggregate is a measure of
resistance to the polishing action of vehicle tyres under conditions similar to those found on a road's
surface. The action of road vehicle tyres on road surfaces results in polishing of the top, exposed
aggregate surface, which is one of the primary factors influencing skid resistance. The actual
relationship between PSV and skidding resistance varies depending on traffic conditions, surfacing
type, and other variables. All factors, including test reproducibility, should be considered when
developing specifications for road works that include PSV test limits.
After performing the experiment and calculating the skid resistance value of the dry concrete was 92.2
while that for wet concrete was 61.8. Monitoring of wet pavement skid resistance has been an integral
part of a typical pavement management system.

SECTION 03

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: Determination of Resistance to Fragmentation by the LOS Angeles test

method.

The Los Angeles test measures the degradation of standard-grade mineral aggregates caused by a
combination of actions such as abrasion or attrition, impact, and grinding in a rotating steel drum
containing a predetermined number of steel spheres. The L.A. abrasion test is widely used to determine
aggregate toughness and abrasion characteristics. Because the constituent aggregate in HMA must
resist crushing, degradation, and disintegration in order to produce high-quality HMA, aggregate
abrasion properties are critical.

Access
cover
 Revolution counter

Figure 8: Los Angeles abrasion test setup

OBJECTIVES:

 To find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel
balls.

APPARATUS:

 LOS Angeles Machine

 Steel spherical balls
 Sieves
 Balance
PROCEDURE:

A sample of 5000g ± 5g was taken from the bin, weighed to the nearest 1g, and the mass and type of
aggregate were recorded in the table below. Following that, the prepared sample was placed in the
abrasion-testing machine. The machine was then loaded with a predetermined number of steel spheres,
and the drum was rotated for 500 revolutions at a speed of 30 - 33 revolutions per minute (RPM).
When the machine had come to a halt, gently pull the tray at the bottom forward, remove the cover of
the drum, and carefully empty the contents into the tray. After removing all of the fines from the drum,
place the tray on the bench and remove the steel balls, dusting any adhering fines into the tray.
Following that, the entire sample was collected and sieved on a 1.6 mm sieve, and the portion retained
on the 1.6 mm sieve was weighed and recorded in the table below. Replaced the tray in the machine
and closed the drum securely.

DATA:

Type of aggregate

Initial mass of sample 5000g Mass retained on the 1.6mm sieve 3674 g

ANALYSISS AND PLOTTING OF DATA:

The Los Angeles Coefficient, LA, is calculated as follows:

5000−m
LA=
50
where m is the mass retained on the 1 .6 mm sieve in grams
LA = 27

DISCCUSSSIONS:

(a) List all sources of error and explain briefly how they can be minimised.

When performing the LA abrasion test, keep in mind that the abrasion machine should be rotated at
around (20-33) rpm. Furthermore, the test should be performed at room temperature to avoid humidity-
related errors. There are two possible sources of error in the lab: instrumentation and observational
errors. Within the lab, environmental errors can also occur. Instrumental errors can occur when tools
fail to function properly. The use of a thermometer to measure temperature exhibits this error. An error
can occur if the thermometer is not properly calibrated. An example of an observational error would be
if the experimenter did not read the thermometer correctly when recording results. An environmental
error occurs when the air conditioner in a room causes the table to vibrate slightly, causing the
measurement to be slightly off. The laboratory must be in a closed area, particularly at the measuring
area, to avoid wind resistance affecting the weight data or closed box of the measuring machine. All
machines must then be serviced on a regular basis. Before students can use the laboratory, the damages
must be repaired to avoid incidents. Finally, maintain a clean and clear environment to prevent dust
from entering the apparatus.

(b) Find out, from the MCHW volume 1: Specification for Highway Works, the requirements for
unbound aggregate subbase mixtures Types 1-4, as regards resistance to fragmentation
measured in the Los Angeles test. Hence state whether your measured value complies with the
criteria for any of the mixture types referred to above.

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4

LA < 50 LA < 50 LA < 40 LA < 50

As per the calculations LA value of the sample is 27 < 40 or 50. Hence, measured value complies with
the criteria for any of the mixture types referred to above.

(c) Find out, from the Specification for Highway Works, the requirements for various types of
hydraulically bound (HBM) subbase mixtures, as regards the resistance to fragmentation of
coarse aggregates (measured in the Los Angeles test) is concerned. Hence state whether your
measured value complies with the criteria for any of the standard HBM types.

As per the calculations LA value of the sample is 27 < 50 or 60. Hence, measured value complies with
the criteria for any of the mixture types referred to above.

(d) According to the Specification for Highway Works (SHW), the particle size composition
requirements for Type-1 unbound mixtures are as follows:

Sieve aperture Cumulative %

size (mm) passing
SBM B1-2 SBM B2
CBGM A CBGM B63 CBGM C 100
FABM 1 FABM 2
HRBBM 1 HRBBM 2
31.5 85
LA50 or LA60
 16 60
8 35
4 25
2 10
1 5
0.063 0

A highway contractor has the material (denoted MT1) described by the following particle size
distribution data:

Seive aperture Cumulative %

size (mm) passing
63 100
31.5 90
16 75
8 52
4 29
2 15
1 8
0.063 0

Determine the quantity of material MT1 the contractor requires in order to use particle size
separation methods to produce 1 tonne Type-1 unbound mixture. Show your calculations clearly
and fully.

As an alternative to particle size separation method, carry out calculations to check whether the
contractor can achieve the Type-1 unbound mixture by combining MT1 with the following
material (MT2) in the ratio of 1:1

Seive aperture Cumulative %

size (mm) passing
63 100

31.5 71
 16 53
8 24
4 17
2 7
1 5
0.063 0

Seive aperture Cumulative passing %

Mismatch
size (mm) MT1 MT2 Mixture Type 1
63 100 100 100 100 0
31.5 90 71 80.5 85 4.5
16 75 53 64 60 4
8 52 24 38 35 3
4 29 17 23 25 2
2 15 7 11 10 1
1 8 5 6.5 5 1.5
0.063 0 0 0 0 0

Here the mismatch is less than +5 or -5. Therefore, it is possible to achieve type 1 unbound mixture by
combining MT1 with MT2 with 1:1 ratio.

CONCLUSIONS:

The abrasion test determines the resistance to abrasion and grinding of a known mass of standard-
grade coarse aggregates in a rotating steel drum. The goal of this experiment is to determine the
hardness of aggregates specified for use in road and highway pavement construction projects.
Inadequate toughness and abrasion resistance in aggregates can cause construction and performance
issues. Degradation during production can affect the overall gradation, therefore, widening the gap
between the properties of the laboratory designed mix and the properties of the field produced mix.

The Los Angeles coefficient value can be calculated using these equations, and it is 27. According to
the Highway Works Specification, the unbound aggregate subbase mixtures must be less than 50: for
types 1, 2, and 3. As a result, the value obtained is appropriate. The aggregate is appropriate for all
mixtures.

This test aids in the determination of aggregate strength, toughness, relative quality, abrasion
characteristics, and physical behavior. It also suggests improving the properties of aggregates (asphalt
or concrete) to bear load while remaining workable, reliable, and durable for stable and stiff structures.
According to the results of this test, the materials with the highest abrasion are quite soft and easily
damaged.

CE6012 Sustainable Infrastructure and Environment

Feedback Form – Highway Engineering Lab Report
Student KU Number / Group Number

Coursework Name Highway Engineering Labs

% of Module Mark 10%

Coursework set by

Coursework marked by
 Outstanding Un-
Required
satisfactory
Elements Excellent Good Satisfactory Adequate
Poor
(equally Very Good
weighted)

A+ A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D D- MF F

Introduction,
succinct
objectives,
apparatus list &
illustrations

Procedure in
past tense

Data Table,
data processing
& sample calcs.

Graphs ;
interpreted
parameters

Discussion or
errors and
minimisation

Answering the
discussion
questions set

Conclusions :
recap findings
and success of
the exp.

Feedback - Detailed Comments

Feedback – ‘How to improve my work?’

Overall Grade*: Penalty (late submission): Date:

Overall grade is to be given as a letter grade according to the UMS Grade Descriptions 13/14
*This is an interim grade until internal and external moderations have been carried out.